Paper Title: Introduction to Computer & Multimedia Credits 6

Paper Code: WTM- 103

UNIT III
Fundamental Concepts in Video: Types of Video Signals, Analog Video-NTSC, PAL, SECAM, Digital Video.
Basics of Digital Audio: Digitization of Sound, MIDI, Quantization and Transmission of Audio. Multimedia
Data Compression: Lossless Compression-Run Length Encoding, Variable Length Coding, Dictionary Based
Coding, Arithmetic Coding. Lossy Compression Algorithms-Distortion Measures, Rate Distortion Theory,
Quantization, Transform Coding, Wavelet Coding.

UNIT IV
Multimedia Communication & Retrieval: Computer and Multimedia Networks-Basics of Computer and
Multimedia Networks, Multiplexing Technologies, LAN & WAN, Access Networks, Common Peripherals
Interfaces. Wireless Networks: Analog Wireless Networks, Digital Wireless Networks, TDMA GSM, CDMA,
3G, Wireless LAN. Radio Propagation Models, Multimedia over Wireless Networks.
 UNIT III
FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS IN VIDEO

Analog video is a video signal transferred by an analog signal. When combined in to one
channel, it is called composite video as is the case, among others with NTSC, PAL and
SECAM. Analog video may be carried in separate channels, as in two channel S - Video (YC)
and multi - channel component video formats. Analog video is used in both consumer and
professional television production applications. However, digital video signal formats with
higher quality have been adopted, including serial digital interface (SDI), Firewire (IEEE
1394), Digital Visual Interface (DVI) and High - Definition Multimedia Interface (HDMI).
Most TV is still sent and received as an analog signal. Once the electrical signal is received,
we may assume that brightness is at least a monotonic function of voltage, if not
necessarily linear, because of gamma correction.

Digital video comprises a series of orthogonal bitmap digital images displayed in rapid
succession at a constant rate. In the context of video these images are called frames. We
measure the rate at which frames are displayed in frames per second (FPS). Since every
frame is an orthogonal bitmap digital image it comprises a raster of pixels. If it has a width
of W pixels and a height of H pixels we say that the frame size is WxH. Pixels have only one
property, their color. The color of a pixel is represented by a fixed number of bits. The more
bits the more subtle variations of colors can be reproduced. This is called the color depth
(CD) of the video.

Types of Video Signals

Video signals can be organized in three different ways: Component video, Composite video,
and S - video.

Component Video

Component video is a video signal that has been split into two or more component
channels. In popular use, it refers to a type of component analog video (CAV) information
that is transmitted or stored as three separate signals. Component video can be contrasted
with composite video (NTSC, PAL or SECAM) in which all the video information is combined
into a single line - level signal that is used in analog television. Like composite, component
- video cables do not carry audio and are often paired with audio cables.

When used without any other qualifications the term component video generally refers to
analog YPBPR component video with sync on luma.

Composite Video

Composite video (1 channel) is an analog video transmission (no audio) that carries
standard definition video typically at 480i or 576i resolution. Video information is encoded
on one channel in contrast with slightly higher quality S - video (2 channel), and even
higher quality component video (3 channels).
Composite video is usually in standard formats such as NTSC, PAL, and SECAM and is
often designated by the CVBS initialism, meaning "Color, Video, Blanking, and Sync."

S - Video

Separate Video (2 channel), more commonly known as S - Video and Y/C, is an analog
video transmission (no audio) that carries standard definition video typically at 480i or 576i
resolution. Video information is encoded on two channels: luma (luminance, intensity, "Y")
and chroma (colour, "C"). This separation is in contrast with slightly lower quality composite
video (1 channel) and higher quality component video (3 channels). It's often referred to by
JVC (who introduced the DIN - connector pictured) as both an S - VHS connector and as
Super Video.

ANALOG VIDEO-NTSC, PAL, SECAM

NTSC Video

NTSC, named for the National Television System Committee, is the analog television
system that is used in most of North America, parts of South America (except Brazil,
Argentina, Uruguay, and French Guiana), Myanmar, South Korea, Taiwan, Japan, the
Philippines, and some Pacific island nations and territories.

Most countries using the NTSC standard, as well as those using other analog television
standards, are switching to newer digital television standards, of which at least four
different ones are in use around the world. North America, parts of Central America, and
South Korea are adopting the ATSC standards, while other countries are adopting or have
adopted other standards.

The first NTSC standard was developed in 1941 and had no provision for color television. In
1953 a second modified version of the NTSC standard was adopted, which allowed color
television broadcasting compatible with the existing stock of black - and - white receivers.
NTSC was the first widely adopted broadcast color system and remained dominant where it
had been adopted until the first decade of the 21st century, when it was replaced with
digital ATSC. After nearly 70 years of use, the vast majority of over - the - air NTSC
transmissions in the United States were turned off on June 12, 2009 and August 31, 2011
in Canada and most other NTSC markets.

Digital broadcasting permits higher - resolution television, but digital standard definition
television in these countries continues to use the frame rate and number of lines of
resolution established by the analog NTSC standard; systems using the NTSC frame rate
and resolution (such as DVDs) are still referred to informally as "NTSC". NTSC baseband
video signals are also still often used in video playback (typically of recordings from existing
libraries using existing equipment) and in CCTV and surveillance video systems.

PAL Video

PAL (Phase Alternating Line) is a TV standard originally invented by German scientists. It

uses 625 scan lines per frame, at 25 frames per second (or 40 msec / frame), with a 4 : 3
aspect ratio and interlaced fields. Its broadcast TV signals are also used in composite video.
This important standard is widely used in Western Europe, China, India and many other
parts of the world.
PAL uses the YUV color model with an 8 MHz channel, allocating a bandwidth of 5.5 MHz
to Y and 1.8 MHz each to U and V. The color subcarrier frequency is fsc ≈ 4.43 MHz. To
improve picture quality, chroma signals have alternate signs (e.g., +U and — U) in
successive scan lines; hence the name "Phase Alternating Line. This facilitates the use of a
(line - rate) comb filter at the receiver — the signals in consecutive lines are averaged so as
to cancel the chroma signals (which always carry opposite signs) for separating Y and C
and obtain high - quality Y signals.

SECAM Video

SECAM, which was invented by the French, is the third major broadcast TV standard.
SECAM stands for Systeme Electronique Couleur Avec Memorie. SECAM also uses 625
scan lines per frame, at 25 frames per second, with a 4:3 aspect ratio and interlaced fields.
The original design called for a higher number of scan lines (over 800), but the final version
settled for 625.

SECAM and PAL are similar, differeing slightly in their color coding scheme. In SECAM, U
and V signals are modulated using separate color subcarriers at 4.25 MHz and 4.41 MHz,
respectively. They are sent in alternate lines - that is, only one of the U or V signals will be
sent on each scan line.

Digital Video
The advantages of digital representation for video are many. It permits
• Storing video on digital devices or in memory, ready to be processed (noise
removal, cut and paste, and so on) and integrated into various multimedia applications.
• Direct access, which makes nonlinear video editing simple.
• Repeated recording without degradation of image quality.
• Ease of encryption and better tolerance to channel noise.
In earlier Sony or Panasonic recorders, digital video was in the form of composite
video. Modern digital video generally uses component video, although RGB signals
are first converted into a certain type of color opponent space. The usual color space
is YCbCr.
High-Definition TV
The introduction of wide-screen movies brought the discovery that viewers seated
near the screen enjoyed a level of participation (sensation of immersion) not experienced
with conventional movies. Apparently the exposure to a greater field of view,
especially the involvement of peripheral vision, contributes to the sense of “being
there.” The main thrust of High-Definition TV (HDTV) is not to increase the “definition” in
each unit area, but rather to increase the visual field, especially its width.
First-generation HDTV was based on an analog technology developed by Sony
and NHK in Japan in the late 1970s. HDTV successfully broadcasted the 1984
Los Angeles Olympic Games in Japan. MUltiple sub-Nyquist Sampling Encoding
(MUSE) was an improved NHK HDTV with hybrid analog/digital technologies that
was put in use in the 1990s. It has 1,125 scan lines, interlaced (60 fields per second),
and a 16:9 aspect ratio. It uses satellite to broadcast—quite appropriate for Japan,
which can be covered with one or two satellites. The Direct Broadcast Satellite (DBS)
channels used have a bandwidth of 24MHz.
In general, terrestrial broadcast, satellite broadcast, cable, and broadband networks
are all feasible means for transmitting HDTV as well as conventional TV. Since
uncompressed HDTV will easily demand more than 20MHz bandwidth, which will
not fit in the current 6 or 8MHz channels, various compression techniques are being
investigated. It is also anticipated that high-quality HDTV signals will be transmitted
using more than one channel, even after compression.
Ultra High Definition TV (UHDTV)
UHDTV is a new development—a new generation of HDTV! The standards announced in
2012 support 4K UHDTV: 2160P (3, 840 × 2, 160, progressive scan) and 8K
UHDTV: 4320P (7, 680 × 4, 320, progressive scan). The aspect ratio is 16:9. The
bit-depth can be up to 12 bits, and the chroma sub sampling can be 4:2:0 or 4:2:2.
The supported frame rate has been gradually increased to 120fps. The UHDTV will
provide superior picture quality, comparable to IMAX movies, but it will require a
much higher bandwidth and/or bit rate.

Basics of Digital Audio:

Digitization of Sound

In the realm of sound, the digitization process takes an analog occurrence of sound,
records it as a sequence of discrete events, and encodes it in the binary language of
computers. Digitization involves two main steps, sampling and quantization.

Sampling is a matter of measuring air pressure amplitude at equally-spaced moments in

time, where each measurement constitutes a sample. The number of samples taken per
second (samples/s) is the sampling rate. Units of samples/s are also referred to as Hertz
(Hz). (Recall that Hertz is also used to mean cycles/s with regard to a frequency
component of sound. Hertz is an overloaded term, having different meanings depending on
where it is used, but the context makes the meaning clear.)

Quantization is a matter of representing the amplitude of individual samples as integers

expressed in binary. The fact that integers are used forces the samples to be measured in a
finite number of discrete levels. The range of the integers possible is determined by the bit
depth, the number of bits used per sample. A sample’s amplitude must be rounded to the
nearest of the allowable discrete levels, which introduces error in the digitization process.
Signal - to - Noise Ratio (SNR)

Signal - to - noise ratio (often abbreviated SNR or S / N) is a measure used in science and
engineering that compares the level of a desired signal to the level of background noise. It is
defined as the ratio of signal power to the noise power. A ratio higher than 1:1 indicates
more signal than noise. While SNR is commonly quoted for electrical signals, it can be
applied to any form of signal (such as isotope levels in an ice core or biochemical signaling
between cells).The signal - to - noise ratio, the bandwidth, and the channel capacity of a
communication channel are connected by the Shannon – Hartley theorem.Signal - to -
noise ratio is sometimes used informally to refer to the ratio of useful information to false or
irrelevant data in a conversation or exchange. For example, in online discussion forums
and other online communities, off - topic posts and spam are regarded as "noise" that
interferes with the "signal" of appropriate discussion.

MIDI
MIDI, which dates from the early 1980s, is an acronym that stands for Musical
Instrument Digital Interface. It forms a protocol adopted by the electronic music
industry that enables computers, synthesizers, keyboards, and other musical devices
to communicate with each other. A synthesizer produces synthetic music and is
included on sound cards, using one of the two methods discussed above. The MIDI
standard is supported by most synthesizers, so sounds created on one can be played
and manipulated on another and sound reasonably close. Computers must have a
special MIDI interface, but this is incorporated into most sound cards. The sound
card must also have both DA and AD converters.
MIDI is a scripting language—it codes “events” that stand for the production
of certain sounds. Therefore, MIDI files are generally very small. For example, a
MIDI event might include values for the pitch of a single note, its volume, and what
instrument sound to play.
Role of MIDI. MIDI makes music notes (among other capabilities), so is useful for
inventing, editing, and exchanging musical ideas that can be encapsulated as notes.
This is quite a different idea than sampling, where the specifics of actual sounds are
captured. Instead, MIDI is aimed at music, which can then be altered as the “user”
wishes. Since MIDI is intimately related to music composition (music notation)
programs, MIDI is a very useful vehicle for music education.
MIDI Concepts
• Music is organized into tracks in a sequencer. Each track can be turned on or
off on recording or playing back. Usually, a particular instrument is associated
with a MIDI channel. MIDI channels are used to separate messages. There are
16 channels, numbered from 0 to 15. The channel forms the last four bits (the least
significant bits) of that do refer to the channel. The idea is that each channel
is associated with a particular instrument—for example, channel 1 is the piano,
channel 10 is the drums. Nevertheless, you can switch instruments midstream, if
desired, and associate another instrument with any channel.
• Along with channel messages (which include a channel number), several other
types of messages are sent, such as a general message for all instruments indicating
a change in tuning or timing; these are called system messages. It is also possible
to send a special message to an instrument’s channel that allows sending many
notes without a channel specified. We will describe these messages in detail later.
• The way a synthetic musical instrument responds to a MIDI message is usually
by simply ignoring any “play sound” message that is not for its channel. If several
messages are for its channel, say several simultaneous notes being played on a
piano, then the instrument responds, provided it is multi-voice—that is, can play
more than a single note at once.

MIDI Terminology
• A synthesizer was, and still can be, a stand-alone sound generator that can vary
pitch, loudness, and tone color. (The pitch is the musical note the instrument
plays—a C, as opposed to a G, say. Whereas frequency in Hz is an absolute musical
sound, pitch is relative: e.g., tuning your guitar to itself may sound fine but not
have the same absolute notes as another guitar.) It can also change additional music
characteristics, such as attack and delay time. A good (musician’s) synthesizer
often has amicroprocessor, keyboard, control panels,memory, and so on. However,
inexpensive synthesizers are also included on PC sound cards. Units that generate
sound are referred to as tone modules or sound modules.
• A sequencer started off as a special hardware device for storing and editing a
sequence of musical events, in the form of MIDI data. Now it is more often a
software music editor on the computer.
• A MIDI keyboard produces no sound, instead generating sequences of MIDI instructions,
called MIDI messages (but can also include a synthesizer for generating
sound). MIDI messages are rather like assembler code and usually consist of just
a few bytes. Stored as a sequence of MIDI messages, you might have 3 minutes
of music, say, stored in only 3 kB. In comparison, a wave table file (WAV) stores
1 minute of music in about 10 MB. In MIDI parlance, the keyboard is referred to
as a keyboard controller.
• It is easy to confuse the term voice with the term timbre. The latter is MIDI
terminology for just what instrument we are trying to emulate—for example, a
piano as opposed to a violin. It is the quality of the sound. An instrument (or sound
card) that is multi-timbral is capable of playing many different sounds at the same
time, (e.g., piano, brass, drums).
• On the other hand, the term “voice”, while sometimes used by musicians to mean
the same thing as timbre, is used in MIDI to mean every different timbre and
pitch that the tone module can produce at the same time. Synthesizers can have many
(typically 16, 32, 64, 256, etc.) voices. Each voice works independently and
simultaneously to produce sounds of different timbre and pitch.
• The term polyphony refers to the number of voices that can be produced at the same
time. So a typical tone module may be able to produce “64 voices of polyphony”
(64 different notes at once) and be “16-part multi-timbral” (can produce sounds
like 16 different instruments at once).
Structure of MIDI Messages
MIDI messages can be classified into two types, as in Fig. 6.13—channel messages
and system messages—and further classified as shown. Each type of message will
be examined below.
Channel Messages. A channel message can have up to 3 bytes; the first is the status
byte (the opcode, as it were), and has its most significant bit set to 1. The four loworder bits
identify which of the 16 possible channels this message belongs to, with
the three remaining bits holding the message. For a data byte, the most significant
bit is set to zero.
Voice Messages. This type of channel message controls a voice—that is, sends
information specifying which note to play or to turn off—and encodes key pressure.
Voice messages are also used to specify controller effects, such as sustain, vibrato,
tremolo, and the pitch wheel.
Channel Mode Messages. Channel mode messages form a special case of the
Control Change message, and therefore all mode messages have opcode B (so the
message is “&HBn,” or 1011nnnn). However, a Channel Mode message has its first
data byte in 121 through 127 (&H79–7F).
Channel mode messages determine how an instrument processes MIDI voice
messages. Some examples include respond to all messages, respond just to the correct
channel, don’t respond at all, or go over to local control of the instrument.

Transmission of Audio
To be transmitted, sampled audio information must be digitized, and here we look at some
of the details of this process. Once the information has been quantized, it can then be
transmitted or stored.
Quantization and transformation of data are collectively known as coding of the data. For
audio, the μ - law technique for companding audio signals is usually combined with a
simple algorithm that exploits the temporal redundancy present in audio signals.

In general, producing quantized sampled output for audio is called Pulse Code Modulation,
or PCM. The differences version is called DPCM (and a crude but efficient variant is called
DM). The adaptive version is called ADPCM, and variants that take into account speech
properties follow from these.

Pulse Code Modulation

PCM in General. Audio is analog — the waves we hear travel through the air to reach our
ear drums. We know that the basic techniques for creating digital signals from analog ones
consist of sampling and quantization. Sampling is invariably done uniformly — we select a
sampling rate and produce one value for each sampling time.

In the magnitude direction, we digitize by quantization, selecting breakpoints in magnitude

and remapping any value within an interval to one representative output level. The set of
interval boundaries is sometimes called decision boundaries, and the representative values
are called reconstruction levels.

DPCM

Differential Pulse Code Modulation is exactly the same as Predictive Coding, except that it
incorporates a quantizer step. Quantization is as in PCM and can be uniform or
nonuniform. One scheme for analytically determining the best set of nonuniform quantizer
steps is the Lloyd - Max quantizer, named for Stuart Lloyd and Joel Max, which is based on
a least - squares minimization of the error term.

ADPCM

Adaptive DPCM takes the idea of adapting the coder to suit the input much further.
Basically, two pieces make up a DPCM coder: the quantizer and the predictor. Above, in
Adaptive DM, we adapted the quantizer step size to suit the input. In DPCM, we can
adoptively modify the quantizer, by changing the step size as well as decision boundaries in
a nonuniform quantizer.

We can carry this out in two ways: using the properties of the input signal (called forward
adaptive quantization), or the properties of the quantized output. For if quantized errors
become too large, we should change the nonuniform Lloyd - Max quantizer (this is called
backward adaptive quantization).

Data Compression: Lossless Compression-Run Length Encoding, Variable Length

Coding, Dictionary Based Coding, Arithmetic Coding.
Variable Length Coding
The Lempel - Ziv - Welch (LZW) algorithm employs an adaptive, dictionary - based compression
technique. Unlike variable - length coding, in which the lengths of the codewords are different, LZW
uses fixed - length codewords to represent variable - length strings of symbols / characters that
commonly occur together, such as words in English text.

As in the other adaptive compression techniques, the LZW encoder and decoder builds up
the same dictionary dynamically while receiving the data — the encoder and the decoder
both develop the same dictionary. Since a single code can now represent more than one
symbol / character, data compression is realized.

LZW proceeds by placing longer and longer repeated entries into a dictionary, then emitting
the code for an element rather than the string itself, if the element has already been placed
in the dictionary. The predecessors of LZW are LZ77 and LZ78, due to Jacob Ziv and
Abraham Lempel in 1977 and 1978. Terry Welch improved the technique in 1984. LZW is
used in many applications, such as UNIX compress, GIF for images, V.42 bis for modems,
and others.

ALGORITHM LZW COMPRESSION

EXAMPLE LZW Compression for String ABABBABCABABBA

Let's start with a very simple dictionary (also referred to as a string table), initially
containing only three characters, with codes as follows:

Now if the input string is ABABBABCABABBA, the LZW compression algorithm works as
follows:

The output codes are 124523461. Instead of 14 characters, only 9 codes need to be sent. If
we assume each character or code is transmitted as a byte, that is quite a saving (the
compression ratio would be 14 / 9 — 1.56). (Remember, the LZW is an adaptive algorithm,
in which the encoder and decoder independently build their own string tables. Hence, there
is no overhead involving transmitting the string table.)

Obviously, for our illustration the above example is replete with a great deal of redundancy
in the input string, which is why it achieves compression so quickly. In general, savings for
LZW would not come until the text is more than a few hundred bytes long.

The above LZW algorithm is simple, and it makes no effort in selecting optimal new strings
to enter into its dictionary. As a result, its string table grows rapidly, as illustrated above. A
typical LZW implementation for textual data uses a 12 - bit codelength. Hence, its
dictionary can contain up to 4,096 entries, with the first 256 (0 - 255) entries being ASCII
codes. If we take this into account, the above compression ratio is reduced to (14 x 8) / (9 x
12) = 1.04.
ALGORITHM LZW DECOMPRESSION (SIMPLE VERSION)

EXAMPLE LZW decompression for string ABABBABCABABBA

Input codes to the decoder are 124523461. The initial string table is identical to what is
used by the encoder.

The LZW decompression algorithm then works as follows:

Apparently the output string is ABABB ABC ABABB A — a truly lossless result!
Lossy Compression Algorithms-Distortion Measures, Rate Distortion Theory,
Quantization, Transform Coding, Wavelet Coding.

A DISTORTION MEASURE is a mathematical quantity that specifies how close an

approximation is its original some distortion criteria. When looking at compressed data, it
is natural to think of the distortion in terms of the numerical difference between the
original data and the reconstructed data. However, when the data to be compressed is an
image, such a measure may not yield the intended result.

For example, if the reconstructed image is the same as original image except that it is
shifted to the right by one vertical scan line, an average human observer would have a hard
time distinguishing it from the original and would therefore conclude that the distortion is
small. However, when the calculation is carried out numerically, we find a large distortion,
because of the large changes in individual pixels of the reconstructed image. The problem is
that we need a measure of perceptual distortion, not a more naive numerical approach.

RATE – DISTORTION THEORY was created by Claude Shannon in his foundational work
on information theory.

In rate – distortion theory, the rate is usually understood as the number of bits per data
sample to be stored or transmitted. The notion of distortion is a subject of on - going
discussion. In the most simple case (which is actually used in most cases), the distortion is
defined as the expected value of the square of the difference between input and output
signal (i.e., the mean squared error).

However, since we know that most lossy compression techniques operate on data that will
be perceived by human consumers (listening to music, watching pictures and video) the
distortion measure should preferably be modeled on human perception and perhaps
aesthetics: much like the use of probability in lossless compression, distortion measures
can ultimately be identified with loss functions as used in Bayesian estimation and decision
theory.

QUANTIZATION, involved in image processing, is a lossy compression technique achieved by compressing

a range of values to a single quantum value. When the number of discrete symbols in a given stream is reduced,
the stream becomes more compressible. For example, reducing the number of colors required to represent a
digital image makes it possible to reduce its file size. Specific applications include DCT data quantization in
JPEG and DWT data quantization in JPEG2000.
EXPECTED QUESTIONS
1. Explain Types of video signals
2. Explain analog video signals like PAL, NTSC, SECAM
3. What is MIDI? What are its general notations? Explain the types of Message of
MIDI.
4. What is the difference between Loseless and Lossy compression algoritms?
Explain any two Loseless algorithm.
5. What is digitization of sound? Explain Nyquist Theorem and SNR.

UNIT IV
BASICS OF COMPUTER AND MULTIMEDIA NETWORKS,

OSI NETWORK LAYERS

The OSI Reference Model has the following network layers:

1. Physical Layer. Defines electrical and mechanical properties of the physical interface
(e.g., signal level, specifications of the connectors, etc.); also specifies the functions
and procedural sequences performed by circuits of the physical interface.
2. Data Link Layer. Specifies the ways to establish, maintain, and terminate a link,
such as transmission and synchronization of data frames, error detection and
correction, and access protocol to the Physical layer.
3. Network layer. Defines the routing of data from one end to the other across the
network, such as circuit switching or packet switching. Provides services such as
addressing, internetworking, error handling, congestion control, and sequencing of
packets.
4. Transport layer. Provides end - to - end communication between end systems that
support end - user applications or services. Supports either connection - oriented or
connectionless protocols. Provides error recovery and flow control.
5. Session layer. Coordinates interaction between user applications on different hosts,
manages sessions (connections), such as completion of long file transfers.
6. Presentation layer. Deals with the syntax of transmitted data, such as conversion of
different data formats and codes due to different conventions, compression, or
encryption.
7. Application layer. Supports various application programs and protocols, such as FTP,
Telnet, HTTP, SNMP, SMTP / MTME, and so on.

TRANSMISSION CONTROL PROTOCOL (TCP).TheTransmission Control Protocol(TCP)

is one of the core protocols of the Internet Protocol Suite. TCP is one of the two original
components of the suite, complementing the Internet Protocol (IP), and therefore the
entire suite is commonly referred to as TCP / IP. TCP provides reliable, ordered delivery
of a stream of octets from a program on one computer to another program on another
computer. TCP is the protocol used by major Internet applications such as the World
Wide Web, email, remote administration and file transfer. Other applications, which do
 not require reliable data stream service, may use the User Datagram Protocol (UDP),
which provides a datagram service that emphasizes reduced latency over reliability.

8. TCP is connection - oriented. it provides reliable data transfer between pairs of

communicating processes across the network. It handles the sending of application
data to the destination process, regardless of datagram or packet size. However, TCP
/ IP is established for packet - switched networks only. Hence, there are no circuits,
and data still have to be packetized. TCP relies on the IP layer for delivering the
message to the destination computer specified by its IP address. It provides message
packetizing, error detection, retransmission, packet resequencing, and multiplexing.
9. Since a process running TCP / IP is required to be able to establish multiple network
connections to a remote process, multiplexing is achieved by identifying connections
using port numbers. For every TCP connection, both communicating computers
allocate a buffer called a window to receive and send data. Flow control is established
by only sending data in the window to the destination computer without overflowing
its window. The maximum data that can be transmitted at a time is the size of the
smaller window of the two computers.
10. Each TCP datagram header contains the source and destination ports,
sequence number, checksum, window field, acknowledgment number, and other
fields

INTERNET PROTOCOL (IP). The IP layer provides two basic services: packet addressing
and packet fragmentation. Point - to - point message transmission is readily supported
within any Local Area Networks (LANs), and in fact, LANs usually support broadcast.
However, when a message needs to be sent to a machine on a different LAN, an
intermediate device is needed to forward the message. The IP protocol provides for a global
addressing of computers across all interconnected networks, where every networked
computer (or device) is assigned a globally unique IP address.

For an IP packet to be transmitted across different LANs or Wide Area Networks (WANs),
gateways or routers are employed, which use routing tables to direct the messages
according to destination IP addresses. A gateway is a computer that usually resides at the
edge of the LAN and can send IP packets on both the LAN network interface and the WAN
network interface to communicate with other interconnected computers not on the LAN. A
router is a device that receives packets and routes them according to their destination
address for the same type of network.

The IP layer also has to translate the destination IP address of incoming packets to the
appropriate network address. In addition, routing tables identify for each destination IP the
next best router IP through which the packet should travel. Since the best route can
change depending on node availability, network congestion and other factors, routers have
to communicate with each other to determine the best route for groups of IPs. The
communication is done using Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP).

IP is connectionless; it provides no end - to - end flow control. Every packet is treated

separately and is not related to past or future packets. Hence, packets can be received out
of order and can also be dropped or duplicated.
Packet fragmentation is performed when a packet has to travel over a network that accepts
only packets of a smaller size. In that case, IP packets are split into the required smaller
size, sent over the network to the next hop, and reassembled and resequenced there.

MULTIPLEXING TECHNOLOGIES

Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM). In FDM, multiple channels are arranged

according to their frequency. Analogously, radios and televisions are good examples
of FDM — they share the limited bandwidth of broadcast bands in the air by dividing
them into many channels. Nowadays, cable TV resembles an FDM data network even
more closely, since it has similar transmission media. Ordinary voice channels and
TV channels have conventional band widths of 4 kHz for voice, 6 MHz for NTSC TV,
and 8 MHz for PAL or SECAM TV.

For FDM to work properly, analog signals must be modulated first, with a unique
carrier frequency fc for each channel. As a result, the signal occupies a bandwidth Bs
centered at fc. The receiver uses a band - pass filter tuned for the channel - of -
interest to capture the signal, then uses a demodulator to decode it.
WAVELENGTH DIVISION MULTIPLEXING (WDM). WDM is a variation of FDM that is
especially useful for data transmission in optical fibers. In essence, light beams
representing channels of different wavelengths are combined at the source and transmitted
within the same fiber; they are split again at the receiver end. The combining and splitting
of light beams is carried out by optical devices [e.g., Add - Drop Multiplexer (ADM)], which
are highly reliable and more efficient than electronic circuits. Since the bandwidth of each
fiber is very high (> 25 terahertz for each band), the capacity of WDM is tremendous — a
huge number of channels can be multiplexed. As a result, the aggregate bitrate of fiber
trunks can potentially reach dozens of terabits per second.

Two variations of WDM are

 Dense WDM (DWDM), which employs densely spaced wavelengths to allow a larger
number of channels than WDM (e.g., more than 32).
 Wideband WDM (WWDM),which allows the transmission of color lights with a wider
range of wavelengths (e.g., 1310 to 1557 nm for long reach and 850 nm for short
reach) to achieve a larger capacity than WDM.

TIME DIVISION MULTIPLEXING (TDM).As described above, FDM is more suitable for
analog data and is less common in digital computer networks. TDM is a technology for
directly multiplexing digital data. If the source data is analog, it must first be digitized
and converted into Pulse Code Modulation (PCM) samples.

In TDM, multiplexing is performed along the time (t) dimension. Multiple buffers are
used for m (m > 1) channels. A bit (or byte) will be taken from each buffer at one of the m
cycled time slots until a frame is formed. The TDM frame will be transmitted and then
demultiplexed after its reception.

The scheme described above is known as Synchronous TDM, in which each of the m
 buffers is scanned in turn and treated equally. If, at a given time slot, some sources
(accordingly buffers) do not have data to transmit, the slot is wasted.

Asynchronous TDM (or Statistical TDM) gathers the statistics of the buffers in this regard.
It will assign only k (k < m) time slots to scan the k buffers likely to have data to send.
Asynchronous TDM has the potential for higher throughput, given the same carrier data
rate. There is, however, an overhead, since now the source address must also be sent,
along with the data, to have the frame demultiplexed correctly.

LAN & WAN

A LOCAL AREA NETWORK (LAN) is a computer network that interconnects computers in a

limited area such as a home, school, computer laboratory, or office building using network
media. The defining characteristics of LANs, in contrast to wide area networks (WANs),
include their usually higher data - transfer rates, smaller geographic area, and lack of a
need for leased telecommunication lines.

ARCNET, Token Ring and other technology standards have been used in the past, but
Ethernet over twisted pair cabling, and Wi - Fi are the two most common technologies
currently used to build LANs.

Ethernet. Ethernet is a family of computer networking technologies for local area networks
(LANs). Ethernet was commercially introduced in 1980 and standardized in 1985 as IEEE
802.3. Ethernet has largely replaced competing wired LAN technologies.

The Ethernet standards comprise several wiring and signaling variants of the OSI physical
layer in use with Ethernet. The original 10BASE5 Ethernet used coaxial cable as a shared
medium. Later the coaxial cables were replaced by twisted pair and fiber optic links in
conjunction with hubs or switches. Data rates were periodically increased from the original
10 megabits per second, to 100 gigabits per second.

Token Ring

Token ringlocal area network (LAN) technology is a protocol which resides at the data link
layer (DLL) of the OSI model. It uses a special three - byte frame called a token that travels
around the ring. Token - possession grants the possessor permission to transmit on the
medium. Token ring frames travel completely around the loop. Initially used only in IBM
computers, it was eventually standardized with protocol IEEE 802.5.

The data transmission process goes as follows:

1. Empty information frames are continuously circulated on the ring.

2. When a computer has a message to send, it inserts a token in an empty frame (this
may consist of simply changing a 0 to a 1 in the token bit part of the frame) and
inserts a message and a destination identifier in the frame.
3. The frame is then examined by each successive workstation. The workstation that
identifies itself to be the destination for the message copies it from the frame and
changes the token back to 0.
 4. When the frame gets back to the originator, it sees that the token has been changed
to 0 and that the message has been copied and received. It removes the message from
the frame.
5. The frame continues to circulate as an "empty" frame, ready to be taken by a
workstation when it has a message to send.

The token scheme can also be used with bus topology LANs.

Fiber Distributed Data Interface (FDDI)

Fiber Distributed Data Interface (FDDI) provides a 100 Mbit/s optical standard for data
transmission in a local area network that can extend in range up to 200 kilometers (120
mi). Although FDDI logical topology is a ring - based token network, it does not use the
IEEE 802.5 token ring protocol as its basis; instead, its protocol is derived from the IEEE
802.4 token bus timed token protocol. In addition to covering large geographical areas,
FDDI local area networks can support thousands of users.

As a standard underlying medium it uses optical fiber, although it can use copper cable, in
which case it may be referred to as CDDI(Copper Distributed Data Interface). FDDI offers
both a Dual - Attached Station (DAS), counter - rotating token ring topology and a Single -
Attached Station (SAS), token bus passing ring topology.

A FDDI network contains two rings, one as a secondary backup in case the primary ring
fails. The primary ring offers up to 100 Mbit/s capacity. When a network has no
requirement for the secondary ring to do backup, it can also carry data, extending capacity
to 200 Mbit/s. The single ring can extend the maximum distance; a dual ring can extend
100 km (62 mi). FDDI has a larger maximum - frame size (4,352 bytes) than standard 100
Mbit/s Ethernet which only supports a maximum - frame size of 1,500 bytes, allowing
better throughput.

A WIDE AREA NETWORK (WAN) is a network that covers a broad area (i.e., any network
that links across metropolitan, regional, or national boundaries). The Internet is the most
popular WAN, and is used by businesses, governments, non - profit organizations,
individual consumers, artists, entertainers, and numerous others for almost any purpose
imaginable. Related terms for other types of networks are personal area networks (PANs),
local area networks (LANs), campus area networks (CANs), or metropolitan area networks
(MANs) which are usually limited to a room, building, campus or specific metropolitan area
(e.g., a city) respectively.

Cell Relay (ATM). Asynchronous transfer mode adopts small and fixed - length (53 bytes)
packets referred to as cells. Hence, ATM is also known as cell relay.As the following figure
shows, the small packet size is beneficial in reducing latency in ATM networks. When the
darkened packet arrives slightly behind another packet of a normal size (e.g., 1 kB), it must
wait for the completion of the other's transmission, causing serialization delay. When the
packet (cell) size is small, much less waiting time is needed for the darkened cell to be sent.

This turns out to significantly increase network throughput, which is especially beneficial
for real - time multimedia applications. ATM is known to have the potential to deliver high
data rates at hundreds (and thousands) of Mbps.

Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM) is, according to the ATM Forum, "a
telecommunications concept defined by ANSI and ITU (formerly CCITT) standards for
carriage of a complete range of user traffic, including voice, data, and video signals," and is
designed to unify telecommunication and computer networks. It uses asynchronous time -
division multiplexing, and it encodes data into small, fixed - sized cells. This differs from
approaches such as the Interne Protocol or Ethernet that use variable sized packets or
frames.

ATM provides data link layer services that run over a wide range of OSI physical Layer
links. ATM has functional similarity with both circuit switched networking and small
packet switched networking. It was designed for a network that must handle both
traditional high - throughput data traffic (e.g., file transfers), and real - time, low - latency
content such as voice and video. ATM uses a connection - oriented model in which a virtual
circuit must be established between two endpoints before the actual data exchange begins.
ATM is a core protocol used over the SONET / SDH backbone of the public switched
telephone network (PSTN) and Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN), but its use is
declining in favour of All IP.

ACCESS NETWORK

An access network connects end users to the core network. It is also known as the "last
mile" for delivering various multimedia services, which could include Internet access,
telephony, and digital and analog TV services.

Hybrid Fiber - Coax (HFC) Cable Network. Optical fibers connect the core network with
Optical Network Units (ONUs) in the neighborhood, each of which typically serves a few
hundred homes. All end users are then served by a shared coaxial cable.

1. Fiber To The Curb (FTTC). Optical fibers connect the core network with ONUs at the
curb. Each ONU is then connected to dozens of homes via twisted - pair copper or
coaxial cable. For FTTC, a star topology is used at the ONUs, so the media to the end
user are not shared - a much improved access network over HFC. Typical data rates
are T1 to T3 in the downstream direction and up to 19.44 Mbps in the upstream
direction.
2. Fiber To The Home (FTTH). Optical fibers connect the core network directly with a
small group of homes, providing the highest bandwidth. For example, before reaching
four homes, a 622 Mbps downstream can be split into four 155 Mbps downstreams
by TDM. Since most homes have only twisted pairs and/or coaxial cables, the
implementation cost of FTTH will be high.
3. Terrestrial Distribution. Terrestrial broadcasting uses VHF and UHF spectra
(approximately 40 - 800 MHz). Each channel occupies 8 MHz in Europe and 6 MHz in
the U.S., and each transmission covers about 100 kilometers in diameter. AM and
FM modulations are employed for analog videos, and Coded Orthogonal Frequency
Division Multiplexing (COFDM) for digital videos. The standard is known as Digital
Video Broadcasting - Terrestrial (DVB - T). Since the return channel (up stream) is
not supported in terrestrial broadcasting, a separate POTS or N - ISDN link is
recommended for the upstream in interactive applications.
 4. Satellite Distribution. Satellite broadcasting uses the Gigahertz spectrum. Each
satellite covers an area of several thousand kilometers. For digital video, each
satellite channel typically has a data rate of 38 Mbps, good for several Digital
VideoBroadcasting (DVB) channels. Its standard is Digital Video Broadcasting -
Satellite (DVB - S). Similar to DVB - T, POTS or N - ISDN is proposed as a means of
supporting upstream data in DVB - S.

WIRELESS NETWORKS:
ANALOG WIRELESS NETWORKS
Earlier wireless communication networks were used mostly for voice communications, such
as telephone and voice mail. First - generation (1G) cellular phones used analog technology
and Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA), in which each user is assigned a separate
frequency channel during the communication. Its standard was Advanced Mobile Phone
System (AMPS) in North America, Total Access Communication System (TACS)and Nordic
Mobile Telephony (NMT) in Europe and Asia. Digital data transmission users needed
modems to access the network; the typical data rate was 9,600 bps.

A possible geometric layout foran FDMA cellular system with a cluster size of seven
hexagon cells

The above figure illustrates a possible geometric layout for an FDMA cellular system. (For
clarity, cells from the first cluster are marked with thicker borders). A cluster of seven
hexagon cells can be defined for the covered cellular area. As long as each cell in a cluster
is assigned a unique set of frequency channels, interference from neighboring cells will be
negligible.
The same set of frequency channels (denoted f1 to f7) will be reused once in each cluster,
following the illustrated symmetric pattern. The so called reuse factor is K = 7. In an AMPS
system, for example, the maximum number of channels (including control channels)
available in each cell is reduced to 416 /K = 416 / 7 ≈ 59.
In this configuration, users in two different clusters using the same frequency fn are
guaranteed to be more than D apart geographically, where D is the diameter of the
hexagonal cell. In a vacuum, electromagnetic radiation decays at a rate of D - 2 over a
distance D. However, in real physical spaces on the earth, the decay is consistently
measured at a much faster rate of D - 35 to D - 5. This makes the FDMA scheme feasible for
analog wireless communications, since interference by users of the same frequency channel
from other groups becomes in significant.

DIGITAL WIRELESS NETWORKS

Second - generation (2G) wireless networksuse digital technology. Besides voice, digital data is increasingly transmitted
for applications such as text messaging, streaming audio, and electronic publishing. In North America, the digital cellular
networks adopted two competing technologies in 1993: Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA) and Code Division
Multiple Access (CDMA). In Europe and Asia, Global System for Mobile communications (GSM), which used TDMA, was
introduced in1992.

TDMA GSM

As the name suggests, TDMA creates multiple channels in multiple time slots while
allowing them to share the same carrier frequency. In practice, TDMA is always combined
with FDMA — that is, the entire allocated spectrum is first divided into multiple carrier
frequency channels, each of which is further divided in the time dimension by TDMA.

GSMwas established by the European Conference of Postal and Telecommunications

Administrations (CEPT) in 1982, with the objective of creating a standard for a mobile
communication network capable of handling millions of subscribers and providing roaming
services through out Europe. It was designed to operate in the 900 MHz frequency range
and was accordingly named GSM 900. Europe also supports GSM 1800, which is the
original GSM standard modified to operate at the 1.8 GHz frequency range.

GSM provides a variety of data services. GSM users can send and receive data tousers on
POTS, ISDN, and packet - switched or circuit - switched public data networks. GSM also
supports Short Message Service (SMS), in which text messages up to 160 characters can be
delivered to (and from) mobile phones. One unique feature of GSM is the subscriber identity
module (SIM), a smart card that carries the mobile user's personal number and enables
ubiquitous access to GSM services.

By default, the GSM network is circuit switched, and its data rate is limited to 9.6 kbps.
General Packet Radio Service (GPRS), developed in 1999, supports packet - switched data
over wireless connections, sousers are "always connected". It is also referred to as one of
the 2.5G (between second - and third - generation) services. The theoretical maximum
speed of GPRS is 171.2 kbps when all eight TDMA time slots are taken by a single user. In
real implementations, single - user throughput reached 56 kbps in the year 2001.
Apparently, when the network is shared by multiple users, the maximum data rate for each
GPRS user will drop.
CDMA
A major break throughin wireless technology is the development and adoption of Code
Division Multiple Access (CDMA). The foundation of CDMA is Direct Sequence (DS) spread
spectrum. Unlike FDMA or frequency hopping, in which each user is supposed to occupy a
unique frequency band at any moment, multiple CDMA users can make use of the same
(and full) bandwidth of the shared wideband channel during the entire period of
transmission! A common frequency band can also be allocated to multiple users in all cells
— in other words, providing a reuse factor of K = 1.This has the potential to greatly increase
the maximum number of users, as long as the interference from them is manageable.

There are two ways to implement CDMA multiple access: orthogonal codes or
nonorthogonal codes. A mobile station is dynamically assigned a unique spreading code in
the cell that is also being used by the base station to separate and despread its signal.

For orthogonal CDMA, the spreading codes in a cell are orthogonal to each other. Most
commonly,the Walsh - Hadamard codes are used, since they possess an important property
called orthogonal variable spreading factor (OVSF). This states that OVSF codes of different
lengths(i.e., different spreading factors) are still orthogonal. Orthogonality is desirable,
since as long as the data is spread by orthogonal codes, it can be perfectly separated at the
receiver end.

Nonorthogonal codes are Pseudo - random Noise (PN) sequences. PN sequences need to have
an average bit value of around 0.5 and a single auto correlation peak at the startof the
sequence. Thus, PN sequences are self - synchronizing and do not need external
synchronization. A special PN sequence often used is the Gold sequence. Gold sequences
have three cross - correlation peaks.
3G
Third - generation (3G)wireless services feature various multimedia services, such as (low -
rate) videoover the Internet. Applications include wireless web surfing, video mail,
continuous media on demand, mobile multimedia, mobilee - commerce, remote medical
service, and so on. Unlike the current Wireless LAN (WLAN), which is by and large for
indoor and private networks, 3G is mostly for public networks. While a large number of 2G
wireless networks used both CDMA (such as IS - 95A in North America) and TDMA (among
them the most popular ones are GSM and IS - 136), the 3G wireless networks will
predominantly use Wideband CDMA (WCDMA).

The multimedia nature of the 3G wireless services calls for a rapid development of a new
generation of handsets, where support for video, better software and user interface, and
longer battery life will be key factors.

A migration (or revolution) path is specified for 2G wireless networks supporting digital
communication over circuit switched channels to 3G networks supporting highdata rates
over both circuit - switched and packet - switched channels. The evolution path has an
intermediate step that is easier and cheaper to achieve (fewer changes to the network
infrastructure) called 2.5G (2.5 - generation), which is associated with enhanced data rates
and packet data services (i.e., the addition of packet switching to 2G networks).

WIRELESS LAN
The increasing availability of such mobile computing devices as laptops and tablets
brought about keen interest in Wireless Local Area Networks (WLANs), which
potentially provide much higher throughput with much lower costs than the widearea
cellular wireless networks. The emergence lately of ubiquitous and pervasive
computing [10] has further created a new surge of interest in WLANs and other
short-range communication techniques.
Most of today’s WANs are based on the 802.11 family of standards (also known as
Wi-Fi), developed by the I
IEEE 802.11 working group.
IEEE 802.11b/g
IEEE 802.11b is an enhancement of the basic 802.11. It uses DS spread spectrum
and operates in the 2.4GHz band. With the aid of new modulation technologies, it
supports 5.5 and 11Mbps in addition to the original 1 and 2Mbps, and itsfunctionality
is comparable to Ethernet.
IEEE 802.11g, an extension of 802.11b, is an attempt to achieve data rates up
to 54Mbps. It was designed to be downward compatible with 802.11b and hence
still uses the 2.4GHz band, but OFDM is used instead of DS spread spectrum. IEEE
802.11b/g has gained public acceptance and is appearing in WLANs everywhere,
including university campuses, airports, conference centers, and so on.
IEEE 802.11a
IEEE 802.11a operates in the 5GHz band and supports data rates in the range of 6–
54Mbps. It uses OFDM instead of DS spread spectrum, too, and allows 12 nonoverlapping
channels, hence a maximum of 12 APs in a local area.
Because 802.11a operates in the higher frequency (5 GHz) band, it faces much less
radio interference, such as from cordless phones, than 802.11 and 802.11b. Coupled
with the higher data rate, it has great potential for supporting various multimedia
applications in a LAN environment.
IEEE 802.11n and 802.11ac
The latest WLAN standard, 802.11n, improves network performance over all the
past 802.11 standards, with a significant increase in the maximum net data rate to
600 Mbps with the use of four spatial streams at a channel width of 40MHz [11].
It builds on previous 802.11 standards by adding multiple input, multiple output
(MIMO), and frame aggregation to the MAC layer.
A newer WALN standard, 802.11ac, is under active development, with the final
802.11 Working Group approval and the publication scheduled for early 2014. It will
offer multistation WLAN throughput of at least 1Gbps and a single link throughput
of at least 500Mbps. This is accomplished by further enhancing the air interfaces in
802.11n: wider radio bandwidth (up to 160MHz), more MIMO streams (up to 8),
multiuser MIMO, and high-density modulation.
RADIO PROPAGATION MODELS

A radio propagation model, also known as the Radio Wave Propagation Model or the
Radio Frequency Propagation Model, is an empirical mathematical formulation for the
characterization of radio wave propagation as a function of frequency, distance and other
conditions. A single model is usually developed to predict the behavior of propagation for all
similar links under similar constraints. Created with the goal of formalizing the way radio
waves are propagated from one place to another, such models typically predict the path
loss along a link or the effective coverage area of a transmitter.

Multipath Fading

Fading models try to model the amplitude of the superimposed signal at the receiver. The
Doppler spread of a signal is defined as the distribution of the signal power over the
frequency spectrum (the signal is modulated at a specific frequency bandwidth). When the
Doppler spread of the signal is small enough, the signal is coherent — that is, there is only
one distinguishable signal at the receiver. This is typically the case for narrowband signals.
However, when the signal is wideband, different frequencies of the signal have different
fading paths, and a few distinguishable signal paths are observed at the receiver, separated
in time. For narrowband signals, the most popular models are Rayleigh fading and Rician
fading.

Path Loss

For long - range communication, the signal loss is dominated by attenuation. The free -
space attenuation model for LOS transmission is in inverse proportion to the square of
distance [d2) and is given by the Friis radiation equation

Sr and St, are the received and transmitted signal power, Gr and Gt are the antenna gain
factors, λ is the signal wavelength, and L is the receiver loss. It can be shown, however, that
if we assume ground reflection, attenuation increases to be proportional to d4.

Another popular medium - scale (urban city size) model is the Hata model, which is
empirically derived based on Okumura path loss data in Tokyo. The basic form of the path
loss equation in dB is given by

L = A + B. log10(d) + C

Here, A is a function of the frequency and antenna heights, B is an environment function,

and C is a function depending on the earner frequency. Again, d is the distance from the
transmitter to the receiver.

Satellite models are attenuated primarily by rain. Hence, meteorological rainfall density
maps can be used to communicate with the region. Attenuation is computed according to
the amount of rainfall in the area on the given date.

MULTIMEDIA OVER WIRELESS NETWORKS

In this section, we are concerned mainly with sending multimedia data robustly
over wireless channels, particularly for video communication, the natural extension
to voice communication. We will introduce solutions for error detection, error correction,
error-resilient entropy coding, and error concealment in the wireless network
context, although most of these techniques are also applicable to other networks.
17.3.1 Error Detection
Error detection is to identify errors caused by noise or other impairments during
transmission from the sender to the receiver. Commonly used error detection tools
include parity checking, checksum, and Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC)
Parity Checking
With binary data, errors appear as bit flips. Parity checking adds a parity bit to a
source bitstring to ensure that the number of set bits (i.e., bits with value 1) in the
outcome is even (called even parity) or odd (called odd parity). For example, with
even parity checking, a bit 1 should be appended to bitstring 10101000, and a bit 0
should be appended to 10101100.
Checksum
A checksum of an input message is a modular arithmetic sum of all the codewords in
the message. The sender can append the checksum to the message, and the receiver
can perform the same sum operation to check whether there is any error. It has
been implemented in many network protocols, from data link and network layers, to
transport and application layers.
Cyclic Redundancy Check
The basic idea behind Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC) is to divide a binary input
by a keyword K that is known to both the sender and the receiver. The remainder R
after the division constitutes the check word for the input. The sender sends both the
input data and the check word, and the receiver can then check the data by repeating
the calculation and verifying whether the remainder is still R. Obviously, to ensure
that the check word R is fixed to r bits (zeros can be padded at the highest bits if
needed), the keyword K should be of r + 1 bits
17.3.2 Error Correction
Once an error is detected, a retransmission could be used to recover the error, as such
reliable transport protocols as TCP does. The back channel, however, is not always
available, e.g., for satellite transmission, or can be quite expensive to create, e.g.,
in the broadcast or multicast scenarios. For real-time multimedia streaming, the delay
for retransmission can be too long, making the retransmitted packet useless.
Instead, for real-time multimedia, Forward Error Correction (FEC) is often used,
which adds redundant data to a bitstream to recover some random bit errors in
it [16]. Consider a simple extension to the parity checking, from one dimension to
two dimensions [17]. We not only calculate the parity bit for each bitstring of M
bits, but also group every M bitstrings to form a matrix and calculate the parity bit
of each column of the matrix.
With this two-dimensional parity checking, we can both detect and correct errors!
This is because a bit error will cause a failure of a row parity checking and a failure.
of a column parity checking, which cross at a unique location—the flipped bit in the
erroneous bitstring, as illustrated in the example in Fig. 17.10.
This is a very simple FEC scheme. It doubles the amount of parity bits, but the
error correction capability is very limited; e.g., if two errors occur in a row, we will
not be able to detect them, not to mention correcting them.
There are two categories of practical error correction codes: block codes and
convolutional codes [15,16]. The block codes apply to a group of bits, i.e., a block,
at once to generate redundancy. The convolutional codes apply to a string of bits one
at a time and have memory that can store previous bits as well.
17.3.3 Error-Resilient Coding
A video stream is either packetized and transmitted over a packet-switched channel
or transmitted as a continuous bitstream over a circuit-switched channel, with the
former being more popular nowadays. In either case, it is obvious that packet loss or
bit error will reduce video quality. If a bit loss or packet loss is localized in the video. in
both space and time, the loss can still be acceptable, since a frame is displayed for
a very short period, and a small error might go unnoticed.
However, digital video coding techniques involve variable-length codes, and
frames are coded with different prediction and quantization levels. Unfortunately,
when a packet containing variable bit length data (such as DCT coefficients) is damaged,
that error, if unconstrained, will propagate all the way throughout the stream.
This is called loss of decoder synchronization. Even if the decoder can detect the error
due to an invalid coded symbol or coefficients out of range, it still cannot establish
the next point from which to start decoding.
17.3.4 Error Concealment
Despite all the efforts to minimize occurrences of errors and their significance, errors
can still happen unless with persistent retransmission, which however is not practical
for continuous media with delay constraints. The residual error will be acoustically or
visually annoying. Error concealment techniques are then introduced to approximate
the lost data on the decoder side, so as tomitigate their negative audio or visual impact.
Error concealment techniques apply in the spatial, temporal, orfrequency domains,
or a combination of them. For the case of video, these techniques use neighboring
frames temporally or neighboring macroblocks spatially. The transport stream coder
interleaves the video packets, so that in case of a burst packet loss, not all the errors
will be at one place, and the missing data can be estimated from the neighborhood.
Error concealment is necessary for wireless audio/video communication, since
the error rates are higher than for wired channels and might even be higher than can
be transmitted with appropriate bit protection.