COURSE MATERIAL: ROBOTICS

PREPARED BY DR.B.B.CHOUDHURY,

ASSOCIATE PROFESSOR, DEPT. OF

MECHANICAL ENGG., IGIT SRANG

2nd Semester , M.Tech in Mechanical Engg.

SUBJECT CODE : PDPE206

05.05.2016

bbchoudhury@igitsarang.ac.in
 MODULE-I
Robots
An important part of the automation scene is the area of “Robotics” a multidisciplinary field that
involves mechanical, electronics and several other engineering disciplines. Though the ultimate
aim is to attempt emulate human activities, something which is extremely difficult to attain, these
attempts have resulted in development of robots. These are beneficial in handling hazardous
tasks and for operating in hazardous areas like chemical or nuclear plants. Examples of such
tasks include plates being x-rayed for inspection of internal cracks and flaws, a routine but
hazardous operation.
Where complex movements are involved as in welding along a 3D profile, robots can be used for
assuring quality and consistency. In assembly operation of precision and tiny parts, like in
watches, robots perform with accuracy and repeatability. (The SCARA robot developed in Japan
is one such robot specifically suit5able for precision assembly tasks.) Painting is hazardous to
humans and also complex movements are involved (for example in painting a car body) and in
such applications robots may replace human beings.
Robots have certain inherent capabilities and limitations, just as any other machine or human
being does, and these should be borne in mind when attempting to use them in a given
application. A lathe is best used for generating cylindrical objects and milling machines are ideal
for producing prismatic parts. One would not attempt to use a lathe for manufacture of prismatic
parts or a milling machine to produce cylinders. Thus manufacturing processes are chosen to suit
the product and conversely, products should be designed to suit the manufacturing process. This
philosophy applies to robotics also. One cannot expect a given robot to execute any arbitrary task
or handle any product. Sometimes it may be beneficial to redesign the product to enable robots to
handle them with ease. A well-known example of designing a product to suit robots is the SONY
“Walkman” which has been designed for ease of assembly by robots.
Today robot finds applications in industries, medical and other fields. For example, in eye
surgery (replacement of retina), where a cylindrical portion needs to be replaced, the operation is
best done by robots. Mobile robots like walking machines, hopping machines are examples of
robots, and so also are robotic aircraft and ships. Nuclear and power plants uses fish like robots
which move inside pipes for purpose of inspection
Computers are required for higher level control of such complex systems. Computers convert
higher level commands to lower level commands for purpose of interpreting sensor outputs and
controlling motors in these machines. In autonomous robots, operating at remote locations,
endurance of power supply (batteries) may be an issue.
Three Laws of Robotics"

• A robot may not injure a human being or, through inaction, allow a human being to come
to harm.

• A robot must obey orders given it by human beings except where such orders would
conflict with the First Law.
 • A robot must protect its own existence as long as such protection does not conflict with
the First or Second Law.
History of robots :

• 1954- Devol & Engleburger – establish Unimation Incorporation.

• 1961- Robots are used in die casting application.
• 1968- AGVs (automated guided vehicles) implemented.
• 1970- Stanford arm developed.
• 1979- SCARA robot for assembly developed in Japan
Anatomy of industrial robots
There are several classes of robots: robotic aircraft, robotic ships, mobile robots and others. An
important application of robots is in industry – for machine tending, welding, painting, assembly
and etc. These “industrial robots” can be viewed as consisting of a mechanical portion “the
manipulator” controlled by a microprocessor.
Subsystems of industrial robots include:

• Actuators
• Transmission systems
• Power supplies & power storage system
• Sensors
• Microprocessors & controllers
• Algorithms & software (higher level & lower level)
Actuators:
Actuators are basically prime movers providing both force and motion. Pneumatic cylinders,
hydraulics, permanent magnet motors, stepper motors, linear motors are some conventional
actuators. More advanced ones are based on hi-tech polymers, shape memory alloys, piezo
patches, and pneumatic muscles. Brushless servo motors also exist for low noise levels, and
printed armature motors are used for quick response.

Transmission systems:
The transmission system used in robot to transmit power and motion consists of chains, timing
belts, metal belts, cables and pulleys and linkages. Gear boxes and harmonic drives serve to
provide speed reduction. Ball screws are used with suitable mechanisms to convert rotary motion
to linear motion and if needed back to oscillatory motion. Drive stiffness is an important
consideration in robotics and so also is backlash.

Power supplies:
Hydraulic and Pneumatic power packs: These consist of a motor driving a positive displacement
pump or compressor to generate the high pressure fluid flow. In using hydraulic systems the
necessity of having an oil tank increases the weight of the system, additionally the issue of
ensuring that the oil is free of contaminants is to be handled. In pneumatics power pack dry air is
desired. Electric motors use what ate known as PWM (pulse width modulation) amplifiers. These
are electronic devices, consisting of transistors used as switches to rapidly switch on and off the
supply in a controlled manner to control motor speeds. Such drives have higher efficiency.

Sensors and other electronics:

The sensors for feedback in robots consists of tachometers and encoders and potentiometers to
sense motor motions, simple switches, force sensors, acceleration sensors, optical systems,
special cameras and vision systems.

Electronics:
There are a host of electronic circuits, motor controllers, analog to digital converters and digital
to analogue converters, frame grabbers and so on utilized to handle sensors and vision systems
and convert the inputs from them into a form usable by the processor for control of the entire
system in conjunction with the algorithms and software developed specifically for the purpose.
Software:
The software used consists of several levels. Motor control software consists of algorithms which
help the servo to move smoothly utilizing the data from feed-back units. At the next level there is
software to plan the trajectory of the end effector and translate the same into commands to
individual motor controllers. The output of sensors is also to be interpreted and decisions made.
At the highest level there is software which accepts commands from the user of the robot and
translates it into appropriate actions at the lower level.

Various ways of classifying a robot

• Fixed or mobile.
• Serial or parallel.
• According to degree of freedom (DOF).
• Rigid or flexible.
• Control – point-to-point, autonomy and “intelligence”.
• Most older industrial robots – fixed base and consisting of
Most older industrial robots have fixed base and consisting of links connected by actuated joints.
Many modern robots can move on factory floors, uneven terrains or even walk, swim and fly.

Serial and Parallel Robot

Serial robot – a fixed base, links and joints connected sequentially and ending in an end-effector.
 Figure –PUMA 560 Serial Robot

Parallel robot – More than one loop, no natural end-effector.

Figure -Parallel robot – Gough-Stewart platform

According to degree of freedom (DOF)

Degree of freedom (DOF) determines capability of a robot and the number of actuated joints.

• 6 (DOF) required for arbitrary task in three dimensional space.

• Painting and welding can be done by 5 DOF (fixed base) robots.
• Electronics assembly usually done by 4 DOF SCARA robots.
• For extra flexibility and working volume, a 5 or 6 DOF robots is mounted on a 2 or 3
DOF gantry or a wheeled mobile robot.
• Redundant robot with more than 6 DOF for avoiding obstacles, more flexibility etc.
First three joints (in fixed robots) are classified as Cartesian, spherical, cylindrical or
anthropomorphic.

• Cartesian, spherical and cylindrical – motion described by Cartesian, spherical or

cylindrical coordinates.
• Anthropomorphic – human arm like.
• SCARA – Selective Compliance Adaptive Robot Arm – used in electronic assembly.
Last three joints in fixed base serial robots form a wrist – orients the end-effector.
Cartesian Robot (PPP Robot)
On several shop floors “Gantry” type of Cartesian robots (consisting of overhead rails) are used
for operations over large spaces.

Figure – Cartesian Robot

Cylindrical main body (PPR) Robot

Such motions are found typically in drilling machines. A similar main body is used in robots to
access points in a cylindrical volume. Essentially R-q motion in a plane – which in turn translates
along the Z axis.

Figure – PPR robot

Spherical main body (RRP) Robot

There is a base rotation and a portion of the arm moves in and out (a telescopic motion). The
work volume is a portion of a hollow sphere. (Essentially R- q - f motions)
 Figure-RRP Robot

SCARA robot
This also has a cylindrical work space. Such robots were used to assemble the SONY walkman.
The “P” is for raising and lowering the end effector. Otherwise all the motion is in a horizontal
plane.

Figure –SCARA
Wrists
There are 3 motions and 3 actuators are required for motion. It is known as YPR (Yaw, Pitch and
Roll).
Rigid and Flexible Robot

• Most industrial robots are built heavy and rigid – for required accuracy.
• Minimizing weight for space applications – links and joints are flexible.

(a) Rigid Robot (Puma 700 series) (b) Flexible Robot (Space shuttle robot arm)

Control and Mode of Operation

Most older industrial robots were teach and playback

• Robot is taken (manually) through the tasks and positions recorded.
• During actual operation, the robot plays back the taught sequence.
• Very time consuming to teach and robot cannot react to any changes in the environment.

Computer controlled – inputs are given from a computer often after being tried out in an off-line
programming system.
Sensor driven – Sensors are used to avoid obstacles and take decisions.
Intelligent – Robot can ‘learn’ about the environment using artificial intelligence (AI) and
perform efficiently.
 MODULE-II

Robot Kinematics

It is divided into two sub groups:

• Forward Kinematics: to determine where the robot’s hand is?
• Inverse Kinematics: to calculate what each joint variable is?

Forward Kinematics

Forward Kinematics Algorithm

1) Draw sketch
2) Number links. Base=0, Last link = n
3) Identify and number robot joints
4) Draw axis Zi for joint i
5) Determine joint length ai-1 between Zi-1 and Zi
6) Draw axis Xi-1
7) Determine joint twist αi-1 measured around Xi-1
8) Determine the joint offset di
9) Determine joint angle θi around Zi
10) Write link transformation and concatenate

Homogeneous Transformation Matrices

The transformation matrices must be in square form. It is much easier to calculate the inverse of
square matrices. To multiply two matrices, their dimensions must match.

⎡ nx ox ax Px ⎤
⎢n oy ay Py ⎥⎥
F =⎢ y
⎢ nz oz az Pz ⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎣0 0 0 1⎦

Representation of Transformations of rigid objects in 3D space

A transformation is defined as making a movement in space.

• A pure translation.

• A pure rotation about an axis.

• A combination of translation or rotations.

Representation of a Pure Translation

Figure – Representation of pure translation in space

Representation of a Pure Rotation about an Axis

Assumption: The frame is at the origin of the reference frame and parallel to it.
 Figure - Coordinates of a point in a rotating frame before and after rotation around axis x.

Figure- Coordinates of a point relative to the reference frame and rotating frame as viewed from
the x-axis.

Forward Kinematics Analysis:

Calculating the position and orientation of the robotic hand. If all robot joint variables are
known, one can calculate where the robot is at any instant.

Figure- The hand frame of the robot relative to the reference frame

Forward and Inverse Kinematics Equations for Position

Forward Kinematics and Inverse Kinematics equation for position analysis:

(a) Cartesian (gantry, rectangular) coordinates.

(b) Cylindrical coordinates.
(c) Spherical coordinates.
(d) Articulated (anthropomorphic, or all-revolute) coordinates.

Cartesian (Gantry, Rectangular) Coordinates

Figure- Cartesian Coordinates

Cylindrical Coordinates
It involves 2 Linear translations and 1 rotation.
• Translation of r along the x-axis
• Rotation of α about the z-axis
• Translation of l along the z-axis

Figure- Cylindrical Coordinates.

Spherical Coordinates
It involves 1 Linear translations and 2 rotation
• Translation of r along the z-axis
• Rotation of β about the y-axis
• Rotation of γ along the z-axis

Figure - Spherical Coordinates

Articulated Coordinates

It involves 3 rotations -> Denavit-Hartenberg representation

Figure- Articulated Coordinates.

Forward and Inverse Kinematics Equations for Orientation

a) Roll, Pitch, Yaw (RPY) Angles

Assumption : Robot is made of a Cartesian and an RPY set of joints

R
TH = Tcart ( Px , Py , Pz ) × RPY (ϕ a ,ϕo ,ϕ n )

• Roll: Rotation of φ a about a -axis (z-axis of the moving frame)

• φo about o -axis (y-axis of the moving frame)
Pitch: Rotation of
• Yaw: Rotation of φ n about n -axis (x-axis of the moving frame)
 Figure- RPY rotations about the current axes.

(b) Euler Angles

Assumption : Robot is made of a spherical co-ordinate and an Euler set of joints

TH = Tsph (r , β , γ ) × Euler (ϕ ,θ ,ψ )
R

Figure- Euler rotations about the current axes.

Denavit Hartenberg Representation

While it is possible to carry out all of the analysis in this chapter using an arbitrary frame
attached to each link, it is helpful to be systematic in the choice of these frames. A commonly
used convention for selecting frames of reference in robotic applications is the Denavit-
Hartenberg, or D-H convention. In this convention, each homogeneous transformation Ai is
represented as a product of four basic transformations.

Where the four quantities θi, ai, di, αi are parameters associated with link i and joint i. The four
parameters ai, αi, di, and θi are generally given the names link length, link twist, link offset, and
joint angle, respectively. These names derive from specific aspects of the geometric relationship
between two coordinate frames, as will become apparent below. Since the matrix Ai is a function
of a single variable, it turns out that three of the above four quantities are constant for a given
link, while the fourth parameter, θi for a revolute joint and di for a prismatic joint, is the joint
variable.

An arbitrary homogeneous transformation matrix can be characterized by six numbers, such as,
for example, three numbers to specify the fourth column of the matrix and three Euler angles to
specify the upper left 3×3 rotation matrix. In the D-H representation, in contrast, there are only
four parameters. How is this possible? The answer is that, while frame i is required to be rigidly
attached to link i, we have considerable freedom in choosing the origin and the coordinate axes
of the frame. For example, it is not necessary that the origin, Oi, of frame i be placed at the
physical end of link i. In fact, it is not even necessary that frame i be placed within the physical
link; frame i could lie in free space —so long as frame i is rigidly attached to link i. By a clever
choice of the origin and the coordinate axes, it is possible to cut down the number of parameters
needed from six to four (or even fewer in some cases).
 Figure-Coordinate frames satisfying assumptions DH1 and DH2.

Existence and uniqueness issues

Clearly it is not possible to represent any arbitrary homogeneous transformation using only four
parameters. Therefore, we begin by determining just which homogeneous transformations can be
expressed in the form (3.10). Suppose we are given two frames, denoted by frames 0 and 1,
respectively. Then there exists a unique homogeneous transformation matrix A that takes the
coordinates from frame 1 into those of frame 0. Now suppose the two frames have two additional
features, namely:

(DH1) The axis x1 is perpendicular to the axis z0

(DH2) The axis x1 intersects the axis z0

as shown in the above Figure Under these conditions, we claim that there exist unique numbers
a, d, θ, α such that
Of course, since θ and α are angles, we really mean that they are unique to within a multiple of
2π. To show that the matrix A can be written in this

and let ri denote the ith column of the rotation matrix R01. We will now examine the implications
of the two DH constraints.

If (DH1) is satisfied, then x1 is perpendicular to z0 and we have x1·z0 = 0. Expressing this

constraint with respect to o0x0y0z0, using the fact that r1 is the representation of the unit vector
x1 with respect to frame 0, we obtain

The only information we have is that r31 = 0, but this is enough. First, since each row and column
of R01 must have unit length, r31 = 0 implies that

Once θ and α are found, it is routine to show that the remaining elements of must have the form,
using the fact that R01 is a rotation matrix.

Next, assumption (DH2) means that the displacement between O0 and O1 can be expressed as a
linear combination of the vectors z0 and x1. This can be written as O1 = O0 +dz0 +ax1. Again, we
can express this relationship in the coordinates of o0x0y0z0, and we obtain

Combining the above results, we obtain (3.10) as claimed. Thus, we see that four parameters are
sufficient to specify any homogeneous transformation that satisfies the constraints (DH1) and
(DH2). Now that we have established that each homogeneous transformation matrix satisfying
conditions (DH1) and (DH2) above can be represented in the form (3.10), we can in fact give a
physical interpretation to each of the four quantities in (3.10). The parameter a is the distance
between the axes z0 and z1, and is measured along the axis x1. The angle α is the angle between
the axes z0 and z1, measured in a plane normal to x1. The positive sense for α is determined
from z0 to z1 by the right-hand rule as shown in Figure 3.3. The parameter d is the distance
between the origin O0 and the intersection of the x1 axis with z0 measured along the z0 axis.
Finally, θ is the angle between x0 and x1 measured in a plane normal to z0. These physical
interpretations will prove useful in developing a procedure for assigning coordinate frames that
satisfy the constraints (DH1) and (DH2), and we now turn our attention to developing such a
procedure.

Denavit Hartenberg Representation

We may summarize the above procedure based on the D-H convention in the following
algorithm for deriving the forward kinematics for any manipulator.

Step l: Locate and label the joint axes z0, . . . , zn−1.

Step 2: Establish the base frame. Set the origin anywhere on the z0-axis. The x0 and y0 axes are
chosen conveniently to form a right-hand frame. For i = 1, . . . , n − 1, perform Steps 3 to 5.
Step 3: Locate the origin Oi where the common normal to zi and zi−1 intersects zi. If zi
intersects zi−1 locate Oi at this intersection. If zi and zi−1 are parallel, locate Oi in any
convenient position along zi.
Step 4: Establish xi along the common normal between zi−1 and zi through Oi, or in the
direction normal to the zi−1 − zi plane if zi−1 and zi intersect.
Step 5: Establish yi to complete a right-hand frame.
Step 6: Establish the end-effector frame onxnynzn. Assuming the n-th joint is revolute, set zn = a
along the direction zn−1. Establish the origin On conveniently along zn, preferably at the center
of the gripper or at the tip of any tool that the manipulator may be carrying. Set yn = s in the
direction of the gripper closure and set xn = n as s × a. If the tool is not a simple gripper set xn
and yn conveniently to form a right-hand frame.
Step 7: Create a table of link parameters ai, di, αi, θi. ai = distance along xi from Oi to the
intersection of the xi and zi−1 axes.
di = distance along zi−1 from Oi−1 to the intersection of the xi and
zi−1 axes. di is variable if joint i is prismatic.
αi = the angle between zi−1 and zi measured about xi.
θi = the angle between xi−1 and xi measured about zi−1 θi is variable if joint i is revolute.
Step 8: Form the homogeneous transformation matrices Ai by substituting the above parameters
into (3.10).
Step 9: Form T0n = A1 · · ·An. This then gives the position and orientation of the tool frame
expressed in base coordinates.

Kinematics of Serial Robots

• Serial manipulators: One end fixed → Links and joints → Free end with end-effector.
• Kinematics → Motion of (rigid) links without considering force and torques.
• Kinematics → Study of “geometry” of motion.
• Serial manipulators modeled using Denavit-Hartenberg parameters.
• Two main problems: Direct Kinematics and Inverse Kinematics.

Examples of Serial Robots

Degrees of Freedom (DOF)

• Grübler-Kutzbach’s criterion

Where, N – Total number of links including the fixed link (or base),
J – Total number of joints connecting only two links (if joint connects three links then it
must be counted as two joints),
Fi – Degrees of freedom at the ith joint, and λ = 6 for spatial, 3 for planar manipulators
and mechanisms.

PUMA 560 — N = 7, J = 6, F1 = 1, λ = 6 → DOF = 6.

DOF —The number of independent actuators.

DOF — Capability of a manipulator with respect to λ .
1 DOF =λ → End-effector can be positioned and oriented arbitrarily.
2 DOF <λ → λ −DOF relationships containing the position and orientation
variables.
3 3. DOF >λ → Position and orientation of the end-effector in ∞ ways –
Redundant manipulators.
Serial manipulators with a fixed base, a free end-effector and two links connected by a joint — N
= J +1 and DOF =
All actuated joints are one DOF joints → J = DOF.
J > DOF → J −DOF joints are passive.
J < DOF → One or more of the actuated joints are multi-degree-of-freedom joints – Rare in
mechanical manipulators but common in biological joints actuated with muscles.

• J joint variables — θi ’s or di ’s form the joint space.

• Position and orientation variables form the task space
° For planar motion, λ = 3 — Task space (x;y; ).
° For spatial motion, λ = 6 — Task space (x;y; z; [R]).
• Actuator space: due to mechanical linkages, gears, etc. between actuators and joints, joint
variables are not identical to actuator variables
° Dimension of actuator space is more than λ — Manipulator is redundant.
° Dimension of actuator space is less than λ — Manipulator is under-actuated.
• Manipulator/robot kinematics — Functional relationship between joint space and task space.

Two Problems in Kinematics of Serial Robots

Direct Kinematics Problem:

Given the constant D-H link parameters and the joint variable, ai−1, αi−1, di , and θi i = 1;2;
::n, find the position and orientation of the last link in a fixed or reference coordinate system.
Most basic problem in serial manipulator kinematics. Required to be solved for computer
visualization of motion and in off-line programming systems. Used in advanced control schemes.

Inverse Kinematics Problem:

Given the constant D-H link parameters and the position and orientation of the end-effector ({n})
with respect to the fixed frame {0}, find the joint variables. Harder than the direct kinematics
problem. Leads to the notion of workspace of a robot. Required for computer visualization of
motion and used in advanced control schemes.

Direct Kinematics Problem

• Since all D-H parameters are known → All 4×4 link transforms ii−1 [T]; i = 1; ::;n are
known.
• With respect to {0}, the position and orientation of {n} is 0n[T] =01[T]12[T]::::::n−1n [T].
• For another reference {Base}, Base n [T] = Base0 [T]0n[T].
Note: Base0 [T] must be known.
• The end-effector geometry does not appear in 0n[T].
• To obtain Base Tool [T], perform the matrix multiplication Base 0 [T] 0 n[T] nTool [T]; nTool [T] must
be known.
• One advantage of the used D-H convention: Manipulator transform 0n[T] can be computed
only once and need not be changed if location of {Base} or the geometry of end-effector
n
Tool [T] changes – Recall a robot can have a variety of end-effectors!
• The direct kinematics problem can be always solved for any serial manipulator.
• The solution procedure is simple – Involves only multiplication of matrices.
Examples 1: A planar 3R manipulator

represents orientation of the tool. From 0 Tool [T]

(2)

Figure –The planner 3R manipulator

Example 2 – A SCARA manipulator

represents orientation. The position, (x;y; z), and orientation of {4} is

(3)
 Figure –SCARA Manipulator

Example 3: PUMA 560 manipulator

(4)

Summary
• Direct kinematics: Given D-H parameters, find position and orientation of end-effector.
• Direct kinematics problem can always be solved for any number of links.
• Direct kinematics can be solved using matrix multiplication.
• Direct kinematics in serial manipulators is unique.
• Direct kinematics problem for serial manipulators is the simplest problem.
Inverse Kinematics of Serial Robots

• Inverse Kinematics Problem (restated): Given the constant D-H link parameters and 0n[T],
find the joint variables θi ; i = 1; ::;n.
• For 3D motion, 6 task space variables — 3 position + 3 orientation in 0n[T].
• For planar motion, 3 task space variables — 2 position + 1 orientation in 0n[T]
• Following cases possible:
o n = 6 for 3D motion or n = 3 for planar motion → Same number of equations as
unknowns.
o n < 6 for 3D motion or n < 3 for planar motion → Number of task space variables larger
than number of equations and hence there must be (6−n) ((3−n) for planar) relationships
involving the task space variables.
o n > 6 for 3D motion or n > 3 for planar motion → More unknowns than equations and
hence infinite number of solutions — Redundant manipulators.

• Start with the simplest case of planar 3R manipulator.

Planar 3r Manipulator

• Direct kinematics equations

• Inverse Kinematics: Given(x;y; ) obtain θ1, θ2 and θ3.

• Solution of system of non-linear transcendental equations.
• No general methods (as in linear equations) exist — Solution procedure depends on problem.
• Define X = x −l3c and Y = y −l3s – X and Y are known since x; y; and l3 are known.
• Squaring and adding

• From equation (5)

• Once θ2 is known
where k2 = l2s2 and k1 = l1+l2c2. Note: atan2(y;x) is the four quadrant arc-tangent function and θ1
‫[ א‬0;2π].

• Finally, θ3 is obtained from

Puma 560 Manipulator

Figure-PUMA 560 Manipulator

• Origins of {4}, {5} and {6} are coincident — known as the wrist point.
• Position vector 0O6 of the wrist point is only a function of θ1, θ2 and θ3.
• From equation (4),

(9)

where ci , si denote cos(θi ), sin(θi ), respectively and a2, a3, d3, d4 denote constant D-H
parameters.
• From the first two equations:

• Transcendental equation in sine and cosine of θ1 which can be solved to obtain two sets of
values for θ1.

• Substitute tangent half-angle formulas from trigonometry

(10)

• Solve quadratic in x1 and take tan−1 to get

(11)
−1
Note 1: tan gives an angle between 0 and π and hence 0 ≤θ1 ≤ 2π.
Note 2: Two possible values of θ1 due to the ± before square root.

• Squaring and adding expressions for x, y and z

• Using tangent half-angle formulas

(12)

• The expression for z is only a function of θ2 and θ3.

• Solve for θ2 (for known θ3) using tangent half-angle substitutions

(13)
• Two possible values of θ2 in the range [0; 2π].
• To obtain θ4, θ5 and θ6, form

• Since

and since θ1, θ2 and θ3 are known, right-hand side is known.

• Compare known right-hand side with elements of 36 [R] and obtain θ4, θ5 and θ6.
• Similar to Z −Y −Z Euler angles with Y rotation of (−θ5)

• From equation (10) two sets of θ1.

• From equation (12) two sets of θ3.
• Since θ3 appears on the right-hand side of equation (13)→ Four possible values of θ2.
• Two possible sets of θ4, θ5 and θ6 from inverse Euler angle algorithm.
• Overall eight possible sets of joint angles θi ; i = 1; ::;6 for a given 06[T].
• Usual definition: All 06[T]. (position and orientation of {6}) such that inverse kinematics
solution exists.
• Six dimensional entity — Difficult to imagine or describe!
• Possible to derive the ‘position’ workspace of ‘wrist’ point. Position vector of wrist point

(14)

(x;y; z) are functions of three independent variables θ1, θ2 and θ3 ֜ Represents a solid in 3D
space. Can obtain equations of the bounding surfaces.
 • Squaring and adding the three equations in equation (14) gives

Where K1, K2, and K3 are constants.

• The envelope of this family of surfaces must satisfy

• Eliminating θ3 and denoting a23 +d24 by l 2, gives

Which implies that the bounding surfaces are spheres.

• At every point in the solid all possible orientations, except two special ‘singular’
configurations when r23 = ±1, are possible.

For the PUMA 560, the Denavit-Hartenberg parameters are

For the above the D-H Table is

MODULE-III

Introduction to Control

Control System:
Simply speaking, a control system provides an output or response for a given input or stimulus.
An industrial control system typically consists of an automatic controller, an actuator, a plant and
a sensor (measuring element).

Controller:
It is an important element of Control system.It compares the actual value of the plant output with
the reference input ( desired value), determines the deviation and produces a control signal that
will reduce the deviation to zero or to a small value. The manner in which the controller
produces the control signal is called the control action. Wise design of controller lead to
substantial cost savings and performance improvement. It detects the actuating error signal,
which is usually at a very low power level, and amplifies it to a sufficiently high level. The
output of an automatic controller is fed to an actuator, such as an electric motor, a hydraulic
motor or a pneumatic motor or a valve. We will see various types of controller & certain
controllers in detail but later on.

Actuator:
It is a power device that produces the input to the plant according to the control signal so that the
output of plant will approach the refernce input.In case of Robot control system, actuator is
generally electric motor.

Sensor or measuring element:

It is a device that converts the output variable into another suitable variable such as a
displacement pressure or voltage that can be used to compare the output to the refernce input
signal. This element is in the feedback path of the closed loop system.

Plant:
It is the one whose output is to be controlled. e.g. In case of Robot control system, plant is the
Robot Manipulator.

Excluding Higher level controller, the rest of system is same as that of typical industrial control
system. Each axis of Robot will have this part of control sustem excluding higher level
controller. Higher level controller generates commands and sends it to lower level controllers.
Higher level controller has to co-ordinate between various axes of robots.Now we will see
controller design issues.
Controller Design issues:

• Stability of controllers :
It should have stabilty both in numerical implementation & actual performance.
• Performance of controllers :
As per application need, performance requirement should found out & depending on that
decision on control strategy should be taken.
 • Energy required to achieve high performance:
It is the most important issue as there is upper limit on energy input to controller.

Types of Controller:
Proportional Derivative Integral (PID), Proportional & Derivative (PD), or Proportional &
Integral (PI) used in many industries (not suitable for high performance applications).

Controller Design Steps:

• Mathematical modeling of system.

A mathamatical model of system is defined as a set of equations that represents the dynamics of
the system accurately or, at least fairly well. e.g. By using Lagrange's formulation we have
derived mathmatical model for n-link Robot manipulator. Good understanding of Dynamics is
needed to carry out this step. We will see different ways of mathamatical representation of the
system in detail in coming part of this lecture.

• Selection of control strategy.

• Design of control parameters.
• Simulation and experimental verification on actual system.

2nd & 3rd step & simulation part of 4th step we will see in detail in coming lectures.
Mathamatical Modelling of physical system:

1. Differential Equation form:

It represents differential equations governing system dynamics. Such differential equations may
be obtained by using physical laws governing a particular system e.g. Newton's laws for
mechanical systems and Kirchoff's laws for electrical systems.
2. Transfer Function:
The model is derived from linear time invariant differential equation using the Laplace
Transform. Though transfer function can be used only for linear systems, it yield more intuitive
information than the differential equation. In this the input, output & system are distinct &
separate parts. With this we are in position to see the effect of changing system parameters on the
system response. The transfer function is also useful in modeling the interconnection of
subsystems by forming block diagram but with a mathematical function inside each block.
Transfer function is obtained by using Laplace transforms of differential equations (linear
systems).

3. State-Space Representation:
This can be used for that systems that can not be described by linear differential equations. State
space methods are used to model systems for simulation on digital computer. This representation
turns an nth order differential equation into n simultaneous first order differential equation.

Issues in Design and Analysis of control system:

Major objectives of Control system analysis & Design:-
1. Producing desired transient response.
2. Reducing steady state error.
3. Achieving stability.

Transient Response:
Steady state error:
Now suppose the task of moving is done but if there is difference between final desired position
& actual position. That difference XD -- Xa is known as steady state error. This should be as
minimum as possible.
Stability:
Discussion on Transient response & Steady state error is immaterial if the system is not stable.
Then what is meant by Stability?
For that consider a standard spring-mass-damper system. Its response to given input consist of
two parts

1. Natural Response: (Complementary Function)

It will die out after some time.

2. Forced response: (Particular Integral)

It will last as long as there is forcing function & dependent on same.

Now total response= Forced response + Natural response

Transient response can be directly related to Natural Response & steady state response can be
directly related to Forced response. Initially the response will be mixed one & after some time
natural response will die out & only forced response of system will be there which will be
dependent upon input.
Consider a standard spring-mass system & suppose there is no damper in the system & system is
disturbed from mean position & released, system will never return to its mean position. It will
perform vibrations about mean position. System is said to be unstable in this case. Now suppose
there is damper in the system, the system will return to mean position after some time which will
be dependent on amount of damping.
So for system to be stable, transient response should die out after some time.Once the transient
response dies out, the systems response will depend on input only. If the input is bounded one
then output will be bounded one.This leads to another definition of stability.
System is said to be stable if bounded input to system gives bounded output(BIBO). Non-linear
systems have Asymptotic stability means their output reaches to equilibrium as Linear systems
are only exponentially stable means their output reaches to equilibrium in exponential fashion.

Important notions :
One of them is stability which we have seen .Others are controllability & observability.
Controllability:
System is said to be Controllable if robot can be taken from one to another state in finite time .
Linear systems:
Conditions on matrix A,B,C,D for controllability. Matrix A, B, C, D are the coefficient matrix in
state space representation.
Observability :
It checks whether feedback taken from given sensors is sufficient to define state of system or not.
Conditions on A, B, C, D for observability.

Classical Controller Design

Control Strategy

PID control action:

It is widely used for linear and nonlinear systems. Control action is combination of Proportional,
Integral & Derivative action. It May not always lead to stabilizing controller.

Controller Design Techniques :

For linear systems:
• Root locus
• Bode plot.
• Nyquist plot.
(All the three above mentioned are graphical techniques)
• State space design tools.

For Non-linear systems:

• Lyapunov method.
• Singular perturbation.
• Feedback linearization

Controller Implementation:

Analog domain:
Use of Electronic circuits (main element is op-amp. )

Digital domain:
In this computer or micro-controller is used as a controller. In case of Computer as a controller,
sensors & actuators handle analog signals while Computer handles digital signals. Conversion
from Analog to Digital and Digital to Analog is necessary. It is done by using Analog to digital
& digital to analog converter.

Issues in digital Control implementation:

 • Sampling time: Sampling time should be such that there should not be any kind of
distortion of information carried by signal.
• Effect on system due to sampling.
• Filters: necessary for different computations ex. Derivative computation of PD
control.
• Speed of computation: Whatever processor we are using it should compute as per
control law in given sapling time.
• Speed of A/D and D/A conversion.
• Number of sensors and actuators.
• Noise coming from various sources.
• Cost: Being important it should be considered along with performance.

Trajectory tracking control:

Feed forward.
Computed torque

Linear form with disturbance

Here Jeff is effective inertia which is assumed to be constant over a range of motion & is function
of generalized co-ordinates.
Beff- is constant damping term.
dk- disturbance term (which accounts for coriolis, centripetal, inertia & coupling forces)

In Trajectory tracking problem we have to move end effector along predefined path. By using
inverse kinematic analysis we can find out desired joint angles which are function of time. From
these we can find out desired angles through which the motor should rotate as we know gear
reduction ratio for each actuator.

Feed forward + PD Control:

As its name suggests, there is some information which is feeded in forward direction in this
control strategy along with conventional PD control. It is basically used for trajectory tracking
problem in which we have to move end-effector along a predefined path.

PD or PID control are suitable for slow point to point motion problem(regulation problem). In
case of trajectory tracking problem the end-effector is moving along predefined path. In case of
tracking problem desired position is a function of time. So it continuously changes with respect
to time. Motor response will never catchup the desired position within shortest time by using PD
or PID techniques only. So we cannot use PD or PID control strategy for trajectory tracking
problem.

In this example we have to move end effecor from Ps to Pf along a straight line.
Trajectory Tracking using PD + Feed forward :

In this Jeff & Beff are computed along the trajectory at various instants of time & these terms are
feed forwarded . This is the basis of Feed forward algorithm. Along predefined path we can find
out ,

We can also estimate Jeff & Beff at various points along trajectory. So along given trajectory,
actuator(i.e. motor) have to overcome following torques.

This information is feed forwarded in this technique.

Now Linear form with disturbance

But

Controller Equation

Substituting this controller equation, system dynamics becomes

For zero disturbance by choosing Kp & KD such that whatever settling time chosen,

One can now easily say that the tracking error is due to dK term. Substituting this controller
equation, system dynamics becomes
 Robotics
   
Review of serial robotic manipulators. Classification of Parallel Robots (Steward Platform,
Wheeled Mobile Robots, Walking Machine etc.).Algorithms for inverse and forward
kinematic/dynamic analyses of parallel robots. Kinematic design of serial and parallel robots
based on singularity, workspace, manipulability, dexterity, etc.Mechanical design of robot links
and joints. Introduction to control of robotic systems

Text Books:
1. Robotic technology and flexible automation - S.R Deb, TMH.
2. Robotics - Lee, Fu, Gonzalez, Mc Graw Hill.
3. Industrial Robot - Groover, Mc Graw Hill.
4. Robots manufacturing and application - Paul Afonh, John Wiley.