PRE-SOCRATIC THINKERS  2.

Cynicism: nothing is accepted, 

(Baka lumabas sa bonus lol)  everything is questioned including 
Important points:  the norms 
> Three contributions of the west:  > Empiricism vs Rationalism  
1. Importance of Reason (Greek)  1. Empiricism: posteriori (after) 
2. Belief in a supernatural being -  2. Rationalism: priori (before) 
monotheism (Jew)  > Deductive and Inductive  
3. Unconditional love (Christians)  1. Deductive: general to particular 
> Two Implications of Western Thinkers:  2. Inductive: particular to general 
1. Created an agenda and a  > Sophists: love for wisdom, imparting 
foundation  knowledge for a price 
2. Complex ideas   
> In order for ideas to innovate, the ff.  PLATO  
components are needed:   Background 
1. Time  > greatly influenced by Socrates 
2. Interaction of ideas  > wrote in q&a form, in a dialogue 
3. Trial and Error  (Socratic method) 
4. Spontaneity  > Academy: school of Athens 
5. Simultaneity  > The Republic: about the society and 
6. Biological Context  individual 
(organic/dynamic)  - treatise of justice (how we can 
7. Complexity,.  attain true justice) 
> 4 important contributions of Pre-Socratic  - paradigm of society (ideals/what 
Thinkers:  ought to be the best society) 
1. Secularization  - guide to salvation (salvation of the 
2. Free Speech  soul) 
3. Scientific-Rational Principles   
4. Courageous Truth Seekers  Justice 
  > definition – ontology  
Philosophical Thought  > how it is achieved – etymology 
>O​ ntology and Epistemology   > why is it worth pursuing - morality 
1. Ontology: What is something  1. Compliance (Cephalus)  
2. Epistemology: How do we know  - Dagger and the Deranged 
what we know  2. Reciprocity (Polemarchus) 
> Epistemology affirms Positivism vs  - help friends, harm enemies 
Interpretivism  - Giving people what they are due. 
1. Positivism: evidence is required  - Critique: Who is your friend? Is it 
2. Interpretivism: ideas are  ever just to cause violence? 
constructs/subjective  3. Power and strength 
> Skepticism vs Cynicism   (Thrasymachus) 
1. Skepticism: open to the idea that  - depends on how those in power 
they may be wrong  defines it 
 4. Compromise (Glaucon)  - Agriculture and music → self 
- Recourse + impunity  discipline 
- Justice is compromise because we  - Literature (censorship); 
need to give up some liberty.  > Yes – poetry, myths 
- being held accountable  (noble/medicinal lie) 
- the weak can get justice  > No – if it benefits the state/ love 
- Myth of Gyges   for good 
- Worst Things that Could Happen:   > 10 years of Math 
- Punished for something you  - logic → rationalism 
don’t know/unaware of  > 5 years 
- Led by someone who you  - philosophy and morality 
know is under you   
5. Hypocrisy (Adeimantus)  Three Waves of Opposition (Plato’s 
- corrupt politicians  Reforms) 
- Does being just truly pay?  1. Equality of women 
  - same nature = same treatment,  
Social Organization  - are weaker 
>P​ roducer​: division of labor (must be  - if alienated, women can rebel 
effective and efficient)  2. Abolition of property and family 
> insatiable desires lead to war:  - loyalty to state against loyalty to 
>A ​ uxiliary​ = soldiers  family 
>However, they can turn against us which  - happiness = serving the state 
is why we need:  3. Paradox 
>G ​ uardians​ = highest and ‘best’  - philosophers → king / queen 
> the body:  - power and philosophy meet 
1. Wisdom – Guardians – reason -  together 
gold   
2. Courage – Soldiers – spirit - silver  Allegory of the Cave 
3. Temperance – society as a whole –  > pain/ disorientating: process of 
appetite - iron  education 
4. Justice – as a whole – virtue/just  > “sun”: cause of vision, enlightenment 
= justice is harmony, ​everything is guided  causes excitement 
by reason  > burden for the philosopher 
> Myth of Metals  kings/queens: cannot explain to those 
- coming from same soil  who can’t grasp 
- gold, silver, iron   
- big merit: guardians can come  Theory of Forms 
from producers  1. World of Appearances 
  - shadows (reality): imagination 
Selection of Guardians  (eikasia) 
> Marriage festival  - objects = beliefs (pristis) 
- Eugenics: controlled breeding  2. Intelligible World (World of Forms) 
> Basic education and physical training 
 - ideas (eidos) = knowledge  1. Tyranny - one 
(dianoia)  - nepotism 
- Question → intelligence (noesis)  2. Oligarchy - few 
Political Decay of the State  3. Democracy - many PRACTICAL 
1. Aristocracy (few)  - Mob + rule, practical 
- arete (virtue) → rule of and by  - Telos → liberty 
excellence  - Rule of majority: society/body vs. 
2. Timocracy (honour) →run by  individual 
military government    
3. Oligarchy (wealth) → rich vs poor  Human Nature 
4. Democracy (many)   Definition: 
5. Tyranny  > empirical 
- Diversity and freedom → anarchy  > person (innate) 
- Forgiving spirit (tolerance) → lack  > telos → purpose/one’s end 
of accountability   
Three Types of Appetite:  Slavery 
1. Necessary: physiological,  1. Natural  
survival  - Ruler and ruled has mutual benefit 
2. Unnecessary: luxury, excess  2. Conventional → war 
3. Lawless: impunity  - Slaves are not free men 
- People (the needs) = populism →  - Ruler should think about the 
want  benefit of the ruled 
  > ruler: common goal 
  > ruled: telos, Cannot exist without the 
ARISTOTLE  other; CO DEPENDENCE 
Background   
> upper middle class from Stagira, Thrace  Polity 
> physician (sciences) → scientific method  > solves problem between rich vs. poor 
(observation)  > middle class: stability and moderation 
> Platonic, metaphysical (ideas and  ​= JUSTICE is balance / equilibrium  
observation), scientific, lyceum  > rule of law: supreme but limited 
> political comparativist  - customary/normal culture 
  - written 
Ideal State  > rule of man: practical but limited 
True Government  - case-case basis 
1. Monarchy - one IDEAL  > Nicomachean Ethics  
- Ideal but unattainable  - Doctrine of the Golden Mean 
- Ostracism: exclusion from society   - deficiency --- virtue --- excess 
2. Aristocracy - few  > telos of democracy: liberty to do what 
3. Polity (Constitutional  you want 
Government)-rule of law - many   
Perverted Government  The State 
> individual - family (physiological) -  > take away the meaning of the 
village (socialization) - state (highest form  state → becoming its own individual 
of community)  3. Property 
> political animals – citizen:  a. Collective action problem (free 
reason+speech, deliberation (no one can  riding) 
tell us otherwise)   b. Tragedy of the commons: 
> highest community: a state where  environment is being taken care of 
reason and speech is mostly cultivated  by the government  
> Citizenship: public service  c. learning liberality (generous) 
1. Good man: virtue of ruler, aware of  d. Property vs. person (possession vs 
his virtue  desire, equality, equity, education) 
2. Good citizen  4. Social complexity  
- both ruler and ruled; part of public  > Philosopher King/Queen is 
community (public service)  dangerously unattainable. 
- balance between ruling and  > Utilitarian vs Universal  
following  > Happiness - Who will guard the 
- now when something is too little or  guardians? 
too much   > Happiness by virtue – doing what 
- golden mean  you’re supposed to; balanced 
3. Good ruler (statesman): good   
citizen + good person + wisdom 
St. Augustine  
4. Degrees of citizenship (age, 
Background 
constitution, parents, social)  
> from Tagaste, Algeria 
> telos of an individual → Happiness/ 
> Manichaeism: dualistic world  
fulfilling his virtue  
> had a holy calling 
> telos of the state →self-sufficiency 
> bishop at Hippo 
provide for the people 
 
> nature of the state 
No Justice 
- Suitability role 
> let men be free to rule 
- Merit based 
> concupiscence: tendency to sin 
- Term limits 
> Tainted free will: original sin 
- Producer of virtue 
> Man is evil, not active but inherent 
 
 
Critiques to Plato 
Qualities of man 
1. Theory 
> Humble: grounded to one’s humanity; be 
> speculative - sophisticated 
below God 
display 
> Pious: rulers must fear God and love Him 
> no practicality 
as well 
> how to benefit state?  
> Selfless: must surrender everything to 
2. Unity 
Him, cannot serve God if you cannot serve 
> too much unity → plurality 
others 
(genetic appearance) 
> forgiving, fair, self-control, of service 
  Slavery as unnatural 
City of God vs City of Man  > men do not rule over other men 
> City of God  > dominion over irrational creatures 
- selfless love to God  > slaves: 
- surrender all to God  - endure the suffering 
- eternal salvation  - serve in love and good will 
- everlasting peace   
- Abel  Justice as Love 
> City of Man  > love and universality 
- Self love (narcissist wisdom)  > equally love everyone 
- Eternal damnation  > go beyond the corruptible 
- Accepting our evilness  > punish to reform and not to harm 
- Cain: lust of power, first born  > diversity in the service of God 
- False peace (war - misery, glory,   
temporal)  St. Thomas Aquinas
  Background 
Temporal False Peace  > landed family from Roccasecca, Italy 
1. man cannot be trusted  > Montecassino (Benedictine Monk) 
2. man is incompetent (exoneration)  > mendicant dominican: believed in a non 
3. misery is a cycle  luxurious life 
  > professor-saint  
Purpose of War  > Scholasticism: faith and reason as 
> lead to peace   principle of unity VS.  
> earthly peace will lead to truer peace, if  > Tertullian: faith and reason cannot be 
not the cycle repeat  mixed together 
> eternal peace only exists with faith    
> Social peace – harmonization   Kingship 
> Private peace – personal interest  > man is a socio-political animal 
> All seek peace!  > man’s reason: cultivate with others 
  > man’s socialization: needs a general 
Just   ruling force, government/law can 
> war/discord=peace=order=tranquility   separate right (kingship, aristocracy, 
> Defend, not harm   polity) from wrong 
> Last resort   Tyrant←KING→unity=peace & usefulness of state 
> Protect innocent  Theory of Government 
> hope → God’s gift is true repentance  1. king/monarchy for the common 
  good 
Slavery  2. Supremacy of law 
> irrational: insatiable desires  3. Obedience as habit 
> rational: harmony of knowledge and   
action  Dealing with Tyrants 
> transcendental rationality: serving God  > prevention: divine right 
(two holy commandments)  > tolerance → revolt? 
> public authority: tyrannicide  Background 
> prayer to God (first choice)  > from Florence, Italy 
  > not elite nor noble 
Chief Priest (Pope)  > was in public service, part of Ten of War 
> supernatural + natural order  (Florentine rep to the Department of 
> Preserve: body (health), economy  Foreign Relations) 
(wealth), knowledge (truth), community  Italyo 
(virtue), state (enjoyment) > Guide: divine  > independent republic vs. monarchy 
providence (priests)  > non-feudal (trade and commerce) 
  > exposed culture: Renaissance 
> King/priest = earthly goods + priest/king  - restless search for new ideas about 
= heavenly goods holy man   science and reason 
> political virtues: justice, fortitude,  - era awareness (non-antiquity, 
prudence, temperance, courage    non-medieval) 
> Religious Values – faith, hope, love  - transitional age to modernity 
  Works 
Summa Theologica (Theory of Law)  > 1512: Absolutist Medici 
1. supremacy of law  > 1513: The Prince (political leverage) 
2. 4 kinds  - giving power to the Prince (Lorenzo 
> eternal: wisdom of God is  Medici) political sabre 
unchangeable  - Modeled after Cesare Borgia 
> divine: revealed, written wisdom  - Father Cardinal Rodrigo Borgia (or 
of God  Pope Alexander VI) 
> natural customs/culture:   
universal good  End of State 
> human: approximate, apply  > acquire, retain, and expand power 
context → ecclesiastical and civil  > raison d’Etat: reason of the state 
​= justice as unity  > raison d'etre: purpose of life 
3. Human law  > not nihilist to virtue  
> ordinance of reason  > not immoral, rather, amoral 
> common good   
> created by one who cares about  Dualities in The Prince 
the people  > man: fights with law 
> promulgated  > beast: fights with force (lion and fox) 
4. Temporal and spiritual  > efficiency vs. inefficiency 
> civil welfare  - roman virtue: military courage, 
> no authority  civic duty, intelligence, integrity 
> salvation  - Christian virtue: humility, 
CHRISTIANITY: faith is above all peoples  forbearance, chastity 
  > Virtu  
  1. Roman 
Machiavelli - Military courage, Intelligence, Civil 
duty, integrity 
 2. Christian 
- Faith, Love, Hope, Humility. 
Forbearance,Chastity 
3. Machiavelli 
- prudence (competence), 
- military valor (art of war) 
> mercenaries: paid 
> auxiliaries: defends state, from 
friends 
> citizen army: dies for you 
> fortuna: controlled by virtu 
> the end justifies the means 
- not just any end, preservation of 
state 
- contextual empiricism: knowledge 
after experience 
> fear vs love 
- kill one then shower the others with 
gifts to make them forget 
- avoid hatred 
> positive and negative 
- pessimist: man cannot exclude 
himself from negativity 
- optimist: man can change 
 
Religion 
> instrumental 
1. Fear of God 
2. Keep people in place 
3. unite people → church = disunity 
 
Morality as luxury 
> Machiavelli neglected the good of man  
> focused on agency not on institution  
> talked about the prince, but what about 
the people working with the prince  
> means and end are not sequential o > 
forgets that means can shape the end