Wireless Communication

Introduction to wireless
Channel
Pr. A. HAYAR

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 Outline

• Introduction
• Plane waves
• Propagation in free space
• Antennas fundamentals
• Propagation over flat earth

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 Transmission Channel

Source Decoded data

Coding Demodulation
Physical
& Transmitter Receiver &
media
modulation Decoding

Propagation

Radio communication

Information theory

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Wireless communication
Channel

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 Electromagnetic
Spectrum (1)

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 Electromagnetic
Spectrum (2)

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 Electromagnetic
Spectrum (3)
Standard Radar Frequency Letter-Band Nomenclature(IEEE
Standard 521-1984)

Band Designator Frequency (GHz) Wavelength in Free

Space (centimeters)

L band 1 to 2 30.0 to 15.0

S band 2 to 4 15 to 7.5
C band 4 to 8 7.5 to 3.8
X band 8 to 12 3.8 to 2.5
Ku band 12 to 18 2.5 to 1.7
K band 18 to 27 1.7 to 1.1
Ka band 27 to 40 1.1 to 0.75
V band 40 to 75 0.75 to 0.40
W band 75 to 110 0.40 to 0.27

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 Cellular systems

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 Cellular systems
• Satellite fixed links: Typically created between fixed links
and geostationary earth-orbiting satellites (SHF, EHF
bands).
• Terrestrial fixed links: Used for high data rates links
between earth stations (VHF, EHF bands).
• Megacells: Represents links between satellite and mobiles
allowing coverage of wide areas (L, S and Ka bands).
• Macrocells: Designed to provide mobile services in outdoors
rural, suburban or urban environments with medium traffic
densities (VHF, UHF bands).
• Microcells: Designed for high traffic densities in urban and
suburban areas to users in outdoors and within buildings
environments (VHF, UHF bands).
• Picocells: Very high traffic densities in indoor environments.

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 Electromagnetic waves

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Maxwell’s equations
• Differential form
– Maxwell’s equations

 B (t , r )
   E (t , r )   t .D (t , r )   (t , r )
 D (t , r )
  H (t , r )   J (t , r ) .B(t , r )  0
 t

• Equation of continuity
 (t , r )
t
 .J (t , r )  0 A / m 3

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 Plane waves in free
space
Free space and reals
In addition, we consider media without charges and currents
    E ( r )   2 E (r )   2 E ( r )   k E ( r )
2
V / m  3

we solve Maxwell’s equations in cartesian coordinates system

 E x ( x, y , z )  E x ( x, y , z )  E x ( x, y , z )
 2 E x ( x, y , z )   
x 2
y 2
z 2
2
 2 E x ( x, y , z )   k E x ( x , y , z ) V / m 
3

( k x x  k y y  k z z )

 E x ( x, y, z )  E x (0) e  E x (0)e  kr
 E ( x, y, z )  ex E x (0)  e y E y (0)  ez E z (0) e
( k x x  k y y  k z z )
 E (0)e  kr

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Uniform plane waves
in free space (cont’d)

k z z k z z
E (r )  E ( x, y, z )  E x (0)e ex  E0 e ex


E (t , r )  Re 2 E (r )e jt 
E (t , r )  E0 cos(t  kz )ex
H (t , r )  H 0 cos(t  kz )e y
1
S av  E0 H 0 ez
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 Uniform plane waves
in free space
Propagation vector: k  k z ez  (  j )
  attenuation cons tan t
  phase
2
  wavelength 

uniform plane wave in free
space:

k  j  j  m 1

Maxwell’s equations become:

  E (r )   H (r )  .E ( r )  0
  H (r )   E (r )  .H ( r )  0

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 TEM wave

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 Energy, power
density: Poynting
vector
• Poynting vector represents the power density of
the wave associated with its direction of travel:

S (t , r )  E (t , r )  H (t , r ) VA / m 2 
• Electric energy

We (t , r )   / 2 E 2 (t , r ) J / m 
3
(is the permittivity)

• Magnetic energy

Wm (t , r )   / 2 H 2 (t , r ) J / m 
3
( is the permeability)

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 TEM waves
Transverse electromagnetic wave
» Electric and magnetic fields are perpendicular to the wave direction

» Electric field is also perpendicular to magnetic field
 1 c0
   
   r r
 1 c0
g    
   r r
S 1
e     g
We  Wm 
Wave impedance is defined by the ratio of electric and magnetic
fields amplitudes:
E  0  r r r
 Zc    Z0  120
H   0 r r r

E
Free space, μr=1, εr=1:  Z c  120  377 
H
17
Basic parameters in
lossy media

18
Propagation mechanisms

19
Reflection, Refraction and
Transmission

20
 Snell’s Laws
• Snell’s law of reflection:

i   r
• Snell’s law of refraction:
sin  i  2  2 n2
 
sin  t  11 n1

With n
c


 0 0
  r r the refractive index

21
 Lossless media
• Fresnel reflection and refraction coefficients

• E perpendicular to the plane of incidence Horizontal polarization

Er  Z 2 cos i  Z1 cos t
R  
Ei  Z 2 cos i  Z1 cos t
Et  2Z 2 cos i
T  
Ei  Z 2 cos i  Z1 cos t

R is the reflection coefficient and T is the transmission

Coefficient. Z1 and Z2 are the wave impedance of medium 1 and
medium 2.

22
 Lossless media
• Fresnel reflection and refraction coefficients

• E parallel to the plane of incidence vertical

polarization

Er // Z1 cos  i  Z 2 cos  t
R//  
Ei // Z 2 cos  t  Z1 cos  i
Et // 2 Z 2 cos  i
T//  
Ei // Z 2 cos  t  Z1 cos  i

23
 Lossy media
Snell’s law of reflection still holds in lossy
Media and the Fresnel coefficients can still be
applied with

j
Z
  j

24
Typical constitutive
parameters

25
Reflexion coefficients
VS in

26
 Brewster
Bre wster angle
In the vertically polarized reflection goes to zero at one angle called
Brewster angle and given by

n21
 B  tan
n1

27
 Grazing incidence
As the angle between the beam and the surface goes closer to
90°, the reflection coefficient approaches 1 in all cases, and the
transmission drops to zero. This situation is known as Grazing
incidence and is closely approximated in practice when a
transmitter antenna is low in height compared with the distance to
the receiver. In these cases, the reflection coefficient may be
assumed as -1 for Horizontal polarization and 1 for vertical
polarization.

Remark:
For angles of incidence less than Brewster angle, both R// and R
are negatives, so the reflected wave undergoes a 180° phase
change.

28
 Geometric Theory of
Reflection (GTR)
• Rayleigh criterion

4h 
  cos i 
 2

h  non _ specular _ reflexion
8 cos i

  i
2

29
 Propagation
mechanisms GTR-
GTR-
based

30
 Propagation
mechanisms GTR-
GTR-
based (cont’d)

31
 Limitations of GTR
• Geometrical theory of reflection leads to incorrect
predictions when considering fields in Shadow
region

32
 Uniform Geometrical
Theory of Diffraction
• Huygens principle underlies the idea that each point
on a wavefront acts as a source of secondary wavelets
• Fresnel put this into mathematical form,
• Kirchhoff put in place all the correct multiplying terms
• Keller introduces GTD to extend geometrical optics to include knife edge diffraction
• Kouyoumjian presents UTD as generalization of GTD dealing with diffraction at general shape.

Diffraction How it works:

• Each area dA on the advancing wavefront acts as a source

that radiates to P
• The total illumination at P is the integral over all the
wavelets from within the aperture reaching P
• Evaluating this integral in general determines the Fresnel
diffraction pattern
• Fraunhofer diffraction

33
Knife edge diffraction

34
Example of knife
edge diffraction

35
Fraunhofer diffraction

36
Fraunhofer diffraction
(cont’d)

37
Fraunhofer diffraction
(cont’d)

38
Fraunhofer diffraction
(cont’d)

39
 Fresnel zones
• Fresnel ellipsoids


EM  MR  ER  n
2
nd1d 2
Rn 
d1  d 2

• Diffraction is negligible if there is no

obstruction in the first Fresnel zone with
radius: d1d 2
R1 
d1  d 2 40
Antennas fundamentals

41
 Antennas
fundamentals
Vector potential in spherical coordinate system
Radial component:
1 d  2 d A x (r ) 
2  r    2
  A x (r )  0
r dr  dr 
 j   r
e
 A x (r )  Ax 0
r
 j   r
e
idem A(r )  A0
r
In case of electric current element with density J (Hertzian dipole)

 j   r
 e
 A(r )  J decreases in 1/r parallel to Hertz’s dipole
4 r

42
Antennas fundamentals
(cont’d)
Consider an antenna dipole with d<<and an observer located at
r>>d

 0 I d  j 0 r  Id
J   I .d .ez A(r , )  ez e  er cos  e sin   0 e  j 0 r
 4r 4r
media  air with  0    0  0

We obtain then E and H as:

I d 0  1 1 
2
1 H (r , )  e  sin e  j 0 r
H (r )    A(r )  2
 4  j 0 r  j 0 r  

1  I d 0
2
  2 2   1 1 1    j 0 r
E (r )    H (r ) E (r ,  )   0 er cos      e sin      e
3   3 
  j 0 r   j 0 r    j 0 r  j 0 r   j 0 r  
j   0 4 2 2


43
Antennas fundamentals
(cont’d)

44
 Near far Fields

L is the diameter of the antenna or the smallest sphere which

completely encloses the antenna,  is the wavelength. Within the
radius R=2L2/ is the near-field or Fresnel region, while beyond
it lies the far-field or Fraunhofer region.

45
 Antennas fundamentals
(cont’d)
• Far-zone region, Fraunhofer region

j 0 I d
H ( r , )  e sin e  j 0 r
10 4r
r   1 .6  
0 0 j 0 I d 
E (r , )  e sin e  j 0 r   0 er  H ( r , )
0 4r 0

• The Poynting vector is then radial and real:

2
*
S ( r , )  E ( r , )  H ( r , )  er
0 2   0 d 
0
I   sin  ,
2
W / m 2

 4r 

2  2 2 2
0 2   0 d  0 I  d 
PT   S ( r , )dS   d   sin  r sin  d  2   , W 
2 2
I 
S
0 0
0  4r  0 3   

46
Antennas fundamentals
(cont’d)

47
Antennas fundamentals
(cont’d)
• Wave impedance for dipole element

E 1 1
Zr   
H j 0 r 1 
 0
j 0 r 0

48
Antennas fundamentals
(cont’d)
• Characteristics:
• Gain: gives a measure of the antenna’s efficiency. It is expressed
in relation to a reference source (isotropic source)

max imum radiation int ensity P ( ,  )

G ( ,  )   
radiation from an isotropic source Pf
4
with : P ( ,  )  radiation int ensity
some times radiation int ensity is called U

49
Antennas fundamentals
(cont’d)
• Efficiency:
Pt
 , 0  1
Pf
2 


 4
P ( ,  )d

 
0 0
P ( ,  ) sin  d d
Pf Pf

• Directivity:

P ( ,  ) G ( ,  )
D ( ,  )  
Pt 
4

50
 Equivalent circuit of
transmitting antenna

51
Antennas fundamentals
(cont’d)
• Radiation pattern:

U G ( ,  )
R ( ,  )  
U max maxG ( ,  ) 

U  P ( ,  )  r 2 S
S  time averaged Poynting vector

For Hertzian dipole, for example :

2 2
1 E 1 0 2   0 d 
U    sin 
2
I 
2 Z0 2 0  4 
U
R  sin 2 
U max
52
Antenna Gain

53
 Antennas
fundamentals (cont’d)
• Power density
P ( ,  ) pf pt
S  .G ( ,  )  D ( ,  )
r2 4r 2 4r 2
W / m2 
• Effective apperture (Antenna aperture):

Pr ( ,  )
Ae ( ,  )  ,
S
S :Time Averaged Poynting Vector
4
Gmax  2 Ae

• Friis free space formula for two antennas separated by distance L
2
  
Pr  Pf .G1 (1 , 1 ).G2 ( 2 ,  2 ) 
 4 L  54
Antennas fundamentals
(cont’d)
• Voltage standing wave ratio (VSWR)
1 
VSWR 
1 
Vr Z a  Z s
   reflection coefficient
Vi Z a  Z s
Vi  amplitude of incident wave
Vr  amplitude of reflected wave
Z a  antenna _ impedance  Rr  Rl  jX a
Z s  source _ impedance  Rs  jX s
Rr  radiation _ resis tan ce
Rl  loss _ resis tan ce
• If Zs=Za*, the source is matched to the antenna and a maximum of the source
power is delivred to the antenna, else VSWR measures the degree of
mismatch. Usually, antennas are designed with input impedance equal to 50
or 75

55
Radio engineering,
part II:
Channel modeling

56
 Basic Propagation
models
• Path loss
• Free space loss
• Propagation over the flat earth
• Knife edge diffraction loss
• Approximation of multiple knife edge
diffraction loss

57
Propagation path loss
Path loss is defined as the ratio between the received power Pr
and the transmited power Pt

Pr
l  10 log  10 log Pr  10 log Pt
Pt

• Free space path loss

2
Pr   
 Gt Gr  
Pt  4L 
l  10 log Gt  10 log Gr  20 log   20 log L  21.98

• Free space path loss for an isotropic antenna (FRIIS Formula)

2
Pr   
 Gt Gr  
Pt  4L 
l  20 log f  20 log L  32.44 dB, with f ( Mhz ) and L( km)

58
Propagation over flat
earth

 

59
 Propagation over flat
earth
Propagation of radio wave in a flat-terrain environment. The
transmitted signal may reach the receiving antenna by
several ways:
» Through a direct path
» Through an indirect path, consisting of the radio wave reflected by
the ground
» Through an indirect path, consisting of surface wave
» ...

The received signal is a combination

of all of these waves with resultant 2
Pr    j j 2
power equal to the sum of their  Gt Gr   1  e  (1   ) Ae  ....
Pt  4d 
individual powers
with :
Pt : transmitted _ power
Pt : received _ power
 : reflection _ coefficient
60
 Propagation over flat
earth
The effects of the ground waves are sensed only a few
wavelengths above the ground and for frequencies above
100 MHz we can neglect this effect. Also   1 for   0   in  90
We obtain then:
2
Pr    j 2
 Gt Gr   1 e
Pt  4d 

That we developp to:

2
Pr hh 
 Gt Gr  t 2r 
Pt  d 
The corresponding inverse path loss in decibels is:
L  10 log Gt  10 log Gr  20 loght hr   40 log d , in _ dB, with _ d (km)

12dB loss when distance is doubled and 6dB gain if the antenna
height is doubled
61
 Diffraction
• Knife edge diffraction loss
If the radiated electric field is E0, the diffracted
field is:


E 1  j  j 2 t 2
2 
 e dt ,
E0
S ( )  0.5  S ( )  0.5  
E  E0 Fe j , F  ,   tg 1   4
2 sin    / 4  C ( )  0 .5 

Where F is the diffraction coefficient and  is the

phase difference between the indirect and direct
paths. C() and S() are the Fresnel cosine and
sine integrals, respectively: x  2  x  
C ( )   cos u du S ( )   cos u 2 du
0
2  0
2 
2  d1  d 2 
with :   h  
  d1d 2  62
 Diffraction
The height h can also be negative

2
E
L  10 log  20 log F
E0

The loss due to the diffraction is

63
 Diffraction
• Path clearance conditions
– Path loss due to diffraction vs path loss due to reflexion
– Fresnel zones

d1d 2
Rn 
d1  d 2
• It is recognized that the first Fresnel zone (radius R1) bounds the
volume contributing significantly to wave propagation. Path clearance is
obtained if:

d1d 2
h1  0.6 R1  0.6
d1  d 2

h < h1 corresponds to   0.8 implying a negligible loss due to diffraction

64
 Diffraction
• Multiple Knife edge diffraction loss
• Bullington’s model

65
 Diffraction
• Multiple Knife edge diffraction loss
• Epstein-Peterson’s model

66
 Diffraction

• Multiple Knife edge diffraction loss

• Deygout’s model

67
 Thermal Noise and
Noise figure
• Noise Figure measures the additional
thermal noise caused by electronic
components (amplifiers) at the input of
receiver chain
Noise
temperature

N add T
F  1  1 e
N in T
290oK

Nin Nout
Nadd

68
 Thermal Noise
(cont’d)
• In the case of chain with a cascade of
amplifiers, we obtain:

N add _ global Te _ global N

Fi  1
Fequ  1   1  F1   i 1
N in T i2
G
j 1
j

69
 EIRP: Equivalent
Isotropic Radiated
Power
• EIRP is given by:
PT GT
EIRP   PTI
LT

PT is the transmit power, GT is the transmit

antenna gain and LT represents Losses at
transmitter side.
PTIis the effective isotropic transmit power.
Similarly, the effective isotropic received
power, PTI, is given by
PR LR
PRI 
GR
70
 Propagation Loss
Using the definition of the EIRP we can
express the path loss, L,
independently of system parameters
by defining it as the ratio between
transmitted and received power:
PTI PT GT GR
L 
PRI PR LT LR
P 
LdB  10 Log  TI 
 PRI 

71
 Consideration of
other effects

• Atmospheric conditions
• Foliage
• Street orientation
• Tunnel

72
 Geometrical representation at the
receive antenna location

73
 i  ki
Geometrical representation at the
receive antenna location
cont’d

74
Geometrical representation at the
receive antenna location
cont’d

75
Geometrical representation at the
receive antenna location
cont’d

76
Fading process

77
Multipath effects

78
Multipath effects
cont’d

79
Multipath effects
cont’d

80
 Small scale/Short
term fading
N
NLOS situation r   ri
i 1

• Rayleigh distribution r  r 2 / 2 2
PR (r )  2 e


LOS situation r  r0   ri
i 1

r r 2  a 2 / 2 2  ar 
• Rice distribution PR (r )  e I0  2 
 2
 
a  r0

81
Rayleigh distribution
function

82
Rice distribution
function

83
 Shadowing/Long
term/large scale fading

84
 Shadowing/Long
term/large scale fading

Follows lognormal distribution 1   ln r   2 / 2 2

PR ( r )  e
2  2
  E ln r ,   varln r  85
Example of effect of
shadowing

86
 Path Loss: Shadowing
•
model
When the shadowing is included the path loss becomes a random
variable given by:
l  lmedian as
LdB  10 Log (l )  L50  Ls ,
• L50 is the median path loss not exceeded at 50% of locations at a
given distance, proportional to the frequency f and the distance d.
For narrow band channels,  is generally equal to 3,5
• Ls is the shadowing component, a zero mean Gaussian random
variable with standard deviation L. The pdf of Ls is given by
2
L 1
p( Ls )  exp( s 2 )
 L 2 2 L
• The probability that the shadowing increases the median path loss
by at least z dB is then given by:
  1  Ls 2   1 x2  z 
Pr ( Ls  z )   p ( Ls )dLs   exp  
2 
dLs   exp(  ) dx  Q  
Ls Ls  z
 L 2  2 L 
x z / L
2 2  L 
1  x2 1  t 
Q(t ) 
2 x t
exp( 
2
) dx 
2
erfc 
 2

87
• Generally, L is arround 7dB
 Path Loss and Fast
fading model
• Mobile radio channel can not be modeled only as AWGN (Additive
White Gaussian Noise) channel. The characteristics of the
propagation environment result in fast and slow fading
(shadowing). If we focus only on fast fading it is modeled as a
multiplicative time variant process as shown on next figure:
Path loss fading
A t AWGN
n(t)
modulator X X + Demodulator
y(t)
u(t)

y (t )  A (t )u (t )  n(t )
 A2 r 2 / 2 
  SNR   
 PN 

  Average SNR 
A2 E r 2

 
A2 2
2 PN PN 88
r
 Path Loss and Fast
fading model
• Following fast fading modeling, the distribution of r is Rayleigh. We can
then derive the distribution of  as follow:

p  PR (r )
dr
d
   r 2  PN
 r /  R exp 
2

2

2 

A 2
r

1

exp  /  , for   0
 R 

• The cdf (Cumulative Distribution Function) is then given by

Pr    s   1  exp  s /  

89