Subsurface Geology

Reference:-
1-Baker, H., 1999; Petroleum geology, Training and, development,
Houston. TX 77073, USA.
2-Carl A. Moore, 1963; Hand book of subsurface geology, university of
Oklahoma, New York, Evanston and London, 235 P.
3-Schlumberger, 1991; Log interpretation: Principles/Applications,
Schlumberger educational services
4-Selley, R. c., 1985; Element of petroleum geology, W. H. Freeman
and company, New York, 449 P.
5-Serra, O., 2003; Fundamental of well log interpretation.

Subsurface Geology

It is the science that deals or studies all features and phenomena below ground surface such
as, Stratigraphic succession, Geologic structures, Paleontology, Ground water, Ores,
Hydrocarbon (Oil and Natural gas) etc.

Sub Below or beneath.

Surface Ground surface

Source of data:-
Pre drilling data:
1. Geologic Survey.
2. Geophysical Survey.
3. Geochemical Survey.
Syndrilling data:
Well Drilling (Core and Cuttings).
Post drilling data.
Well logging.

Subsurface maps:-
1- Structural contour maps.
2- Thickness maps.
3- Facies maps.
4- Paleostructure map.
5- Other maps (Geochemical, Geophysical, Geologic Formations, etc.).
1- Structural Maps (for subsurface).

First layer geology Second layer geology

------------------------------------------
1. Surface and subsurface structure
are similar.
2.The surface reflects the subsurface
attitude of the beds.
3.The location of F.L.G requires
only the surface knowledge.
4. F.L.G may be found by any one
of a few techniques.
------------------------------------------------------
1. Structure of the upper beds does not
reflect the deeper beds.
2. The structure attitudes of the two layer
not related.
3.The location of S.L.G. required all the
surface &subsurface knowledge.
4. S.L.G. require a number of geologic
and geophysical techniques.

A- Choice of datum horizon.

The datum horizon is chosen to illustrate a particular geologic features or to aid
in solving a geologic problem. This datum should have.
a- Continuity.
b- Low thickness.
c- Special properties (black shale).

B-Choice of contour interval.

Contour intervals depend upon the nature and structural attitude of the
subsurface terrain being studied.
Low contour interval will provide gently dipping data and more contour lines on
other hand high contour interval provides steep dipping data and less contour line.
C-Source of data.
Data for subsurface structural maps come from.
a-Surface measurements.
b-Drilled wells.
c-Geophysical information.

D-Interpretation of structural maps.

The best and most logical interpretation are made when.
a-Many structural maps are constructed depends on many datum horizon.
b-Additional wells are drilled and provide control points.

E- Uses of structural contour maps.

1- Portray the attitude of any given horizon below the surface.
2- Explain the regional dip ( in case less data )and explain the structural details ( in
case of sufficient data ).
3- Used to study the structural attitude and disposition of beds beneath the
surface.
a- Anticline and domal axes and trends may be located.
b- Synclinal areas may be avoided in future exploration.
c- Delineate the depth to any bed of interest or importance.

2- Thickness maps
A- Isopach map (true thickness).
B- Isocore map (apparent thickness).
a- Increase of clastic sediments thickness detect to basin direction.
b- Thickness map use to deduce the rate of subsidence.
c- Whether there is a transgression or regression phenomenon.
3- Facies map.
It reflects the lateral and vertical variability of the sediments.
The map used to identify the paleogeography and paleostructure of the area also
to detect the beach progress through basin area or through land area.

Hydrocarbon exploration (or oil and gas exploration) is the search by petroleum geologists and
geophysicists for hydrocarbon deposits beneath the Earth's surface, such as oil and natural gas. Oil
and gas exploration are grouped under the science of petroleum geology.
Stages of Oil Exploration.
Exploration and production are often referred to as the "upstream" pieces of the value chain,
as compared to refining, distribution, and marketing, which are typically considered
downstream activities.
Geological Survey:
-Determining the geological features and located them on the map.
Geological map, Structural map, Gravity map, Magnetic map and facies map
-In the beginning the survey be reconnaissance
-Some time we can depend on image and remote sensing.
-Special survey will take on economic or commercial area.

Geophysical Survey:-
The survey deals with physical properties of the strata.
1. Gravity method, deals with density of the rocks.
2. Magnetic method, deals with magnetic susceptibility.
3. Electrical method, deals with electrical conductivity.
4. Seismic method, deals with seismic penetration velocity.

Three main geophysical methods are used in petroleum exploration gravity, magnetic,
and seismic. The first two of these methods are used only in the predrilling exploration
phase. Seismic surveying is used in both exploration and development phases.

Gravity and magnetic surveys have long been recognized as important geophysical tools
in subsurface investigations owing, to a great extent, to their low cost. They are both non-
destructive remote sensing methods and are used especially in crustal research and
exploration for oil and gas and mineral deposits.
Geophysical survey steps in exploration.
-Observation
-Correction of observation data and data processing.
-Interpretation of observed data.
-Preparing seismic profile or gravity and magnetic maps.

Geophysical survey properties:-

-Reducing exploration cost and risk.
-Usable in case of outcrop absence.
-Provide indirect indication of hydrocarbon accumulation.
-Applicable through different methods.

Seismic method is more important in hydrocarbon exploration because or due to.

1. It involve about (90%) of geophysical survey.
2. Delineate subsurface structures, Unconformities, Depositional environment, and
Petrophysical properties.
3. Reasonable capability.
4. Seismic stratigraphy.
Geochemical soil survey: -
Geochemical exploration for petroleum is the search for chemically
identifiable surface or near surface occurrences of undiscovered oil and gas
accumulations.
Hydrocarbon seeps at the surface represent the end of the migration path way.

-Macro seepage:
Refers to visible oil and gas seeps, they are very localized areas and they
have led to discovery of many of the words important oil and gas fields.

-Micro seepage
It is defined as high concentration of analytically detectable volatile or semi-
volatile hydrocarbons in soil, sediments or waters.
One of the methods is SSG (Soil Sorbet Gas technique) used for geochemical
oil survey which adsorbed hydrocarbon gases on to clay sand carbonate
cements of the soil.
Subsurface Drilling:-
1-Drilling Methods
2-Drilling Program
3-Drilling Mud (Fluid)
4-Casing
5-Drilling Associated Processes
A-Casing
B-Cementation
C-Perforation
D-Acidification
E- Fracturing

-Wells Type
1-Exploration Wells
2-Production Wells
3-Injection Wells
4-Ventilation Wells
5-Monitoring Wells
Subsurface Drilling:
Is the process of drilling a hole in the ground for the extraction of a natural
resource such as ground water, natural gas or petroleum.
Well drilling can be done either manually or mechanically and the nature of
required equipment varies from extremely simple and cheap to very complicate.

Drilling Rig:
Is a machine which creates holes (usually called boreholes) and/or shafts in the
ground.

Drilling Rig can be:-

A. Small and portable such as those used in mineral exploration drilling, water
wells and environmental investigation.

B. Huge, cable of drilling through thousands of meters of the earths crust. Large
mud pumps circulate drilling mud (slurry) through the drill bit and the casing, for
cooling and removing the cutting while a well is drilled.

Petroleum drilling rigs:

Drilling Rig Classification:-
A.By power used.
1-Mechanical
2-Hydraulic.
3-Penumatic.

B-By pipe used.

1-Cable
2-Conventional.
3-Coil tubing.
C-By method of rotation or drilling method
1-No rotation.
2-Rotary table.
3-Rotation and circulation is done at the top of the drilling on a motor that
4-Sonic

D-By position of derrick.

1-Conventional
Derrick is vertical
2-Slant
Derrick is slanted at a 45 degree angle to facilitate horizontal drilling.

Oil well parts:

1-Crown block; 2-Derrick; 3-Traveling block; 4-Swivel; 5-Standpipe
6-Mud tank & mud pumps; 7-Rotary drive; 8-Kelly; 9-Drill pipe; 10- Drill bit
11- Engines; 12- Blowout prevention.

1-Crown block
Mechanical device that is mounted on top of the derrick; it has several pulleys
and, with the traveling block, it supports the drill pipes.

2-Derrick
Metal structure erected over an oil well; tools for drilling through rock are raised
and lowered through it.
3-Traveling block
Movable mechanical device with pulleys; it is attached by cable to the crown
block and fitted with a lifting hook.

4-Swivel
Piece attached to the lifting hook and the Kelly; it is used to introduce mud into
the drill pipe to cool and lubricate the bit.

5-Mud pump
Device that circulates the mud in the drilling rig.

6-Rotary drive
Drilling device in which a kelly is attached to a rotary table; with the help of
powerful motors, it transmits the rotative movement to the kellys.

7-Kelly
Special square rod that is screwed to the top of the drill pipes and driven by the
rotary table.
8-Drill pipe
Hollow steel rods that are joined together according to the depth of the
excavation; their rotation activates the bit.

9-Drill bit
Rotating drill bit with toothed steel or diamond wheels; it bores into rock to break
it up and drill a hole.

Christmas tree:
Group of devices at the head of the producing well that regulate the flow of oil
being extracted from the deposit.

Drilling Mud:-
In the early days of rotary drilling, the primary function of drilling fluids was to
bring the cuttings from the bottom of the hole to the surface. Today it is
recognized the drilling fluid has at least ten important functions:
A- Assists in making hole by,
1- Removal of cuttings.
2- Cooling and lubrication of bit and drill string.
3- Power transmission to bit nozzles or turbines.
B- Assists in hole preservation by,
4- Support of bore hole wall.
5- Containment of formation fluids.
C-It also,
6- Supports the weight of pipe and casing.
7- Serves as a medium for formation logging.

D-It must not.

 8- Corrode bit, drill string and casing and surface facilities.
9- Impair productivity of producing horizon.
10- Pollute the environment.

Drill Core and Cuttings.

Exploration drilling is a costly technique that retrieves solid cores or chip
samples of rock from beneath the earth’s surface. The cores or chips represent a
permanent record of the subsurface geology and yield valuable data for those
involved in mineral and hydrocarbon exploration. Among other features, drill
cores or chip samples are used to:
1- Estimate the size and grade of mineral deposits or hydrocarbon resources
at a given site;
2- Provide rock material for metallurgical and petrophysical studies; and
obtain information about the type and orientation of subsurface bedrock.
Drilling Problems:
1-If a tool is lost or the drill string breaks, the obstruction in the well is called
junk or fish. It cannot be drilled through.
2-Some reservoir rocks can be damaged by forcing drilling mud into them.
This can be caused by using too heavy and overbalance while drilling.
3-Lost circulation occurs when a very porous and permeable formation is
encountered in the subsurface.
4-An unexpected pressure in the subsurface can cause a blowout.

The overbalance is lost and the fluids flow out of the subsurface rocks into the
well in what is called a kick. ., gas, or oil flows into the well, it mixes with the
drilling mud, causing it to become even lighter and exert less pressure on the
bottom of the well. The diluted drilling mud is called gas cut, salt-water cut, or oil
cut. The blowout preventers are immediately thrown to close the hole.
The kick can be dangerous if it is caused by flammable natural gas or
poisonous hydrogen sulfide gas. Sometimes the blowout occurs so fast that the
drillers do not have time to throw the blowout preventers, and the results are
disastrous. Slides and cables are located on the rig to evacuate the crew in such
an emergency. If the blowout preventers are thrown in time, heavier drilling mud
is pumped into the well through a choke manifold to circulate the kick out.

Causes of deviation
All drill holes deviate from their plan. This is because of the torque of the
turning bit working against the cutting face because of the flexibility of the steel
rods and especially the screw joints, because of reaction to foliation and structure
within the rock, and because of refraction as the bit moves from different rock
units of varying lithology.
Additionally, inclined holes will deviate upwards usually because the drill rods
will lie against the bottom of the bore, causing the drill bit to be slightly inclined
from true. It is because of deviation that drill holes must be surveyed if deviation
will impact on the usefulness of the information returned. Often oil companies will
use a process of controlled deviation called directional drilling.

Casing and Cementing

After the hole is drilled, a metal pipe called a 'casing' is cemented into the
hole. In order to gain access to the "hydrocarbon producing interval", the casing
and cement are either perforated ('cased hole completion') or an additional
section of earth is drilled below the casing ('open hole completion').
 BASIC WELL COMPLETION Primary Cementing
Sequence of Well Construction

Conductor

Surface
casing

Intermediate Cement
casing
Production
casing

reservoir reservoir

Production
liner

reservoir reservoir

PE Skill Group 10 May 2003

Well Casing
In most cases, several casings are set into the well, starting with a large
shallow casing, and then deeper casings are set into smaller holes drilled
through the upper casings.
In a cased-hole completion, holes (called perforations) must be made in the
casing to provide a path for the oil to flow from the reservoir into the well bore.

Type of casing:
1- Conductor Casing. Prevent Cave-in.
2- Surface casing. Protect fresh water zone.
3- Intermediate casing. Prevent problems and seals of troublesome zone.
4- Production casing. Isolate the producing zone.
Cementing:
After the casing string is run, the next task is cementing the casing in place.
The cementing crew mixes the dry cement with water, using a device called a jet-
mixing hopper. The dry cement is gradually added to the hopper, and a jet of
water thoroughly mixes with the cement to make a slurry (very thin water
cement). After the casing string is run, the next task is cementing the casing in
place.

Perforating
Since the pay zone is sealed off by the production string and cement,
perforations must be made in order for the oil or gas to flow into the wellbore.
Perforations are simply holes that are made through the casing and cement and
extend some distance into the formation.

Acidizing
Sometimes, however, petroleum exists in a formation but is unable to flow readily
into the well because the formation has very low permeability. If the formation is
composed of rocks that dissolve upon being contacted by acid, such as
limestone or dolomite, then a technique known as acidizing may be required.
Fracturing
When sandstone rocks contain oil or gas in commercial quantities but the
permeability is too low to permit good recovery, a process called fracturing may
be used to increase permeability to a practical level. Basically, to fracture a
formation, a fracturing service company pumps a specially blended fluid down
the well and into the formation under great pressure.

Well logging:-

Well logging, also known as borehole logging is the practice of making a

detailed record (a well log) of the geologic formations penetrated by a borehole.
The log may be based either on visual inspection of samples brought to the
surface (geological logs) or on physical measurements made by instruments
lowered into the hole (geophysical logs). Well logging is done when drilling
boreholes for oil and gas, groundwater, minerals, and for environmental and
geotechnical studies.
 Well logging is a recording against depth of any of the characteristics of the
rock formations traversed by a measuring apparatus ( tools ) in the well-bore.

Importance of well logging:-

1- Exploration processes
Through depths correlation between the wells and preparing structural maps.
2- Determine the natural properties of the penetrated rocks such as lithology,
porosity and permeability.
3- Identification of production wells.
4- Distinguish the oil, gas and water in the pay.
5- Help for drawing geological maps.

There are two types of logs.

1-Open hole logs (in no casing part of well it run).

2-Cased hole logs (in casing case it run).

Well logs depend on three main factors.

A-Porosity (ф)
B-Permeability (K)
C-Saturation (S)
1-Water saturation (Sw)
 2-Hydrocarbons saturation (Sh)
Porosity (ф) is the pore volume per unit volume of formation; porosities of
subsurface formations can vary widely.

Dense carbonates (LST&Dol) and evaporates = 0.

Well consolidated sandstone may have 10% to 15%.
Unconsolidated sands may have 30% or more.
Shale or clays may contain over 40%.

Permeability (K) is a measure of the ease with which fluids can flow through a
formation. Permeability unit is millidarcy (md).

Saturation (S) of a formation is the function of its pore volume occupied by the
fluid considered (water, oil, and gas).

Volume of pores filled with water

Sw = ---------------------------------------------------
Total pores volume

Sh = 1 –Sw
Resistivity (R) of a substance is the measure of its opposition to the passage of
electrical current, the unit of R is “Ohm.m”.

The resistivity of rock depends on.

a-The (R) of the water in the pores (fresh or saline).
b-The quantity of water present.
c-Lithology.
d-The texture of rock.
e-The temperature.

Conductivity (C) is the measure of the materials ability to conduct electricity, it is

the inverse or (R), its unit is millisiemens per meter (ms/m).
R = ( r x A )/L
R = Resistivity, r = resistance, A = Cross section area, and L = length
Ro = F Rw (Archie, 1942)
Ro = Resistivity of a non shaly formation rock 100% saturated with brine of
resistivity Rw.
F = Resistivity factor
F = a/фm
Ro = a Rw / фm
m = Cementation
a = Constant ( usually = 1 )
In chalky rocks F = 1/ф2
In compact rocks F = 1/ф2.5
Sw = ( Ro / Rt )1/n
Rt = True formation resistivity
n = Saturation exponent ( usually equal 2 )
Sw = ( F Rw / Rt )1/n
Borehole Environment:-
Borehole can be divided to three main zones .
a-Flushed zone.
b-Transition zone ( annulus zone ).
c-Uninvaded zone ( virgin formation).

Symbols used in log interpretation:-

Borehole can be divided to three main zones .
a-Flushed zone.
b-Transition zone ( annulus zone ).
c-Uninvaded zone ( virgin formation).
Basic Well Logging Tools.
1- Lithology Tools
a- Spontaneous Potential
b- Gamma Ray
2- Fluids Identification Tools
a- Resistivity
Laterolog
Induction
3- Petrophysical Tools
Porosity Logs
a- Neutron
b- Density
c- Sonic
4- Auxiliary Tools
a- Caliper

SP “Spontaneous Potential or Self Potential "Log

SP log is a voltmeter measurement of the voltage or electrical potential
difference between the mud in the hole at a particular depth and a copper ground
stake driven into the surface of the earth a short distance from the borehole.
A salinity difference between the drilling mud and the formation water acts
and causes a movement of charge ions between the hole and the formation
water where there is enough permeability in the rock.
The deflections on the SP curve result from electric currents following in the mud
in the borehole.
a -Left deflection Rmf > Rw (normal SP).
b -No deflection Rmf = Rw (suppressed).
c -Right deflection Rmf < Rw (reversed SP).

If Rmf > Rw
Shale will have a low SP and clean sandstones will have a higher SP .
If Rmf < Rw
Shale will have a high SP and clean sandstones will have a lower SP.
If Rmf = Rw
Little SP will be developed and the SP log will have very little character.

Uses of SP log:
1-Rw, correlation, bed boundaries.
Measures electrical potential (voltage) associated with movement of ions.
-Low response — impermeable shale.
-Large response — permeable beds.
2-Used to detection permeable zones.
3-Aid lithologic identification and well-to-well correlation.
4-Used to calculate formation water resistivity (Rw).
5-Determine shale volume in permeable bed.
PSP
Vsh = 1.0 -------------
SSP
PSP = Pseudo spontaneous potential opposite thick shaly sandstone.
SSP = Static spontaneous potential opposite thick clean sandstone.
Amplitude of deflection related to permeability and contrast between the salinity
of the drilling mud and formation water.

Empirically:
SSP = -K x log (Rfm / Rw)
SSP = SP charge (mV)
K= a constant, which is generally equal
60 + 0.133 Tf
Tf = Formation temperature.
Rmf =resistivity of mud filtrate (Ωm).

Resistivity logs:-
Resistivity logs do not always measure resistivity directly, some resistivity logs
( actually induction logs )measures conductivity instead which is the
reciprocal of resistivity ( Resistivity = 1/Conductivity ).
 Three main ways to measure electrical resistivity of a formation: Induction log
normal log, and Laterolog log.

A –Induction logs.
Transmitter and receiver coils at two ends of a sonde. Transmit frequently
alternating current. Current creates magnetic field which generates currents
in formation and the currents measured at receiver coil.
Induction logs are used in wells drilled with a relatively fresh-water mud (low
salinity)to obtain more accurate value of true resistivity, they also called
fresh mud tools.
Examples:-Deep Induction log (DIL), Short Normal (SN), Dual Induction log
(DIL) etc.

B-Normal Log.
An electric potential and flow of current is set up between an electrode on the
sonde and an electrode at the surface. Pair of electrodes on sonde used to
measure variation in formation resistivity as sonde raised to surface. Run
simultaneously with SP log.
C –Lateral logs.
Single electrode causes focused current to flow horizontally into formation.
Horizontal flow achieved by placing two guard electrodes above and below
current electrode. Potential of the guard and central electrodes is measure.
Lateral logs are used in wells drilled with a low resistivity salty mud, they called
salt mud tools.
Examples: -Laterolog log (LL), Dual Laterolog log (DLL) etc.

Formation Resistivity
Solid rock or porous rock saturated with fresh water, oil, or gas is highly
resistive.
Shale or porous formations saturated with salty water have very low resistive.
Uses of Resistivity logs:
1-Estimation of true formation resistivity (Rt).
2-Estimation of formation water resistivity (Rw).
-High resistivity –fresh water and hydrocarbons.
-Low resistivity –brine water.
3-Correlation between adjacent wells.
4-Bed boundary definition.
5-Calculation of porosity.
6-Source rocks identification.

Formation boundaries are indicated on the short normal as inflection points on

the curve. These inflection points are actually one-half electrode spacing away
from the higher conductive bed.
Hydrocarbons (oil or gas) have a very high resistivity .
Formation water has a resistivity value that changes depending on the salinity
and temperature of the water.

Formation Type Resistivity Range (ohm-m)

1.Soft Formations - shale sands 0.2 to 50
2.Hard Formations - carbonates 100 to 1000
3.Evaporites - salt and anhydrite 1000
A-Calculation of water bearing formation porosity:-
Sxo = (F Rmf / Rxo)1/2
Sxo = 1 for water bearing formation porosity.
1 = F Rmf / Rxo
F = Rxo / Rmf
F = a / Øm
a /Øm= Rxo / Rmf
Ø = (a Rmf/ Rxo)1/m
S xo = Water saturation for the flushed zone.
Rxo = Flushed zone resistivity.
Rmf= Mud resistivity at formation temperature.
F = Formation factor.
a = Constant.
m = Cementation exponent.

B-Porosity Calculationof hydrocarbons bearing zone:-

Sxo = ( F Rmf / Rxo )1/2
Sxo2 = F ( Rmf / Rxo )
F = ( Sxo2 Rxo ) / Rmf
F= a / фm
a / фm = ( Sxo2 Rxo ) / Rmf
ф = [ a (Rmf / Rxo) / Sxo2 ] 1/m
Types of resistivity logs:-
1-lateral log “ LL”
2-laterologlog
3-Microlaterolog“MLL”
4-microlog“ML”
5-proximity log “PL”
6-Focused log “FL”
7-Spherically focused log “SFL”
8-Deep Induction log “DIL”
9-Long Normal “LN”
10-Short Normal “SN”

Porosity Logs:-
1 -Sonic logs (Acoustic logs)
2 -Density logs
3 -Neutron logs

Acoustic/Sonic Log
The acoustic/sonic log is a porosity log that measures the interval transit time
of a compressional wave traveling through one foot of formation. The logging
sonde consists of one or more transmitters, and two or more receivers.
Modern acoustic/sonic logs are borehole compensated devices (BCD).

The “interval transit time (∆t), in microseconds per foot (μsec/ft), is the
reciprocal of the velocity of the compressional sound wave (in feet per second).
Interval transit time is recorded in Tracks #2 and #3 of the log. A sonic derived
porosity curve is sometimes recorded with the interval transit time.
This sonic porosity is derived from the acoustic log using the following Equation.
Øs = (Δt log –Δt ma) / (Δt f –Δt ma).
where
Δt log= interval transit time from log
Δt ma = interval transit time of the matrix material
Δt f = interval transit time of saturating fluid

Other uses of the acoustic/sonic log for formation evaluation are.

-Identifying Lithology.
-Determining the Elastic Constants of Rocks.
-Measures speed of sound in medium. Speed of sound is faster in rock than in
fluid.
–Long travel time—slow speed—large pore space
–Short travel time—high speed—small pore space

Table below shows the velocities and interval transit times for common oil field
materials.
Material Velocity (ft/sec) Δt (μsec/ft)
_____________ ________________ _____________
Sandstones 18,000 -19,000 55.5 - 51.0
Limestones 21,000 -23,000 47.5
Dolomites 23,000 43.5
Anhydrite 20,000 50.0
Halite 15,000 67.0
Casing (Iron) 17,500 57.0
Fresh Water Muds 5300 189.0
Salt Water Muds 5400 185.0
Density Logs:-
The tool consist of a radioactive source of Gamma rays which radiate into the
formation and interact with the electron caused a reduction in the gamma ray flux
which measured by a short-spaced and a long spaced detectors.
Gas lowers the density of the rock thus causes the log to give too high a porosity.
Ø = ( ρma – ρb ) / ( ρma – ρf )
ρma = Density of the dry rock ( gm/cc )
2.65 gm/cc for clean Sand
2.71 gm/cc for Limestone
2.87 gm/cc for Dolomite
2.03 gm/cc for Salt
ρb = Bulk density recorded by the log
ρf = Density of the fluid
1.1 gm/cc for salty mud
1.0 gm/cc for fresh mud
Neutron logs:-
The tool contains a source of high energy neutrons. The major losses in neutrons
energy occur when a neutron encounters a nucleus of approximately similar
mass, this reduction is mainly a function of the hydrogen concentration.
Neutron log response will vary, depending on:
• Detector type
• Spacing between source and detector
• Lithology
Hydrogen content of oil and water about equal but lower in gas (thus gives
low reading in gas zone).

Application of Neutron logs.

1-Measure of hydrocarbon density in sediments.
2-Porosity determination.
3-Correlation.
4-Oil, water, and Gas recognitions.
Large response ― High ( H ) content ( Oil and water reservoirs ).
Small response ― Low ( H ) content ( Gas reservoirs )
 For the purposes of formation evaluation, the neutron log is used in
combination with the density log for porosity and lithology determination.

Combination Neutron ― Density log:-

It has already been noted that in gas zones the neutron log indicates too low a
porosity and density log too high a porosity. The two curves will tracked each
other in reservoir oil or water zone and separation will commonly be seen in the
shale section but in the reverse direction.
Ø = (ØD + ØN) / 2) If no light hydrocarbons
1/2
Ø = [(ØD + ØN) / 2] If light hydrocarbons as present
Nuclear logs:-
1- Natural Gamma Ray Spectrometry log .
2- Natural Gamma Radioactivity log .
The Natural Gamma Ray log measures the natural radiation of a formation
and thus can function as a lithology log. It will also help differentiate shales (high
gamma ray values) from sands, carbonates and anhydrites (low gamma ray
values).

• Natural gamma radioactivity is the spontaneous decay of the atoms of

certain isotopes into other isotopes.
• Radioactivity is accompanied by the emission of alpha or beta particles,
gamma rays and by the generation of heat.
• *Clays and shale which by one or another fix K, Th, and U. In addition they
may contain significant quantities of phosphates or organic matter rich in
Uranium and radioactive minerals (Feldspar, Micas, Uranium and Thorium
bearing heavy minerals).
 • Certain carbonate originating from algae that have fixed Potassium and
Uranium or are rich in organic matter or in Phosphates.
- Some coals that have adsorbed or accumulated Uranium that has been
leached out of Uranium-rich rock.

Uses scintillation counter to measure natural radioactivity of formations.

Measure of natural gamma radiation in sediments from:
• Potassium found in illitic clays, mica, glauconite.
• Organic matter scavenges uranium and thorium.
Oil source rocks, oil shales, algal coals are radioactive (humic coal not
radioactive).
• Application.
– Correlation.
– Differences between sediments.
– Depth control for completion.
– Detects shale from site radioactivity.
– High GR—shales.
– Low GR—clean sands and carbonates.
– Stratigraphic Correlation.
– Shale content volume (Vsh).

IGR = (GRlog – GRmin) / (GRmax – GRmin).

GRlog = Gamma Ray reading from log
GRmin = minimum Gamma Ray reading (clean sand or carbonate)
GRmax = maximum Gamma Ray reading (shale).

• For Tertiary Rocks Vsh = 0.083 [ 2 (3.7 x IGR) - 1.0 ]

• For Older Rocks Vsh = 0.33 [ 2 (2 x IGR) - 1.0 ]
– Determination facies and sedimentary environment.
Th / U > 7 shore line environment
Th / U < 2 marin environment

– Fracture and Stylolite detection.

- The circulation of hydrothermal or underground waters in fractures may
cause precipitation of the Uranium salt.

Typical* GAPI Readings:-

Lithology GR reading (API)

Limestone 5-10
Dolomite 10-20
Sandstone* 10-60*
Shale 80-140
Evaporates
Halite NaCl 0
Anhydrite CaSO4 0
Polyhalite K2SO4 180
Facies and depositional environment analysis:-
In the previous lecture, it was noted that many wireline logs provide
lithologic information, some more than others. To better interpret the geologic
setting, the curves have to be examined in a slightly different manner. We will
concentrate on those logs which can assist in the understanding of various
geologic processes and the depositional environment.

The SP Curve and Geologic Environments

As mentioned earlier, the SP curve generally reflects lithologic variations
within formations that were drilled. This is the main reason the SP is used for
correlation purposes. If the wells are closely spaced, the SP can assist in the
delineating the depositional history of sand formations.
The first item in interpreting the depositional history of a sand formation is
the thickness of that sand. This is accomplished by reading the depth scale, then
calculating the amount of footage between the two inflection points on the SP
curve.

The next item is the amount of negative deflection. A very high negative
response indicates a clean, well-sorted sand, while a low negative response
indicates a shaly sand.
 If there were a sharp break between a sand and a shale, it would indicate a
rapid change in the energy distribution. These rapid changes in energy are
associated with areas where small differences in water depth or energy
distribution cause considerable variation in the depositional environment.
On the other hand, a broad transition on the SP curve would imply more stable
conditions during deposition and few variations in the depositional environment.
A serrated shape on the SP curve suggests rapid transitions and disruptive
conditions.
If the SP curve decreases upward (moves towards the shale line) it would
suggest a decreasing sedimentation rate, and an overall decrease in energy (as
in a fluvial environment).
If the SP curve increases upward (or becomes more negative), it would
suggest a coarsening upward sequence (as in a regressive marine environment)
where the energy is higher at the top of the sequence.
Although it is not possible to classify all zones using the SP curve, there are
several distinct responses which have shown good correlation with their
depositional environment (as in the following figure 5-9). They are

Regressive Marine
Resulting from higher energy nearshore sediments being progressively
deposited over lower energy offshore sediments (Figure 5-9a).

Channels and Point Bars

Resulting from decreasing energy, where a basal unconformity is overlain by
massive well-sorted sands, which in turn are overlain by interbedded siltstones,
sands and clays. The clay content increasing towards the top of the section
(Figure 5-9b).
Transitional-Deltaic
Resulting from abrupt transitions of sedimentation on both top and bottom of
the section (Figure 5-9c).

Transgressive
Resulting from lower energy offshore sediments being progressively
deposited over higher energy near shore sediments (Figure 5-9d).

The Gamma Ray Curve and Geologic Environments

Richard Selley, in 1976, proposed a relatively simple method to distinguish
clastic depositional environments using the Gamma Ray curve and the
presence (or absence) of glauconite and carbonaceous material.
The Gamma Ray curve being very similar to the SP curve, was used in a
similar manner. Glauconite was used as the marine indicator, and carbonaceous
detritus being used as a non-marine indicator. Selley's interpretation of
depositional environments is illustrated in (Figure below).
 Geometry of the SP and GR Curves
When using the SP and GR curves to interpret the depositional
environment of sand bodies, we are basically trying to characterize the sand,
based on the geometrical shape of the curve. When classifying the shape of
either curve, there are several parameters to keep in mind. They are (Figure 5-
11).
Upper Contact Lower Contact
Abrupt Abrupt
Gradational Gradational
Curve Shape Curve Characteristics
decreasing upwards (bell) Smooth
increasing upwards (funnel) Serrated
stable (cylinder) Complex

Borehole Caliper Measurements:-

This tool is used to measure the diameter of the borehole.
The caliper log records the mechanical response of formation to drilling.
A hole that of the same size as the bit which drilled it, is called "on gauge", with a
much greater than the bit size are "caved" or" washed out" that is borehole walls
cave in, are broken by the turning drill pipe, or are eroded away by the
circulating borehole mud by typical shale, or coal or organic shale .
Caliper may show hole diameter smaller than the bit size, if the log has a
smooth profile, a mud cake build up is indicated. This useful indicator of
permeability.

Geological factors influencing the hole diameter.

The diameter of the hole depends mainly on:
1- the lithology since certain rocks.
a- May be soluble in the drilling mud for example Salt.
b- Cave-in ( sands, gravel, and shale ).
c- Flow as in case of low compaction shales.
2- The texture and structure of the rocks.
These influence the porosity and permeability of the rock and hence
determine whether a mud cake will develop and its thickness leading of course to
a reduces hole diameter.
 Borehole Geometry From caliper .
Gauged hole – diameter of hole is about equal to the bit size Increased
borehole diameter.
• Wash out – general drilling wear, escape. in shaly zones and dipping beds,
both caliper larger than bit size, considerable vertical extent.
• Key seat – asymmetric oval holes, formed by wear against the drill string at
points where the borehole inclination changes (doglegs).
• Breakout – similar to key seat but not due to doglegs, small brittle fractures
due to existing stress regime of the country rock.
• Decreased borehole diameter.
generally due to formation of mud cake.
• Mud cake thickness = (bit size diameter – caliper diameter reading) / 2
mud cake formation indicates permeability and involves loss of mud filtrate
into a permeable formation – invasion.
The measurement of hole volume in order to obtain an estimation of cement
volume.

Dipmeter log :-

The dipmeter tool records microresistivity measurements which are used to

determine the dip and strike of resistive features in the subsurface.
A dip log produced by reading of the direction and angle of formation dip
as analyzed from impulses from a dipmeter consisting of three electrodes 120°
apart in a plane perpendicular to the borehole.
There are four main patterns of dipmeter display .
A- Red Pattern.
Increasing dip with depth with constant direction, indicate fault, fold,
unconformities or downdip thickening.
B- Green Pattern.
Constant dip and direction with depth, indicate structural dip.
C- Blue Pattern.
Decreasing dip with depth with constant direction, indicates
unconformities, folds, structural dip, and sometimes fractures.
D- White Pattern.
Random dip and direction with depth.

Slope patterns may also be developed in fine-grained sediments where they

represent drape or differential compaction over more rigid underlying features,
such as sand bars or reefs (Red pattern on dipmeter resulting from differential
compaction of shale over underlying rigid feature) as figure below.
Upward-increasing blue patterns are also produced by prograding deltas, barrier-
island sequences, and submarine fans. In these cases, dip generally increases
upward along with increasing grain size, and a single pattern may extend over a
large vertical interval.

Low-energy structural patterns are generally low-angle, parallel dip (green

patterns), typically occurring in shale. In addition to their presence in vertically
extensive shale sequences, they occur in shale units interbedded within sand
bodies (, Common dip patterns and coloring code) figure below.
Temperature logs:-
Generally temperature increases with depth and in undisturbed conditions it
has a rate of increase with depth known as the geothermal gradient, see
(Fig.2.53).

The gradient varies according to the geographical location and the thermal
conductivity of the formation. The gradient is generally low in formations of high
thermal conductivity (salt or anhydrite) and high in the opposite case, see
(Fig.4.8 ) .

The circulation of drilling mud will cool the formation, the cooling effect the
bottom of the hole and the heating up effect higher up the hole will change the
temperature profile and hence the thermal gradient.
 Generally each logging tool run in the hole has attached a maximum
reading thermometer that gives a reading of the temperature at the bottom of the
hole. If for each tool run the temperature is measured an increase in temperature
is observed with time. This is the tendency to restore equilibrium and for the
ground to return to its original temperature, see (fig.4.6).

From these measurements it is possible to extrapolate the initial temperature of

the ground at the bottom of the hole using a Horner plot of temperature, see (fig
4.5).

∆t= Time between logging started and circulation stopped

t= Cooling (Warming up) time at the bottom of the hole

Geothermal gradients.
• Range from 1.3 to 3.3 Fo /100 ft
• Global average 1.75 Fo/100ft
• Much more convenient expression than heat flow because temperatures
measured in drill holes.
• Lowest gradients found on Paleozoic platforms overlying stable Precambrian
shields; Tertiary delta basins; coastal pull-apart basins.
• Most Mesozoic basins give values close to the mean whether they are
compressional or extensional.
• Graben and half - graben basins have high gradients.

Thermal Conductivity
• Heat flow = geothermal gradient X thermal conductivity of rock.
• Salt Domes are high (evaporates have high thermal conductivity) see (Fig.4.9)

• Thermal conductivity is lower for water than it is for minerals.

- Increases with decreasing porosity and increasing depth of burial.
- Highest in evaporates; lowest in shales, see (table 4.3).
Formation Evaluation
• Definition: the application of any and all available borehole measurements
to determine properties of interest of the insitu material surrounding the
borehole (Pickett, 1980).
• Applications:
– Hydrocarbons in place.
– Recoverable hydrocarbon estimates.
– Rock typing.
– Geological and environment identification.
– Reservoir fluid contact location.
– Reservoir quality mapping.
– Water salinity determination.
– Reservoir fluid pressure determination during drilling of well.
– Fracture detection.
– Reservoir engineering parameter determination.
– Porosity and pore size distribution determination.
Available Borehole Measurements for Formation Evaluation.

• Cutting Samples: lithology, shows, rock types

• Cores: lithology, porosity, permeability, grain density, formation factor,
saturation exponent, capillary pressure curves, initial residual oil saturation
curves, acoustic velocity.
• Acoustic logs: transit time, amplitude, waveform displays, shear wave
velocity.
• Radioactivity logs: gamma-ray emission, neutron lifetime, spectral.
• SP-Resistivity logs: self potential, electrical, focused resistivity, induction,
flushed zone resistivity.
• Borehole fluid logs: total mud gas, hydrocarbon component concentrations.
• Productivity and fluid testing, transit pressure in borehole, fluid flow rates,
reservoir fluid composition.

Formation evaluation
In Akkas-1,
The borehole generated condensates and wet and dry gas of mainly 85%
methane and ethane. Little oil could have been generated from the upper part of
the Lower Silurian rocks.
Increasing thermal alteration (>170° C., TAI = 3.8) applied to rocks containing
more than 0.5% TOC would be a reason for generating gas from Ordovician
rocks. Trapped gas and oil could be accumulated along anticline and fault
structural traps within Ordovician and Silurian sandstone's interlayers in West
Iraq.
The time line of exploration to production.

1-Seismic surveying
2-Drilling
3-Open Hole Logging
4-Casing and Cementing
5-Cased Hole Logging
6-Perforation
7-Production
8-Production Logging
9-Primary Production
10-Secondary Production
11-Tertiary Production
12-Well abandonment
Crude Oil and Natural Gas: From Source to Final Products
Crude oil and natural gas are mixtures of hydrocarbons-chemical molecules that
contain only hydrogen and carbon. Crude oil is a liquid both underground and at
normal surface conditions. Natural gas is a vapor at normal surface conditions;
underground, it can exist either as a vapor or something like a bottle of
carbonated soda-"in solution" with crude oil until the pressure is reduced.

The term "petroleum" collectively refers to crude oil, natural gas and solid
hydrocarbon mixtures like tar and asphalt. In addition to hydrocarbons, petroleum
may contain impurities such as water, sulfur compounds, oxygen, nitrogen,
carbon dioxide and traces of metals.
Separation and Treatment of Produced Oil and Gas.
The fluid that comes out of a typical oil well is actually a combination of crude oil
and natural gas, often mixed with water, non-hydrocarbon gases and other
impurities. That is the reason why the volume of crude oil and natural gas is so
different from the reservoir conditions and surface conditions, as shown in Figure
below.

What are Upstream, Midstream, and Downstream?

The upstream sector.

The upstream sector involves the exploration for and extraction of petroleum
crude oil and natural gas. The upstream oil sector is also known as the
exploration and production (E&P) sector.
The upstream sector includes the searching for potential underground or
underwater oil and gas fields, drilling of exploratory wells, and subsequently
operating the wells that recover and bring the petroleum crude oil and/or raw
natural gas to the surface.
The midstream sector.
The midstream involves storing, marketing and transporting petroleum crude
oil, natural gas, natural gas liquids (mainly ethane, propane and butane) and
byproduct sulfur. Midstream operations are sometimes included in the
downstream category.
The downstream sector.
The downstream sector involves the refining of petroleum crude oil and the
processing of raw natural gas. It includes the selling and distribution of processed
natural gas and the products derived from petroleum crude oil such as liquefied
petroleum gas (LPG), gasoline (or petrol), jet fuel, diesel oil, other fuel oils,
petroleum asphalt and petroleum coke.
The downstream sector includes petroleum refineries, petroleum product
distribution, retail outlets and natural gas distribution companies.
API gravity.

The American Petroleum Institute gravity, or API gravity, is a measure of how

heavy or light a petroleum liquid is compared to water. If its API gravity is greater
than 10, it is lighter and floats on water; if less than 10, it is heavier and sinks.
API gravity is thus an inverse measure of the relative density of a petroleum
liquid and the density of water, but it is used to compare the relative densities of
petroleum liquids.
The API scale was designed so that most values would fall between 10 and 70
API gravity degrees.
The formula to obtain API gravity of petroleum liquids, from specific gravity (SG),
is:

Conversely, the specific gravity of petroleum liquids can be derived from the API
gravity value as.
Using API gravity to calculate barrels of crude oil.

In the oil industry, quantities of crude oil are often measured in metric tons.
One can calculate the approximate number of barrels per metric ton for a given
crude oil based on its API gravity:

Classifications or grades.

Generally speaking, oil with API gravity between 40 and 45 commands the
highest prices. Above 45 degrees the molecular chains become shorter and less
valuable to refineries.
Crude oil is classified as light, medium or heavy, according to its measured API
gravity.
1-Light crude oil is defined as having API gravity higher than 31.1 °API (less than
870 kg/m3).
2-Medium oil is defined as having API gravity between 22.3 °API and 31.1
°API (870 to 920 kg/m3).
3-Heavy crude oil is defined as having API gravity below 22.3 °API (920 to
1000 kg/m3).
4-Extra heavy oil is defined with API gravity below 10.0 °API (greater than 1000
kg/m3). Crude oil with API gravity less than 10 °API is referred to as extra heavy
oil or bitumen.
Reasons for the differences in the API of Kurdistan crude oils.
The effects of

(1) Burial depth.

(2) Temperature.

(3) Rate of burial on increasing hydrocarbon maturation, expressed as increasing API

gravity.

(4) Environments of deposition which control crude oil composition and chemistry.

Also assuming that relatively sulfur-poor kerogen (5 weight % sulfur or less) will tend
to generate high API gravity crude oils and that relatively sulfur-rich kerogen (9 weight %
sulfur or greater) will tend to generate low API gravity crude oils.

API values for crude oil

Soran Hasan