Electrical Electronics Formulas & Equations

Electrical Data Sheets

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 Electrical Formulas

Options:
- Motor Formulas
- Transformer Formulas

E = Voltage / I = Amps /W = Watts / PF = Power Factor / Eff = Efficiency / HP

= Horsepower

AC/DC Formulas
To Find Direct AC / 1phase AC / 1phase AC 3 phase
Current 115v or 120v 208,230, or 240v All Voltages
Amps when HP x 746 HP x 746 HP x 746 HP x 746
Horsepower is E x Eff E x Eff X PF E x Eff x PF 1.73 x E x Eff x PF
Known
Amps when kW x 1000 kW x 1000 kW x 1000 kW x 1000
Kilowatts is known E E x PF E x PF 1.73 x E x PF
Amps when kVA x 1000 kVA x 1000 kVA x 1000
kVA is known E E 1.73 x E
Kilowatts IxE I x E x PF I x E x PF I x E x 1.73 PF
1000 1000 1000 1000
Kilovolt-Amps IxE IxE I x E x 1.73
1000 1000 1000
Horsepower I x E x Eff I x E x Eff x I x E x Eff x I x E x Eff x 1.73 x
(output) 746 PF PF PF
746 746 746

Three Phase Values

For 208 volts x 1.732, use 360
For 230 volts x 1.732, use 398
For 240 volts x 1.732, use 416
For 440 volts x 1.732, use 762
For 460 volts x 1.732, use 797
For 480 Volts x 1.732, use 831

E = Voltage / I = Amps /W = Watts / PF = Power Factor / Eff = Efficiency / HP

= Horsepower

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 AC Efficiency and Power Factor Formulas
To Find Single Phase Three Phase
746 x HP 746 x HP
Efficiency
E x I x PF E x I x PF x 1.732
Input Watts Input Watts
Power Factor
VxA E x I x 1.732

Power - DC Circuits
Watts = E xI
Amps = W / E

Ohm's Law / Power Formulas

P = watts

I = amps

R = ohms

E = Volts

Voltage Drop Formulas

2xKxIxL K = ohms per mil foot
Single Phase VD = CM
(Copper = 12.9 at 75°)
(2 or 3 wire) 2K x L x I
CM= VD (Alum = 21.2 at 75°)
Note: K value changes with temperature. See Code chapter 9,
1.73 x K x I x L
VD= CM
Table 8

L = Length of conductor in feet

Three Phase
1.73 x K x L x I I = Current in conductor (amperes)
CM= VD
CM = Circular mil area of conductor

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 Motor Formulas
Calculating Motor Speed:

A squirrel cage induction motor is a constant speed device. It cannot operate for
any length of time at speeds below those shown on the nameplate without
danger of burning out.

To calculate the speed of a induction motor, apply this formula:

S rpm = 120 x F

S rpm = synchronous revolutions per minute.

120 = constant
F = supply frequency (in cycles/sec)
P = number of motor winding poles

Example: What is the synchronous of a motor having 4 poles connected to a 60

Hz power supply?

S rpm = 120 x F
P
S rpm = 120 x 60
4

S rpm = 7200
4
S rpm = 1800 rpm

Calculating Braking Torque:

Full-load motor torque is calculated to determine the required braking torque of a

motor.

To Determine braking torque of a motor, apply this formula:

T = 5252 x HP
rpm

T = full-load motor torque (in lb-ft)

5252 = constant (33,000 divided by 3.14 x 2 = 5252)
HP = motor horsepower
rpm = speed of motor shaft

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Example: What is the braking torque of a 60 HP, 240V motor rotating at 1725
rpm?

T = 5252 x HP
rpm
T = 5252 x 60
1725
T = 315,120
1725
T = 182.7 lb-ft

Calculating Work:

Work is applying a force over a distance. Force is any cause that changes the
position, motion, direction, or shape of an object. Work is done when a force
overcomes a resistance. Resistance is any force that tends to hinder the
movement of an object. If an applied force does not cause motion the no work is
produced.

To calculate the amount of work produced, apply this formula:

W=FxD

W = work (in lb-ft)

F = force (in lb)
D = distance (in ft)

Example: How much work is required to carry a 25 lb bag of groceries vertically

from street level to the 4th floor of a building 30' above street level?

W=FxD
W = 25 x 30
W = 750 -lb

Calculating Torque:

Torque is the force that produces rotation. It causes an object to rotate. Torque
consists of force acting on distance. Torque, like work, is measured is pound-feet
(lb-ft). However, torque, unlike work, may exist even though no movement
occurs.

To calculate torque, apply this formula:

T=FxD

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T = torque (in lb-ft)
F = force (in lb)
D = distance (in ft)

Example: What is the torque produced by a 60 lb force pushing on a 3' lever

arm?

T=FxD
T = 60 x 3
T = 180 lb ft

Calculating Full-load Torque:

Full-load torque is the torque to produce the rated power at full speed of the
motor. The amount of torque a motor produces at rated power and full speed can
be found by using a horsepower-to-torque conversion chart. When using the
conversion chart, place a straight edge along the two known quantities and read
the unknown quantity on the third line.

To calculate motor full-load torque, apply this formula:

T = HP x 5252
rpm

T = torque (in lb-ft)

HP = horsepower
5252 = constant
rpm = revolutions per minute

Example: What is the FLT (Full-load torque) of a 30HP motor operating at 1725
rpm?

T = HP x 5252
rpm
T = 30 x 5252
1725
T = 157,560
1725
T = 91.34 lb-ft

Calculating Horsepower:

Electrical power is rated in horsepower or watts. A horsepower is a unit of power

equal to 746 watts or 33, 0000 lb-ft per minute (550 lb-ft per second). A watt is a
unit of measure equal to the power produced by a current of 1 amp across the

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potential difference of 1 volt. It is 1/746 of 1 horsepower. The watt is the base unit
of electrical power. Motor power is rated in horsepower and watts.
Horsepower is used to measure the energy produced by an electric motor while
doing work.

To calculate the horsepower of a motor when current and efficiency, and

voltage are known, apply this formula:

HP = V x I x Eff
746

HP = horsepower
V = voltage
I = current (amps)
Eff. = efficiency

Example: What is the horsepower of a 230v motor pulling 4 amps and

having 82% efficiency?

HP = V x I x Eff
746
HP = 230 x 4 x .82
746
HP = 754.4
746
HP = 1 Hp

Eff = efficiency / HP = horsepower / V = volts / A = amps / PF = power factor

Horsepower Formulas
Example
To Find Use Formula
Given Find Solution
HP = 240V x 20A x 85%
HP = I X E X Eff.
HP 240V, 20A, 85% Eff. HP 746
746
HP=5.5
I = 10HP x 746
I = HP x 746 10HP, 240V,
I I 240V x 90% x 88%
E X Eff x PF 90% Eff., 88% PF
I = 39 A

To calculate the horsepower of a motor when the speed and torque are
known, apply this formula:

HP = rpm x T(torque)
5252(constant)

Example: What is the horsepower of a 1725 rpm motor with a FLT 3.1 lb-ft?

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 HP = rpm x T
5252
HP = 1725 x 3.1
5252
HP = 5347.5
5252
HP = 1 hp

Calculating Synchronous Speed:

AC motors are considered constant speed motors. This is because the

synchronous speed of an induction motor is based on the supply frequency and
the number of poles in the motor winding. Motor are designed for 60 Hz use have
synchronous speeds of 3600, 1800, 1200, 900, 720, 600, 514, and 450 rpm.

To calculate synchronous speed of an induction motor, apply

this formula:

Rpm sync = 120 x f

Np

Rpm sync = synchronous speed (in rpm)

f = supply frequency in (cycles/sec)
Np = number of motor poles

Example: What is the synchronous speed of a four pole motor operating at 50

Hz?

Rpm sync = 120 x f

Np
Rpm sync = 120 x 50
4
rpm sync = 6000
4
Rpm sync = 1500 rpm

Here are some transformer formulas that may be useful

To better understand the following formulas review the rule of transposition in

equations.
A multiplier may be removed from one side of an equation by making it a division

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on the other side or a division may be removed from one side of an equation by
making it a multiplier on the other side.

1. Voltage and Current: Primary (p) secondary (s)

Power(p) = power (s) or Ep x Ip = Es x Is

Es x Is Es x Is
A. Ep = B. Ip =
Ip Ep

Ep x Ip
Ep x Ip
C. Is = Es D. Es =
Is

2. Voltage and Turns in Coil:

Voltage (p) x Turns (s) = Voltage (s) x Turns (p)
or Ep x Ts = Es x Ip

Es x Ip Es x Tp
A. Ep = B. Ts =
Ts Ep

Ep x Ts Ep x Ts
C. Tp = D. Es =
Es Tp

3. Amperes and Turns in Coil:

Amperes (p) x Turns (p) = Amperes (s) x Turns (s)
or Ip x Tp = Is x Ts

Is x Ts Is x Ts
A. Ip = B. Tp =
Tp Ip

Ip x Tp Ip x Tp
C. Ts = D. Is =
Is Ts

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 Rules Of Thumb"
At 575 volts, a 3-phase motor draws 1 amp per horsepower.

At 460 volts, a 3-phase motor draws 1.27 amps per horsepower.

At 230 volts, a 3-phase motor draws 2.5 amps per horsepower.

At 230 volts, a single-phase motor draws 5 amps per horsepower.

At 115 volts, a single phase motor draws 10 amps per horsepower.

* These above are approximations.

746 watts = 1 HP

How to figure out what phase is a certain circuit number for 3

phases:

An easy way to figure what phase a circuit number is to divide it by 6. If it

divides evenly it is always "C" phase.

Let’s say you have circuit number 27. Divide it by 6. Six will go into 27
four times with a remainder of 3. Normally panels are labeled with the odds
on the left and the evens on the right (see Panel layout example below).
So 3 is the second one down from the top on the odd side, so therefore it
will be "B" phase. Let's try another one; Say your circuit number is 50.
Divide it by 6. Six will go into 50 eight times with a remainder of 2. So the
correct phase for circuit 50 will be "A" phase. This is taken in consideration
if the the 3 phase system is phased A, B, C left to right, top to bottom. This
is the normal phasing of a system.

Example of Panel Layout:

A - ckt 1 A - ckt 2
B - ckt 3 B - ckt 4
C - ckt 5 C - ckt 6
A - ckt 7 A - ckt 8
B - ckt 9 B - ckt 10
C - ckt 11 C - ckt 12

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Left Hand Generator Rule:

Can be used to determine the relationship of the motion of the conductor in

a magnetic field to the direction of the induced current. To use the left hand
rule, place the thumb, forefinger, and center finger at right angles to each
other. The forefinger points in the direction of the field flux, assuming that
magnetic lines of force are in a direction of north and south. The thumb
points in the direction of thrust, or movement of the conductor, and the
center finger shows the direction of the current induced into the armature.

Here is an easier way to remember this:

Thumb = Thrust

Forefinger = Flux

Center finger = Current

Right Hand Motor Rule:

Used to determine the rotation of the armature when the magnetic field polarity of
the pole pieces and the direction of current flow through the armature is known.
The thumb indicates the direction of thrust or movement of the armature. The
forefinger indicates the direction of the field flux assuming that flux lines are in a
direction of north to south, and the center finger indicates the direction of current
flow through the armature.

Here is a easier way to remember this:

Thumb = Thrust (direction of armature rotation)

Forefinger = Field (direction of magnetic field)

Center finger = Current (direction of armature current)

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 "Three Phase Transformer Info"

This section will discuss three phase transformers and how to

calculate transformer over current protection.

Introduction:

Three phase transformers are used throughout industry to change values of

three phase voltage and current. Since three phase power is the most common
way in which power is produced, transmitted, an used, an understanding of how
three phase transformer connections are made is essential. In this section it will
discuss different types of three phase transformers connections, and present
examples of how values of voltage and current for these connections are
computed.

Three Phase Transformer Construction:

A three phase transformer is constructed by winding three single phase

transformers on a single core. These transformers are put into an enclosure
which is then filled with dielectric oil. The dielectric oil performs several functions.
Since it is a dielectric, a nonconductor of electricity, it provides electrical
insulation between the windings and the case. It is also used to help provide
cooling and to prevent the formation of moisture, which can deteriorate the
winding insulation.

Three-Phase Transformer Connections:

There are only 4 possible transformer combinations:

1. Delta to Delta - use: industrial applications

2. Delta to Wye - use : most common; commercial and
industrial
3. Wye to Delta - use : high voltage transmissions
4. Wye to Wye - use: rare, don't use causes harmonics
and balancing problems.

Three-phase transformers are connected in delta or wye configurations. A wye-

delta transformer has its primary winding connected in a wye and its secondary
winding connected in a delta (see figure 1-1). A delta-wye transformer has its
primary winding connected in delta and its secondary winding connected in a
wye (see figure 1-2).

Figure 1-1: Wye-Delta

connection

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 Figure 1-2: Delta-Wye
connection

Delta Connections:

A delta system is a good short-distance distribution system. It is used for

neighborhood and small commercial loads close to the supplying substation.
Only one voltage is available between any two wires in a delta system. The delta
system can be illustrated by a simple triangle. A wire from each point of the
triangle would represent a three-phase, three-wire delta system. The voltage
would be the same between any two wires (see figure 1-3).

Figure 1-3:

Wye Connections:

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In a wye system the voltage between any two wires will always give the
same amount of voltage on a three phase system. However, the voltage
between any one of the phase conductors (X1, X2, and X3) and the neutral
(X0) will be less than the power conductors. For example, if the voltage
between the power conductors of any two phases of a three wire system is
208v, then the voltage from any phase conductor to ground will be 120v.
This is due to the square root of three phase power. In a wye system, the
voltage between any two power conductors will always be 1.732 (which is
the square root of 3) times the voltage between the neutral and any one of
the power phase conductors. The phase-to-ground voltage can be found
by dividing the phase-to-phase voltage by 1.732 (see figure 1-4).

Figure 1-4:

Connecting Single-Phase Transformers into a Three-Phase Bank:

If three phase transformation is need and a three phase transformer of the

proper size and turns ratio is not available, three single phase transformers
can be connected to form a three phase bank. When three single phase
transformers are used to make a three phase transformer bank, their
primary and secondary windings are connected in a wye or delta
connection. The three transformer windings in figure 1-5 are labeled H1
and the other end is labeled H2. One end of each secondary lead is
labeled X1 and the other end is labeled X2.

Figure 1-5:

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Figure 1-6 shows three single phase transformers labeled A, B, and C. The
primary leads of each transformer are labeled H1 and H2 and the secondary
leads are labeled X1 and X2. The schematic diagram of figure 1-5 will be used to
connect the three single phase transformers into a three phase wye-delta
connection as shown in figure 1-7.

Figure 1-6:

Figure 1-7:

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The primary winding will be tied into a wye connection first. The schematic
in figure 1-5 shows, that the H2 leads of the three primary windings are
connected together, and the H1 lead of each winding is open for
connection to the incoming power line. Notice in figure 1-7 that the H2
leads of the primary windings are connected together, and the H1 lead of
each winding has been connected to the incoming primary power line.

Figure 1-5 shows that the X1 lead of the transformer A is connected to the
X2 lead of transformer c. Notice that this same connection has been made
in figure 1-7. The X1 lead of transformer B is connected to X1, lead of
transformer A, and the X1 lead of transformer B is connected to X2 lead of
transformer A, and the X1 lead of transformer C is connected to X2 lead of
transformer B. The load is connected to the points of the delta connection.

Open Delta Connection:

The open delta transformer connection can be made with only two
transformers instead of three (figure 1-8). This connection is often used
when the amount of three phase power needed is not excessive, such as a
small business. It should be noted that the output power of an open delta
connection is only 87% of the rated power of the two transformers. For
example, assume two transformers, each having a capacity of 25 kVA, are
connected in an open delta connection. The total output power of this
connection is 43.5 kVA (50 kVA x 0.87 = 43.5 kVA).

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 Figure 1-8: Open Delta
Connection

Another figure given for this calculation is 58%. This percentage assumes
a closed delta bank containing 3 transformers. If three 25 kVA
transformers were connected to form a closed delta connection, the total
output would be 75 kVA (3 x 25 = 75 kVA). If one of these transformers
were removed and the transformer bank operated as an open delta
connection, the output power would be reduced to 58% of its original
capacity of 75 kVA. The output capacity of the open delta bank is 43.5 kVA
(75 kVA x .58% = 43.5 kVA).

The voltage and current values of an open delta connection are computed
in the same manner as a standard delta-delta connection when three
transformers are employed. The voltage and current rules for a delta
connection must be used when determining line and phase values of
voltage current.

Closing a Delta:

When closing a delta system, connections should be checked for proper

polarity before making the final connection and applying power. If the
phase winding of one transformer is reversed, an extremely high current
will flow when power is applied. Proper phasing can be checked with a
voltmeter at delta opening. If power is applied to the transformer bank
before the delta connection is closed, the voltmeter should indicate 0 volts.
If one phase winding has been reversed, however, the voltmeter will
indicate double the amount of voltage.

It should be noted that a voltmeter is a high impedance device. It is not

unusual for a voltmeter to indicate some amount of voltage before the delta
is closed, especially if the primary has been connected as a wye and the
secondary as a delta. When this is the case, the voltmeter will generally
indicate close to the normal output voltage if the connection is correct and
double the output voltage if the connection is incorrect.

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Over current Protection for the Primary:

Electrical Code Article 450-3(b) states that each transformer 600 volts,
nominal or less, shall be protected by an individual over current device on
the primary side, rated or set at not more than 125% of the rated primary
current of the transformer. Where the primary current of a transformer is 9
amps or more and 125% of this current does not correspond to a
standard rating of a fuse or nonadjustable circuit breaker, the next higher
standard rating shall be permitted. Where the primary current is less than
9 amps, an over current device rated or set at not more than 167% of the
primary current shall be permitted. Where the primary current is less than
2 amps, an over current device rated or set at not more than 300% shall
be permitted.

Example #1:

What size fuses is needed on the primary side to protect a 3 phase 480v to 208v
112.5 kVA transformer?

* Important when dealing with 3 phase applications always use 1.732 (square
root of 3).

To solve: P / I x E

112.5 kVA X 1000 = 112500 VA

112500 VA divided by 831 (480 x 1.732) = 135.4 amps

Since the transformer is more than 9 amps you have to use 125 %.

135.4 X 1.25 = 169 amps.

Answer: 175 amps fuse (the next higher standard, Electrical Code 240-6).

Example #2:

What size breaker is needed on the primary side to protect a 3 phase 208v to
480v 3kVA transformer?

To solve: P / I x E

3kVA X 1000 = 3000 VA

3000 VA divided by 360 (208 x 1.732) = 8.3 amps

Since the transformer is 9 amps or less you have to use 167%.

8.3 X 1.67 = 13.8 amps

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Answer: 15 amp breaker (preferably a 20 amp breaker)

Electrical Code Article 450-3(b)(2) states if a transformer 600 v, nominal, or less,

having a an over current device on the secondary side rated or set at not more
than 125% of the rated secondary current of the transformer shall not be required
to have an individual over current device on the primary side if the primary feeder
over current device is rated or set at a current value not more than 250% of the
rated primary current of the transformer.

Over current Protection for the Secondary:

Electrical Code Article 450-3(b)(2) states that a transformer 600 v, nominal, or

less, shall be protected by an individual over current device on the secondary
side, rated or set at not more than 125% of the rated secondary current of the
transformer. Where the secondary current of a transformer is 9 amps or more
and 125% of this current does not correspond to a standard rating of a fuse or
nonadjustable circuit breaker, the next higher standard rating shall be permitted.
Where the secondary current is less than 9 amps, an over current device rated
or set at not more than 167% of the secondary current shall be permitted.

Example:

What size breaker is needed on the secondary side to protect a 3 phase

480v/208v 112.5 kVA transformer?

To solve : P / I x E

112.5 kVA x 1000 = 112500 VA

112500 divided by 360 (208 x 1.732) = 312.5 amps

312.5 X 1.25 = 390.6 amps

Answer: 400 amp breaker

Dry Type Transformer Data Charts:"

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 Single Phase
KVA Amperes
Rating 120V 240V 480V
1 8.33 4.16 2.08
1.5 12.5 6.24 3.12
2 16.66 8.33 4.16
3 25 12.5 6.1
5 41 21 10.4
7.5 62 31 15.6
10 83 42 21
15 124 62 31
25 208 104 52
37.5 312 156 78
50 416 208 104
75 624 312 156
100 830 415 207
167 1390 695 348
200 1660 833 416

Three Phase
KVA Amperes
Rating 208V 240V 480V 600V
3 8.3 7.2 3.6 2.9
6 16.6 14.4 7.2 5.8
9 25.0 21.6 10.8 8.7
15 41.6 36 18 14.4
30 83.0 72 36 28.8
45 125 108 54 43
75 208 180 90 72
112.5 312 270 135 108
150 415 360 180 144
200 554 480 240 192
225 625 540 270 216
300 830 720 360 288
400 1110 960 480 384
500 1380 1200 600 487
750 2080 1800 900 720

20
 "3 phase A.C. Motor Windings and Connections:"

Basic Motor Control Schematics

"Three Wire Stop-Start Station:"

21
Two Three Wire Stop-Start Stations:"

22
23
"Hand off Automatic Control:"

24
"Jogging With Control Relay:"

FLA Motor Chart Options:

25
 DC Motors
Horse-
90v 120v 180v 240v 500v 550v
power
Amperes
1/4 4.0 3.1 2.0 1.6 -- --
1/3 5.2 4.1 2.6 2.0 -- --
1/2 6.8 5.4 3.4 2.7 -- --
3/4 9.6 7.6 4.8 3.8 -- --
1 12.2 9.5 6.1 4.7 -- --
1-1/2 -- 13.2 8.3 6.6 -- --
2 -- 17 10.8 8.5 -- --
3 -- 25 16 12.2 -- --
5 -- 40 27 20 -- --
7-1/2 -- 58 -- 29 13.6 12.2
Horse-
90v 120v 180v 240v 500v 550v
power
Amperes
10 -- 76 -- 38 18 16
15 -- -- -- 38 18 16
20 -- -- -- 55 27 24
25 -- -- -- 89 43 38
30 -- -- -- 106 51 46
40 -- -- -- 140 67 61
Horse-
90v 120v 180v 240v 500v 550v
power
Amperes
50 -- -- -- 173 83 75
60 -- -- -- 206 99 90
75 -- -- -- 255 123 111
100 -- -- -- 341 164 148
125 -- -- -- 425 205 185
150 -- -- -- 506 246 222
200 -- -- -- 675 330 294

26
 AC Single Phase Motors
Horse-
115v 200v 208v 230v
power
Amperes
1/6 4.4 2.5 2.4 2.2
1/4 5.8 3.3 3.2 2.9
1/3 7.2 4.1 4.0 3.6
1/2 9.8 5.6 5.4 4.9
3/4 13.8 7.9 7.6 6.9
1 16 9.2 8.8 8.0
1-1/2 20 11.5 11 10
2 24 13.8 13.2 12
3 34 19.6 18.7 17
5 56 32.2 30.8 28
7-1/2 80 46 44 40
10 100 57.5 55 50
Horse-
115v 200v 208v 230v
power

2 Phase (4 wire) AC Induction Type

Squirrel Cage and Wound Rotor
Horse-
115v 230v 460v 575v 2300v
power
Amperes
1/2 4.0 2.0 1.0 0.8 --
3/4 4.8 2.4 1.2 1.0 --
1 6.4 3.2 1.6 1.3 --
1-1/2 9.0 4.5 2.3 1.8 --
2 11.8 5.9 3.0 2.4 --
3 -- 8.3 4.2 3.3 --
5 -- 13.2 6.6 5.3 --
10 -- 24 12 10 --

27
 15 -- 36 18 14 --
20 -- 47 23 19 --
25 -- 59 29 24 --
30 -- 69 35 28 --
40 -- 90 45 36 --
Horse-
115v 230v 460v 575v 2300v
power
Amperes
50 -- 113 56 45 --
60 -- 133 67 53 14
75 -- 166 83 66 18
100 -- 218 109 87 23
125 -- 270 135 108 28
150 -- 312 156 125 32
200 -- 416 208 167 43

AC 3 Phase Induction Type Squirrel Cage and Wound

Rotor
Horse-
115V 200V 208V 230V 460V 575V 2300V
power

Amperes
1/2 4.4 2.5 2.4 2.2 1.1 0.9 --
3/4 6.4 3.7 3.5 3.2 1.6 1.3 --
1 8.4 4.8 4.6 4.2 2.1 1.7 --
1-1/2 12.0 6.9 6.6 6.0 3.0 2.4 --
2 13.6 7.8 7.5 6.8 3.4 2.7 --
3 -- 11.0 10.6 9.6 4.8 3.9 --
5 -- 17.5 16.7 15.2 7.6 6.1 --
7-1/2 -- 25.3 24.2 22 11 9 --
Horse-
115v 200v 208v 230v 460v 575v 2300v
power
10 -- 32.2 30.8 28 14 11 --

28
 15 -- 48.3 46.2 42 21 17 --
20 -- 62.1 59.4 54 27 22 --
25 -- 78.2 74.8 68 34 27 --
30 -- 92 88 80 40 32 --
40 -- 120 114 104 52 41 --
Horse-
115v 200v 208v 230v 460v 575v 2300v
power
50 -- 150 143 130 65 52 --
60 -- 177 169 154 77 62 16
75 -- 221 211 192 96 77 20
100 -- 285 273 248 124 99 26
125 -- 359 343 312 156 125 31
150 -- 414 396 360 180 144 37
200 -- 552 528 480 240 192 49
Horse-
115v 200v 208v 230v 460v 575v 2300v
power
Amperes
250 -- -- -- -- 302 242 60
300 -- -- -- -- 361 289 72
350 -- -- -- -- 414 336 83
400 -- -- -- -- 477 382 95
450 -- -- -- -- 515 412 103
500 -- -- -- -- 590 472 118

AC 3 Phase Synchronous Type

Unity Power Factor
Horse-
230v 460v 575v 2300v
power
Amperes
25 53 26 21 --
30 63 32 26 --
40 83 41 33 --
50 104 52 42 --

29
 60 123 61 49 12
75 155 78 62 15
100 202 101 81 20
125 253 126 101 25
150 302 151 121 30
200 400 201 161 40
Horse-
230v 460v 575v 2300v
power

30
31
32
 O.S.H.A.

The Occupational Safety and Health Act (OSHA) was legislated to assure,
so far as possible, every working man and woman in the Nation, safe and
healthful working conditions and to preserve our human resources. The
Act applies to business and industry with any number of employs.
The requirements of the Electrical Code, National provide the basis of the
safety provisions of the Act. Specific references to electrical installations
and electrical wiring systems are made in the Electrical Subpart "S".
The Act is "safety oriented", which closely parallels the quality design
characteristics and industrial acceptance of product lines we carry.
We believe that we have a responsibility to assist our customers to meet
the intent of the Act. When and if changes are necessary to ensure the
safety of your electrical systems, we will assist you with proper guidance
and product application information.

O.S.H.A. Most Common Violations

01. Uncovered junction Boxes
02. Wiring showing at splices
03. Improper solvent grounding and
bonding
04. Lighting swinging
05. Fire extinguisher not readily
available
06. Fire extinguisher, not tested, no
durable tag
07. Fire extinguisher, not mounted, not
mounted properly
08. No first aid facilities
09. No toilet facilities with in 200 ft.
10. No washing facilities for personal
cleanliness
11. Inadequate housekeeping
12. Misuse of compressed air for
cleaning
13. No GFCI on temporary receptacles
14. No properly trained first aid
personnel
15. Gas Cylinders not capped
16. Exits not identified, exit route not
identified
17. Acetylene oxygen storage improper
18. Workers not guarded by shield or
goggles
19. Inadequate ventilation
20. Inadequate Lighting
21. Occupational noise exposure
28. Failure to red tag
29. Aisles not designated
30. Aisles not cleared
31. Hand and portable power tools not
grounded.
32. Improper stacking of materials
33. Absence of handrails
34. Unclean toilet facilities.
35. Grinder work rest not adjusted
properly
36. Battery charging areas
37. Wheel chocks for trailers
38. Fans not guarded properly
39. Dockboards not in compliance
40. Absence of personal protective
equipment
41. Machine guarding, fully enclosed
42. Lack of illumination in stairway
43. Deposit on sprinkler head
44. Broken Ladder
45. Unsecured ladder
46. Lack of signs requiring safety
glasses
47. Lack of safety shoes, glasses, and
hard hats
48. Dip tank, no fusible lid
49 No smoking signs, not posted
50. Ladder, no cage or wells
51. Rail Road derails not in use
52. Safety cables and stop buttons, red

33
22. Failure to post job safety and health 53. Respirators not U.S. Bureau of
poster mines approved.
23. Misuse of electrical cords and 54. Faulty cylinder storage
cables
24. Walking and working surfaces
25. Guarding floor and wall openings
and holes
26. Scaffolding, no guard rails
27. Inadequate recordkeeping

Some of these violations are really far fetched, but is is very possible that
one your projects may be visited by an OSHA Inspector. If this happens do
not get excited or upset, do not volunteer any information, but do answer
truthfully any and all the questions asked of you by the inspector.

Your Employer's Rights and Requirements:

Make sure the area is clear of recognized hazards.

Post OSHA regulations in appropriate locations.
Employs may write down inspector's name, badge number, time and date of
inspection, and area inspected.
Names of persons questioned by the inspector.
Take notes about what is inspected, the current conditions, and who is
responsible for those conditions.

OSHA Inspector's Rights and Requirements:

Inspector has the right to enter and inspect any job site at will.
May inspect OSHA records.
Must present credentials.
Must tell the general scope of the inspection.
At the end of the inspection must advise you as to any and all violations.

34
 "Electrical Standards"
This is a list of a few standards in the trade.

PANELBOARDS
Single Phase - 3 Wire Systems
40A | 100A | 150A | 225A |
400A
70A | 125A | 200A | 300A | 600
A
Three Phase - 4 Wire Systems
60A | 150A | 225A | 400A
125A | 200A | 300A | 600A

SWITCHBOARDS
OR
SWITCHGEARS
Single Three
Phase Phase
200 A 400 A
400 A 600 A
600 A 800 A
800 A 1200 A
1200 A 1600 A
1600 A 2000 A
2000 A 2500 A
2500 A 3000 A
3000 A 4000 A
4000 A

CIRCUIT BREAKERS AND

FUSES
15 A 70 A 225 A 800 A
20 A 80 A 250 A 1000 A
25 A 90 A 300 A 1200 A
30 A 100 A 350 A 1600 A
35 A 110 A 400 A 2000 A

35
 40 A 125 A 2500 A
450 A
45 A 150 A 3000 A
500 A
50 A 175 A 4000 A
600 A
60 A 200 A 5000 A
700 A
6000 A
For fuses only, additional standard
sizes are 1, 3, 6, and 10.

GUTTERS AND WIREWAYS

2½" x 2½" 6" x 6" 10" x 10"
4" x 4" 8" x 8"
These sizes are available in 12", 24",
36", 48", and 60" lengths.

Disconnects
30A 200A 800A 1600A
60A 400A 1200A 1800A
100a 600A 1400A

PULL BOXES AND JUNCTION

BOXES
4" x 4" x 4" 10" x 8" x 4" 12" x 12" x
6" x 4" x 4" 10" x 8" x 6" 6"
6" x 6" x 4" 10" x 10" x 12" x 12" x
6" x 6" x 6" 4" 8"
8" x 6" x 4" 10" x 10" x 15" x 12" x
8" x 6" x 6" 6" 4"
8" x 6" x 8" 10" x 10" x 15" x 12" x
8" x 8" x 4" 8" 6"
8" x 8" x 6" 12" x 8" x 4" 18" x 12" x
8" x 8" x 8" 12" x 8" x 6" 4"
12" x 10" x 18" x 12" x
4" 6"
12" x 10" x 18" x 18" x
6" 4"
12" x 12" x 18" x 18" x
4" 6"

36
 24" x 18" x
6"
24" x 24" x
6"
24" x 24" x
8"

BUSWAY OR
BUSDUCT
Single Phase Three Phase
225 A 225 A
400 A 400 A
600 A 600 A
800 A 800 A
1000 A 1000 A
1200 A 1200 A
1350 A 1350 A
1600 A 1600 A
2000 A 2000 A
2500 A 2500 A
3000 A 3000 A
4000 A 4000 A
5000 A 5000 A

37
 Running Overload Units

Number & Location of

Kind of Motor Supply System Over-load Units, such as
trip coils or relay
1 - Phase AC or 2-wire, 1-phase ac or dc,
1 in either conductor
DC ungrounded
1 - Phase AC or 2-wire, 1-phase ac or dc,
1 in ungrounded conductor
DC grounded neutral
1 - Phase AC or 3-wire, 1-phase ac or dc, 1 in either ungrounded
DC grounded neutral conductor
1 - Phase AC any 3-phase 1 in ungrounded conductor
3-wire, 2-phase ac,
2 - Phase AC 2, one in each phase
ungrounded
3-wire, 2-phase ac,
2 - Phase AC 2 ungrounded conductors
one conductor grounded
4-wire,2-phase ac, 2, one per phase in
2 - Phase AC
grounded or ungrounded ungrounded conductors
5-wire, 2 phase ac,
2, one per phase in any
2 - Phase AC grounded
ungrounded phase wire
neutral or ungrounded
3 - Phase AC any 3-phase 3, one each phase *

* Exception: Where protected by other approved means.

38
 Motor Branch - Circuit Protective Devices
Maximum Rating or Setting

Percent of Full-load current

Nontime Dual Instantaneou Inverse

Delay Element s Time
Fuse** (Time Delay) Trip Breaker Breaker
Type of Motor Fuse**
Single Phase 300 175 800 250
AC polyphase other
than wound rotor
Squirrel Cage
Other than Design 300 175 800 250
E
Design E 300 175 1100 250
Synchronous 300 175 800 250
Wound Rotor 150 150 800 150
Direct-Current 150 150 250 150
(constant voltage)

39
 "Power Factor Improvement:"
When using power factor correction capacitors, the total KVAR on the load
side of the motor controller should not exceed the value required to raise
the no-load power factor to unity. Over corrective ness of this value may
cause high transient voltages, currents, and torques that can increase
safety hazards to personnel and possibly damage motor driven equipment.

Never connect power factor correction capacitors at motor terminals on

elevator motors, plugging or jogging applications, multi-speed motors or
open transition, wye-delta, auto-transformer starting and some part-
winding start motors.

If possible, capacitors should be located at position 2 (see diagram). This

does not change the current flowing through motor overload protectors.
Connection of capacitors at position 3 requires a change of overload
protectors. Capacitors should be located at position 1 for applications listed
in paragraph 2 above. Be sure bus power factor is not increased above
95% under all loading conditions to avoid over excitation.

Diagram

Original Desired Power Factor

Power Percent
Factor
Percent 100% 95% 90% 85% 80%

40
60% 1.333 1.004 0.849 0.713 0.583
62% 1.266 0.937 0.782 0.646 0.516
64% 1.201 0.872 0.717 0.581 0.451
66% 1.138 0.809 0.654 0.518 0.388
68% 1.078 0.749 0.594 0.458 0.328
70% 1.020 0.691 0.536 0.400 0.270
72% 0.964 0.635 0.480 0.344 0.214
74% 0.909 0.580 0.425 0.289 0.159
76% 0.855 0.526 0.371 0.235 0.105
78% 0.802 0.473 0.318 0.182 0.052
79% 0.776 0.447 0.292 0.156 0.026
80% 0.750 0.421 0.266 0.130
81% 0.724 0.395 0.240 0.104
82% 0.698 0.369 0.214 0.078
83% 0.672 0.343 0.188 0.052
84% 0.646 0.317 0.162 0.206
85% 0.620 0.291 0.136
86% 0.593 0.264 0.109
87% 0.567 0.238 0.083
89% 0.512 0.183 0.028
90% 0.484 0.155
91% 0.456 0.127
92% 0.426 0.097
93% 0.395 0.066
94% 0.363 0.034
Assume Total plant load is 100
95% 0.329 KW at 60% power factor.
Capacitor KVAR rating
96% 0.292 necessary to improve power
factor to 80% is found by
97% 0.251 multiplying KW (100) by the
multiplier in table (0.583) which
gives KVAR (58.3), nearest
99% 0.143 standard rating (60 KVAR)
should be used.

41
Electrical Formulas
I = amperes
E = volts
KW = Kilowatts
KVA = kilovolt/amperes
HP = horsepower
% Eff. = percent efficiency
PF = power factor

Direct
To Find Single Phase Three Phase
Current

AMPERES when KVA X 1000 KVA X 1000 Not

KVA is known E E X 1.73 Applicable

AMPERES when
HP X 746 HP X 746 HP X 746
horsepower is
E X % Eff.X PF E X 1.73 X % Eff. X PF E X % Eff.
known

AMPERES when
KW X 1000 KW X 1000 KW X 1000
kilowatts are
E X PF E X 1.73 X PF E
known

I X E X PF I X E X 1.73 X PF IXE
KILOWATTS
1000 1000 1000

KILOVOLT/ IXE I X E X 1.73 Not

AMPERES 1000 1000 Applicable

I X E X % Eff. X PF I X E X 1.73 X % Eff. X PF I X E X % Eff.

HORSEPOWER
746 746 746

WATTS E X I X PF E X I X 1.73 X PF EXI

Conduit Weight Comparison Table

(All weights are per 100 feet of conduit)

Rigid Rigid PVC PVC PVC Coated*

Size IMC EMT
Steel Aluminum Sch 40 Sch 80 Rigid Steel
1/2" 80 60 28 29 16 21 87

3/4" 108 82 37 45 22 29 115

1" 160 116 55 65 33 42 166

1 1/4" 208 150 72 96 46 61 217

1 1/2" 254 182 89 111 56 71 262

42
 2" 344 242 119 141 74 98 367

2 1/2" 550 401 188 215 117 149 557

3" 710 493 246 260 153 200 724

3 1/2" 855 573 296 365 185 246 917

4" 1000 683 350 390 219 292 1056

5" 1335 ---- 479 ---- 298 400 1535

6" 1845 ---- 630 ---- 385 510

Electrical Metric Conversions

Metric Conversations

1 meter = 39.37 inches

1 centimeter = 0.39 inch
1 millimeter = 0.039 inch

1 inch = 0.025 meter

1 inch = 2.564 centimeters
1 inch = 25.641 millimeters

Conduit Inside Diameters

Trade Size Inches Millimeters

1/2 0.622 15.8
3/4 0.824 20.9
1 1.049 26.6
1 1/4 1.380 35.0
1 1/2 1.610 40.9
2 2.067 52.5
2 1/2 2.469 62.7
3 3.068 77.9
3 1/2 3.548 90.1
4 4.026 102.3
5 5.047 128.2
6 6.065 154.1

43
Electrical Conductor Areas
United States

Size (AWG) Cir Mills (area) Sq MM (area)

18 1,620 0.82
16 2,580 1.30
14 4,110 2.08
12 6,530 3.30
10 10,380 5.25
8 16,510 8.36
6 26,240 13.29
4 41,740 21.14
3 52,620 26.65
2 66,360 33.61
1 83,690 42.39
1/0 105,600 53.49
2/0 133,100 67.42
3/0 167,800 85.00
4/0 211,600 107.19
250 250,000 126.64
300 300,000 151.97
350 350,000 177.3
400 400,000 202.63
500 500,000 253.29

Closest European Sizes

Size - Sq MM Area - Cir Mils

0.75 1,480
1.00 1,974
1.50 2,961
2.50 4,935
4.00 7,896
6.00 11,844
10.0 19,740
16.0 31,584
25.0 49,350
---- ----
35.0 69,090
50.0 98,700
---- ----
70.0 138,180
95.0 187,530
120.0 236,880
150.0 296,100
---- ----
185.0 365,190

44
 240.0 473,760
Electrical formulas for determining amperes,
horsepower, kilowatts and kilovolt-amperes
ALTERNATING CURRENT
DESIRED DIRECT
DATA Two-Phase* CURRENT
Single-Phase Three-Phase
Four-Wire
Amperes when kva x 1000 kva x 1000 kva x 1000 kva x 1000
kva is shown E 2xE 1.73 x E E
Amperes when kw x 1000 kw x 1000 kw x 1000 kw x 1000
kilowatts are E x pf 2 x E x pf 1.73 x E x pf E
shown
Amperes when hp x 746 hp x 746 hp x 746 hp x 746
horsepower is E x %Eff x pf 2 x E x %Eff x pf 1.73 x E x %Eff x pf E x %Eff
shown
Kilovolt- IxE IxEx2 I x E x 1.73 IxE
Amperes 1000 1000 1000 1000
Kilowatts I x E x pf I x E x 2 pf I x E x 1.73 x pf IxE
1000 1000 1000 1000
Horsepower I x E x %Eff x pf I x E x 2 x %Eff x pf I x E x 1.73 x %Eff x pf I x E x %Eff
746 746 746 746

RESISTOR COLOR CODES

45
The colors brown, red, green, blue, and violet are used as tolerance codes on 5-
band resistors only. All 5-band resistors use a colored tolerance band. The blank
(20%) "band" is only used with the "4-band" code (3 colored bands + a blank
"band").

Example #1

A resistor colored Yellow-Violet-Orange-Gold would be 47 kΩ with a tolerance of

+/- 5%.

Example #2

A resistor colored Green-Red-Gold-Silver would be 5.2 Ω with a tolerance of +/-

10%.

46
Example #3

A resistor colored White-Violet-Black would be 97 Ω with a tolerance of +/- 20%.

When you see only three color bands on a resistor, you know that it is actually a 4-
band code with a blank (20%) tolerance band.

Example #4

A resistor colored Orange-Orange-Black-Brown-Violet would be 3.3 kΩ with a

tolerance of +/- 0.1%.

Example #5

A resistor colored Brown-Green-Grey-Silver-Red would be 1.58 Ω with a

tolerance of +/- 2%.

Example #6

A resistor colored Blue-Brown-Green-Silver-Blue would be 6.15 Ω with a tolerance of +/-

0.25%.

47
 CONDUCTOR AND INSULATOR TABLES

Copper wire gage table

Solid copper wire table:

Size Diameter Cross-sectional area Weight

AWG inches cir. mils sq. inches lb/1000 ft
================================================================
4/0 -------- 0.4600 ------- 211,600 ------ 0.1662 ------ 640.5
3/0 -------- 0.4096 ------- 167,800 ------ 0.1318 ------ 507.9
2/0 -------- 0.3648 ------- 133,100 ------ 0.1045 ------ 402.8
1/0 -------- 0.3249 ------- 105,500 ----- 0.08289 ------ 319.5
1 ---------- 0.2893 ------- 83,690 ------ 0.06573 ------ 253.5
2 ---------- 0.2576 ------- 66,370 ------ 0.05213 ------ 200.9
3 ---------- 0.2294 ------- 52,630 ------ 0.04134 ------ 159.3
4 ---------- 0.2043 ------- 41,740 ------ 0.03278 ------ 126.4
5 ---------- 0.1819 ------- 33,100 ------ 0.02600 ------ 100.2
6 ---------- 0.1620 ------- 26,250 ------ 0.02062 ------ 79.46
7 ---------- 0.1443 ------- 20,820 ------ 0.01635 ------ 63.02
8 ---------- 0.1285 ------- 16,510 ------ 0.01297 ------ 49.97
9 ---------- 0.1144 ------- 13,090 ------ 0.01028 ------ 39.63
10 --------- 0.1019 ------- 10,380 ------ 0.008155 ----- 31.43
11 --------- 0.09074 ------- 8,234 ------ 0.006467 ----- 24.92
12 --------- 0.08081 ------- 6,530 ------ 0.005129 ----- 19.77
13 --------- 0.07196 ------- 5,178 ------ 0.004067 ----- 15.68
14 --------- 0.06408 ------- 4,107 ------ 0.003225 ----- 12.43
15 --------- 0.05707 ------- 3,257 ------ 0.002558 ----- 9.858
16 --------- 0.05082 ------- 2,583 ------ 0.002028 ----- 7.818
17 --------- 0.04526 ------- 2,048 ------ 0.001609 ----- 6.200
18 --------- 0.04030 ------- 1,624 ------ 0.001276 ----- 4.917
19 --------- 0.03589 ------- 1,288 ------ 0.001012 ----- 3.899
20 --------- 0.03196 ------- 1,022 ----- 0.0008023 ----- 3.092
21 --------- 0.02846 ------- 810.1 ----- 0.0006363 ----- 2.452
22 --------- 0.02535 ------- 642.5 ----- 0.0005046 ----- 1.945
23 --------- 0.02257 ------- 509.5 ----- 0.0004001 ----- 1.542
24 --------- 0.02010 ------- 404.0 ----- 0.0003173 ----- 1.233
25 --------- 0.01790 ------- 320.4 ----- 0.0002517 ----- 0.9699
26 --------- 0.01594 ------- 254.1 ----- 0.0001996 ----- 0.7692
27 --------- 0.01420 ------- 201.5 ----- 0.0001583 ----- 0.6100
28 --------- 0.01264 ------- 159.8 ----- 0.0001255 ----- 0.4837
29 --------- 0.01126 ------- 126.7 ----- 0.00009954 ---- 0.3836
30 --------- 0.01003 ------- 100.5 ----- 0.00007894 ---- 0.3042
31 -------- 0.008928 ------- 79.70 ----- 0.00006260 ---- 0.2413
32 -------- 0.007950 ------- 63.21 ----- 0.00004964 ---- 0.1913
33 -------- 0.007080 ------- 50.13 ----- 0.00003937 ---- 0.1517
34 -------- 0.006305 ------- 39.75 ----- 0.00003122 ---- 0.1203
35 -------- 0.005615 ------- 31.52 ----- 0.00002476 --- 0.09542
36 -------- 0.005000 ------- 25.00 ----- 0.00001963 --- 0.07567
37 -------- 0.004453 ------- 19.83 ----- 0.00001557 --- 0.06001
38 -------- 0.003965 ------- 15.72 ----- 0.00001235 --- 0.04759
39 -------- 0.003531 ------- 12.47 ---- 0.000009793 --- 0.03774
40 -------- 0.003145 ------- 9.888 ---- 0.000007766 --- 0.02993
41 -------- 0.002800 ------- 7.842 ---- 0.000006159 --- 0.02374
42 -------- 0.002494 ------- 6.219 ---- 0.000004884 --- 0.01882
43 -------- 0.002221 ------- 4.932 ---- 0.000003873 --- 0.01493
44 -------- 0.001978 ------- 3.911 ---- 0.000003072 --- 0.01184

48
Copper wire ampacity table

Ampacities of copper wire, in free air at 30o C:

========================================================
| INSULATION TYPE: |
| RUW, T THW, THWN FEP, FEPB |
| TW RUH THHN, XHHW |
========================================================
Size Current Rating Current Rating Current Rating
AWG @ 60 degrees C @ 75 degrees C @ 90 degrees C
========================================================
20 -------- *9 ----------------------------- *12.5
18 -------- *13 ------------------------------ 18
16 -------- *18 ------------------------------ 24
14 --------- 25 ------------- 30 ------------- 35
12 --------- 30 ------------- 35 ------------- 40
10 --------- 40 ------------- 50 ------------- 55
8 ---------- 60 ------------- 70 ------------- 80
6 ---------- 80 ------------- 95 ------------ 105
4 --------- 105 ------------ 125 ------------ 140
2 --------- 140 ------------ 170 ------------ 190
1 --------- 165 ------------ 195 ------------ 220
1/0 ------- 195 ------------ 230 ------------ 260
2/0 ------- 225 ------------ 265 ------------ 300
3/0 ------- 260 ------------ 310 ------------ 350
4/0 ------- 300 ------------ 360 ------------ 405

* = estimated values; normally, wire gages this small are not manufactured with these
insulation types.

Coefficients of specific resistance

Specific resistance at 20o C:

Material Element/Alloy (ohm-cmil/ft) (ohm-cm)

====================================================================
Nichrome ------- Alloy ---------------- 675 ------------- 112.2-6
Nichrome V ----- Alloy ---------------- 650 ------------- 108.1-6
Manganin ------- Alloy ---------------- 290 ------------- 48.21-6
Constantan ----- Alloy ---------------- 272.97 ---------- 45.38-6
Steel* --------- Alloy ---------------- 100 ------------- 16.62-6
Platinum ------ Element --------------- 63.16 ----------- 10.5-6
Iron ---------- Element --------------- 57.81 ----------- 9.61-6
Nickel -------- Element --------------- 41.69 ----------- 6.93-6
Zinc ---------- Element --------------- 35.49 ----------- 5.90-6
Molybdenum ---- Element --------------- 32.12 ----------- 5.34-6
Tungsten ------ Element --------------- 31.76 ----------- 5.28-6
Aluminum ------ Element --------------- 15.94 ----------- 2.650-6
Gold ---------- Element --------------- 13.32 ----------- 2.214-6
Copper -------- Element --------------- 10.09 ----------- 1.678-6

49
Silver -------- Element --------------- 9.546 ----------- 1.587-6

* = Steel alloy at 99.5 percent iron, 0.5 percent carbon.

Temperature coefficients of resistance

Temperature coefficient (α) per degree C:

Material Element/Alloy Temp. Coefficient

=====================================================
Nickel -------- Element --------------- 0.005866
Iron ---------- Element --------------- 0.005671
Molybdenum ---- Element --------------- 0.004579
Tungsten ------ Element --------------- 0.004403
Aluminum ------ Element --------------- 0.004308
Copper -------- Element --------------- 0.004041
Silver -------- Element --------------- 0.003819
Platinum ------ Element --------------- 0.003729
Gold ---------- Element --------------- 0.003715
Zinc ---------- Element --------------- 0.003847
Steel* --------- Alloy ---------------- 0.003
Nichrome ------- Alloy ---------------- 0.00017
Nichrome V ----- Alloy ---------------- 0.00013
Manganin ------- Alloy ------------ +/- 0.000015
Constantan ----- Alloy --------------- -0.000074

* = Steel alloy at 99.5 percent iron, 0.5 percent carbon

Critical temperatures for superconductors

Critical temperatures given in degrees Kelvin:

Material Element/Alloy Critical temperature

======================================================
Aluminum -------- Element --------------- 1.20
Cadmium --------- Element --------------- 0.56
Lead ------------ Element --------------- 7.2
Mercury --------- Element --------------- 4.16
Niobium --------- Element --------------- 8.70
Thorium --------- Element --------------- 1.37
Tin ------------- Element --------------- 3.72
Titanium -------- Element --------------- 0.39
Uranium --------- Element --------------- 1.0
Zinc ------------ Element --------------- 0.91
Niobium/Tin ------ Alloy ---------------- 18.1
Cupric sulphide - Compound -------------- 1.6

Note: all critical temperatures given at zero magnetic field strength.

50
Dielectric strengths for insulators

Dielectric strength in kilovolts per inch (kV/in):

Material* Dielectric strength

=========================================
Vacuum --------------------- 20
Air ------------------------ 20 to 75
Porcelain ------------------ 40 to 200
Paraffin Wax --------------- 200 to 300
Transformer Oil ------------ 400
Bakelite ------------------- 300 to 550
Rubber --------------------- 450 to 700
Shellac -------------------- 900
Paper ---------------------- 1250
Teflon --------------------- 1500
Glass ---------------------- 2000 to 3000
Mica ----------------------- 5000

* = Materials listed are specially prepared for electrical use

Data

Tables of specific resistance and temperature coefficient of resistance for elemental

materials (not alloys) were derived from figures found in the 78th edition of the CRC
Handbook of Chemistry and Physics. Superconductivity data from Collier's Encyclopedia
(volume 21, 1968, page 640).

51
Motor users and installers get concerned when HOW MUCH UNBALANCE CAN BE
they detect unbalanced phase currents on a 3- TOLERATED?
phase motor. The question is frequently asked:
“Is there something wrong with the motor?” The In general, this depends on the conditions that
other question is: “How much current are found. If the motor is driving the load and
unbalance can be tolerated?” This paper will the highest amperage of the three legs is below
attempt to answer those questions. the nameplate Full Load rating, then generally it
is safe to operate. If the high leg is above the
HISTORY nameplate rating, but within the normal service
factor amps (for a motor with a service factor,
In the “Good Old Days” about the only sources normally 1.15) then it is probably still safe to
of unbalanced phase currents was either a operate the motor. Also, it is not unusual to find
problem in the motor, such as an unbalanced currents more unbalanced at no load than they
number of turns in the windings, an uneven air will be under load, so the loaded amps should
gap or unbalanced phase voltages. Winding or be used. Finally, in general, if the high leg is not
air gap problems are definitely motor related. more than 10% above the average of the three
On the other hand unbalanced phase voltages legs, determined as shown in the example, it is
are a power system problem. Unbalanced probably safe to operate the motor.
voltages will generally produce unbalanced
currents that are many times greater than the EXAMPLE
percentage of voltage unbalance. The ratio
used is close to 8:1. In other words, a voltage Motor Nameplate FLA = 10.0
unbalance of 1% could create unbalanced Service Factor 1.15
phase currents of as much as 8%.
Phase Loaded Amps
A very unscientific way of looking at the
A 10.6
problem is as follows: Suppose a motor has a
nameplate full load current of 10 amps. At full B 9.8
load the amps on each leg of the 3 phases C 10.2
added together would be 10 + 10 + 10 or 30.
However, if the load is the same but the phase Determine the Average
currents are unbalanced, the total of the 3 legs
added together will always be more than the (10.6 + 9.8 + 10.2)/3 = 10.2 amps
total of the balanced currents. In this case the
currents might be 10.5, 11.3 and 12.1 for a total
of 33.9. This is a very unscientific way of Determine the % Difference
looking at it, but it is accurate in describing the
effect. What this means is that high current on (Highest Phase – Average)/Average x 100
one leg doesn’t mean that the other two legs
will be reduced by an equal amount. It can be (10.6 – 10.2)/10.2 x 100 = (.4/10.2) x 100 = .039
said that unbalanced currents always result in x 100 = 3.9%
higher operating temperature, shortened motor
life and efficiency reduction. The following table shows some of the sources
of unbalanced voltages and currents along with
The next question is “What creates unbalanced possible remedies.
currents?” In years past, if the motor was not
the problem — the source of unbalanced
TABLE 1
currents was unbalanced phase voltages.
When measuring line to line voltages from PROBLEM SOLUTION
phase A to B, B to C, and C to A, detectable Blown fuse on a
Search, find and replace
differences in the voltages would show up. The power factor
blown fuse.
voltage differences would account for the correction
unbalanced currents. capacitor bank
Uneven single Locate single phase loads
In today’s world there are other problems that phase loading of and distribute them more
are frequently not detectable with simple the 3 phase evenly on the 3 phase
voltage tests. One problem of growing concern, system circuit.
is voltage distortion caused by harmonics in the Utility unbalanced If the incoming voltages are

52
power system currents. This can happen if voltages substantially unbalanced,
there are loads in the general area that draw especially at lightly loaded
non-linear (harmonic rich) currents from the or no load periods, contact
power system, they can create voltage the utility company and ask
distortion in the normal voltage sine-wave that, them to correct the problem.
in turn, can cause unbalanced currents in Locate the sources of the
motors even when phase voltage differences Harmonic harmonics and use
are not detectable with a voltmeter. For distortion harmonic filters to control or
example, if you were to detect unbalanced reduce harmonics. Install
motor currents and took measurements with a line reactors on existing and
digital voltmeter on the three phases, they new variable frequency
might be very close to one another. The natural controls.
tendency under these conditions would be to
blame the motor for the problem. When this
happens it is necessary to go a step further to SUMMARY
identify or dismiss the motor as the source of
the problem. The test is to rotate all 3 phases. If Unbalanced currents on 3 phase motors are
the power phases are labeled A, B and C and undesirable but a small amount can generally
the motor leads connected to them are labeled be tolerated. Excessive unbalanced currents
1, 2, and 3, motor lead #1 might be can shorten motor life and increase energy
reconnected to power supply lead B; motor lead consumption.
#2 would be reconnected to power supply lead
C, motor lead #3 would be reconnected to
power supply lead A. Moving all three legs will
keep the motor rotating in the same direction.
The currents are recorded on each power line
leg before and after the connections are
changed. If the high current leg stays with the
power line phase (for example, B), then the
problem is a power supply problem rather than
a motor problem. If, however, it moves with the
motor leg, then it is a motor problem. This test
will pinpoint the problem to be either power
supply or motor.

53
 STAR DELTA START UP PRINCIPLES

Important that the pause between star contactor switch off and Delta
contactor switch is on correct. This is because Star contactor must be
reliably quenched before Delta contactor is activated. It is also important
that the switch over pause is not too long.

For 415v Star Connection voltage is effectively reduced to 58% or 240v.

The equivalent of 33% that is obtained with Direct Online (DOL) starting.

If Star connection has sufficient torque to run up to 75% or %80 of full load
speed, then the motor can be connected in Delta mode.

When connected to Delta configuration the phase voltage increases by a

ration of V3 or 173%. The phase currents increase by the same ratio. The
line current increases three times its value in star connection.

During transition period of switchover the motor must be free running with
little deceleration. While this is happening "Coasting" it may generate a
voltage of its own, and on connection to the supply this voltage can
randomly add to or subtract from the applied line voltage. This is known as
transient current. Only lasting a few milliseconds it causes voltage surges
and spikes. Known as a changeover transient.

54
 Electric Motor Wire Connections

Single Phase Connections: (Three Phase--see below)

Single Voltage:

Rotation L1 L2
CCW 1,8 4,5
CW 1,5 4,8

Dual Voltage: (Main Winding Only)

Voltage Rotation L1 L2 Join

High CCW 1 4,5 2&3&8
CW 1 4,8 2&3&5
Low CCW 1,3,8 2,4,5 -------
CW 1,3,5 2,4,8 -------

Dual Voltage: (Main & Auxiliary Winding)

Voltage Rotation L1 L2 Join

High CCW 1,8 4,5 2&3,6&7
CW 1,5 4,8 2&3,6&7
Low CCW 1,3,6,8 2,4,5,7 ---------
CW 1,3,5,7 2,4,6,8 ---------

Single Phase Terminal Markings Identified By Color: (NEMA Standards)

1-Blue 5-Black P1-No color assigned
2-White 6-No color assigned P2-Brown
3-Orange 7-No color assigned
4-Yellow 8-Red

Three Phase Connections:

Part Winding Start:

6 Leads NEMA Nomenclature:
WYE or Delta Connected

T1 T2 T3 T7 T8 T9

55
 Motor Leads 1 2 3 7 8 9

9 Leads NEMA Nomenclature

WYE Connected (low voltage only)

T1 T2 T3 T7 T8 T9
Together

Motor Leads 1 2 3 7 8 9
4&5&6

12 Leads NEMA & IEC Nomenclature

Single Voltage or Low Voltage of Dual-Voltage Motors

T1 T2 T3 T7 T8 T9
NEMA 1,6 2,4 3,5 7,12 8,10 9,11
IEC 1 2 3 7 8 9

Three Phase Motors-Single Speed

Nema Nomenclature--6 Leads:

Single Voltage--External WYE Connection

L1 L2 L3 Join
1 2 3 4&5&6

Single Voltage--External Delta Connection

L1 L2 L3
1,6 2,4 3,5

Single Voltage WYE-Delta Connections

Operating mode Connection L1 L2 L3 Join

Start WYE 1 2 3 4&5&6
Run Delta 1,6 2,4 3,5 -------

Dual Voltage WYE-Delta Connections

Voltage Connection L1 L2 L3 Join

High WYE 1 2 3 4&5&6
Low Delta 1,6 2,4 3,5 -------

56
 NEMA Nomenclature--9 Leads:
Dual Voltage WYE-Connected

Voltage L1 L2 L3 Join
4&7, 5&8,
High 1 2 3
6&9
Low 1,7 2,8 3,9 4&5&6

Dual Voltage Delta-Connected

Voltage L1 L2 L3 Join
4&7,
High 1 2 3
5&8,6&9
Low 1,6,7 2,4,8 3,5,9 ------------

NEMA Nomenclature--12 Leads:

Dual Voltage--External WYE Connection

Voltage L1 L2 L3 Join
4&7, 5&8, 6&9,
High 1 2 3
10&11&12
Low 1,7 2,8 3,9 4&5&6, 10&11&12

Dual Voltage
WYE-Connected Start
Delta-Connected Run

Voltage Conn. L1 L2 L3 Join

4&7, 5&8,
High WYE 1 2 3 6&9,
10&11&12
4&7, 5&8,
Delta 1,12 2,10 3,11
6&9
4&5&6,
Low WYE 1,7 2,8 3,9
10&11&12
-----------
Delta 1,6,7,12 2,4,8,10 3,5,9,11
-

IEC Nomenclature--6 & 12 Leads:

Single Voltage WYE-Delta Connections Single Voltage WYE-
Delta Connections

oper- Conn. L1 L2 L3 Join

57
 mode
Start WYE U1 V1 W1 U2&V2&W2
Run Delta U1,W2 V1,U2 W1,V2 --------------

Dual Voltage WYE-Delta Connections

Volt Conn. L1 L2 L3 Join

High WYE U 1 V1 W1 U2&V2&W2
Low Delta U1,W2 V1,U2 W1,V2 --------------

Dual Voltage WYE-Connected Start

Delta-Connected Run

Volt Conn. L1 L2 L3 Join

U2&U5,V2&V5,
High WYE U 1 V1 W1
W2&W5,U6&V6&W6
U2&U5,V2&V5,
Delta U1,W6 V1,U6 W1,V6
W2&W6
U2&V2&W2,
LOW WYE U1,U5 V1,V5 W1,W5
U6&V6&W6
U1,U5, V1,V5 W1,W5 --------------------------
Delta
W2,W6 U2,U6 V2,V6 ---

NEMA Nomenclature--6 Leads:

Constant Torque Connection (Low-speed HP is half of high-speed HP)

Typical
Speed L1 L2 L3
Connection

High 6 5 1&2&3Join 2 WYE

4

Low 1 3 4-5-6 Open 1 Delta

2

Variable Torque Connection (Low-speed HP is 1/4 of high-speed HP)

Typical
Speed L1 L2 L3
Connection

High 6 5 1&2&3Join 2 WYE

4

Low 1 3 4-5-6 Open 1 WYE

2

Constant Horsepower Connection (HP is the same at both speeds)

58
 Typical
Speed L1 L2 L3
Connection

High 6 5 1-2-3 Open 1 Delta

4

Low 1 3 4&5&6-Join 2 WYE

2

IEC Nomenclature--6 Leads:

Constant Torque Connection

Typical
Speed L1 L2 L3 Connection
1U&1V&1W--
High 2W 2U 2V 2 WYE
JOIN
Low 1U 1V 1W 2U-2V-2W OPEN 1 Delta

Variable Torque Connection

Typical
Speed L1 L2 L3 Connection
1U&1V&1W--
High 2W 2U 2V 2 WYE
JOIN
Low 1U 1V 1W 2U-2V-2W OPEN 1 WYE

59
Considerations for the Use of
AC Induction Motors on
Variable Frequency Controllers
in High Performance Applications

| Introduction | High Performance Drives | Definite Purpose Motors | Starting

Characteristics |
| Peak Currents | Motor Heating | Motor Cooling | Disadvantages of Oversizing
Motors |
| Effect of Fast Power Transistors | Motor Flux Level | Measurements in a PWM
Environment |
| Noise | Mechanical Flexibility | Conclusions | Reference |

Abstract

Until recently the majority of AC variable speed drives have been applied to
variable torque, pump and fan applications. Advances in drive technology have led
to the use of induction motors in high performance applications that exceed the
capability of motors designed for operation on sine wave power. These
applications, which have traditionally been served by DC systems, have created
the need for definite purpose AC induction motors designed specifically for
operation on adjustable frequency controllers. This paper will discuss many of the
considerations for a successful application and will highlight the limitations of
standard motor designs.

Introduction

The reasons for operating industrial motors over a range of speeds are as varied as
the industries served. The need for variable speed prime movers is widespread -
energy savings on fan drives, constant surface speed cutting on machine tool
spindles, wind and unwind operations of a bridle drive, etc. Improved performance
of these variable-speed drive systems has always been a key means for achieving
increased factory productivity. While various methods have historically been used
to achieve these speed ranges, advances in technology are making one of the
options more attractive than ever.

The low cost and ruggedness of the AC squirrel cage induction motor are benefits
which have increased the desire to use it as the electromechanical energy

60
conversion means. Today's control schemes are obtaining higher levels of
performance from these AC motors as well. However, a common limiting
characteristic of AC induction motors' performance (on adjustable frequency
controls) has not been a technological limitation. Rather, it has been a limitation
imposed by the nature of the standardization of industrial AC motors for general-
purpose, constant-frequency use. Throughout this highly refined standardization
process there has been little consideration for operation on variable frequency
power.

Until recently the majority of high performance industrial applications have been
satisfied using DC motors and controls. This technology has well defined
standards and has been dominated by a limited number of manufacturers where the
control supplier assumes responsibility for the performance of the control/motor
system.

The rapid development of adjustable frequency AC technology has encouraged a

large number of new control manufacturers to enter the market. As would be
expected, their primary experience is in electronics and not variable speed system
application. Also few of these control manufacturers produce motors. The majority
of AC motor manufacturers have limited variable speed experience as their
products have traditionally operated at a fixed frequency and speed. Due to the
large number of possible control and motor design combinations in the market
place, it is impractical to assume all combinations have been tested extensively. In
this environment the machine builder and user accept greater responsibility for the
total system's performance and greater knowledge of the components design
considerations and limits are needed.

High Performance Drives

When the "drive" (motor and control) performance requirements are minimal, a
standard industrial AC induction motor can often be successfully applied to
adjustable-frequency power, variable-speed applications. Indeed, some
applications can be converted from constant speed to variable speed while
utilizing an existing induction motor. However, when the performance level
required is more demanding, a definite-purpose motor design is appropriate. This
is usually the case when maximum process productivity is the goal.

While the definition of a high performance application is not precise, these

applications will typically have one or more of the following characteristics:

• Continuous constant torque required below 50% of base speed

• Continuous constant horsepower required above 150% of base speed
• High starting loads or overloads
• High dynamic performance

61
 • A process (driven machine) that cannot be started or run without a variable
speed control

The vast majority of adjustable frequency AC controls applied to date have been
on low performance applications such as pumps, fans and mixers. Only recently
have significant numbers been applied to applications such as extruders, winders
and coordinated web processes that meet the criteria above. As improvements in
control technology make these applications commonplace there is a need for
definite purpose motors designed specifically to optimize the performance of the
drive.

DEFINITE PURPOSE MOTORS FOR HIGH PERFORMANCE DRIVES

General Considerations

The first task is to design a basic motor configuration which is matched to the
general needs of adjustable frequency power and variable speed operation.
Second, the design must be adaptable to match the specific needs of many
different drive applications. Third, by relaxing inappropriate constraints associated
with fixed frequency, fixed voltage, fixed speed applications the design can be
tailored to meet the performance objectives by making typical design tradeoffs as
outlined in Table 1. Also, when the controller design is known, more subtle
techniques which include the controller can be used. An example is the use of a
lower than usual voltage at the low speed end of a region of constant horsepower,
so that the flux level (hence, peak load capability) at the highest speeds can be
maximized to produce sufficient torque without having to oversize the motor. Of
course, this must be weighed against the increased current required of the
controller at the low speed.

Table 1 - Changing Motor Parameters to Meet Performance Objectives

Objective Parameter Change

Wide Constant-HP Increase peak torque at base speed
Speed Range
Higher Peak Torque Oversize motor
Decrease stator and rotor inductances
Decrease stator resistance
Lower Primary Time Constant Increase stator resistance
Decrease inductances
Higher Stator Resistance Increase stator coil turns
Decrease stator wire/slot size
Lower Inductances Decrease stator coil turns
Increase flux densities
Change slot shapes

62
 Lower Flux Density Increase volume of core
Increase stator coil turns
Lower Magnetic Noise Level Decrease slot sizes
Decrease flux density
Alter shape/volume of material
Higher Efficiency Decrease stator resistance
Decrease rotor resistance
Reduce flux density

As can be seen from Table 1, there are many design compromises that can be
made within the motor to provide optimum performance for a given application.
The following paragraphs will discuss issues that are commonly raised in
discussions of variable frequency applications.

Starting Characteristics

Since adjustable frequency controllers typically accelerate a motor and load by

slewing the motor voltage and frequency in such a way as to remain in a region of
operation above "breakdown RPM" (as illustrated in Figure 1), the usual
constraints of fixed voltage, fixed frequency starting and acceleration do not
apply. Starting torque and current are no longer functions of the 1.0 per unit slip
characteristics of the motor but are limited by the overload capability of the
control. Thus, the controller can be matched to the motor in such a manner as to
produce the appropriate starting torque based on a torque/amp ratio equal to that
under full load conditions. By evaluating the drive as a motor and control
"package", the motor designer can take advantage of this to enhance the level of
starting torque as well as overload torque per amp as shown in Figure 2.

Figure 1
Fixed Voltage and Frequency
Speed Torque Curve

63
 Figure 2
Overload Torque Per Amp

Peak Currents

In addition to the RMS current level, an important rating point for a transistor
(typically used in adjustable frequency controllers) is the peak current capability.
The high frequency transient current which results from the electronic switching
of the control output voltage is inversely proportional to the leakage inductance of
the motor. As noted in Table 1 the leakage inductances can be increased by
altering the design of the windings and the magnetic cores in the motor. The use of
an electromagnetic design specifically for adjustable frequency power can
significantly reduce the peak current required for a given level of power output
(see Figure 3). This will not only improve the reliability of the drive, but often can
prevent costly over sizing of the AC controller and provide the most cost effective
solution.

Adjustable-Frequency Standard Motor Design

Definite-Purpose Design

Figure 3
Typical PWM Current Waveforms

Definite-purpose, adjustable frequency design reduces peak as well as RMS

current required from the controller for a given horsepower.

64
Motor Heating

One of the more obvious sources of increased stress on an induction motor

insulation system is higher operating temperature when run on variable frequency
controllers. The higher operating temperatures are the result of increased motor
losses and often reduced heat transfer as well. As a result, many standard efficient,
fixed frequency design motors will not achieve their nameplate rating when
operated on an adjustable frequency control at 60 Hz while remaining within
temperature limits. While these elevated temperatures may not lead to an
immediate insulation failure they will result in a significantly shorter life. In most
modern insulation systems, a 10 degree Celsius increase in operating temperature
will result in a 50% reduction in expected life. This is one of the reasons why
"High Efficient" designs, which have inherently greater thermal reserves, are often
recommended for operation on adjustable frequency controls.

When an induction motor is run with voltage and current waveforms as seen in
Figures 4a through 4d, the deviation from the ideal sinusoidal wave shapes create
additional losses without contributing to steady state torque production. The
higher frequency components in the voltage waveform do not increase the
fundamental air gap flux rotating at synchronous speed. They do, however, create
secondary "hysteresis loops" in the magnetic steel, which along with high
frequency eddy currents produce additional core losses and raise the effective
saturation level in the lamination material. As another consequence of these higher
frequency flux variations there are higher frequency currents induced in the rotor
bars which generate additional losses. Appropriate electromagnetic design,
including rotor bar shape can minimize these added losses.

The higher frequency components of the current waveform also do not contribute
to the steady state torque. They do, however, increase the total RMS current
resulting in added I R losses in the stator winding. In addition to higher frequency
current components there can also be low frequency "instabilities" in the currents
seen by the AC motors on variable frequency controllers. These asynchronous
components of current again cause added losses without contributing to the steady
state torque production. Motor designs which help minimize harmonic currents
lead to lower I R losses.

65
Typical Waveforms from Adjustable Frequency Controllers

Figure 4A
Voltage at 50% of Base Speed

Figure 4B
Current at 50% of Base Speed

Figure 4C
Voltage Near Base Speed

66
 Figure 4D
Current Near Base Speed

Motor Cooling

As has been well documented in the literature, when AC motors are run across a
wide speed range their heat transfer effectiveness will vary a great deal. Cooling
fans whose rotation is directly supplied by the motor are subject to high windage
losses and noise at high speeds. Modern AC controllers are capable of operating
across a very wide frequency range, often up to several hundred hertz. While this
provides great flexibility in the control, it places the motor cooling fan well above
its fixed frequency design operating point which often leads to inefficient air flow
and objectionable noise. In low speed operation the fan's effectiveness falls off
with the motor's speed. Figure 5 shows typical cooling curves for a family of
totally enclosed fan cooled motors. In variable torque applications this reduction in
cooling air often stays in balance with the reduction in motor losses as the load is
reduced with speed. However, in constant torque applications the motor's
temperature limits will likely be exceeded. An independently powered blower can
provide an essentially constant heat transfer rate. Although not a standard fixed
frequency motor feature, depending on the load/speed profile required by the
application, this can be a very effective choice and is often specified for high
performance applications.

In addition to fan speed, the operating temperature of the motor is determined by

how effectively the heat generated in the motor can be conducted to surfaces
which are in contact with the cooling medium (generally air) and the ability to
transfer this heat via convection to the cooling medium. In a conventional totally
enclosed fan cooled motor the heat must be transferred from the laminated steel
stator core to the cast iron frame and finally to the air. Since the fan is located
opposite the drive end of the motor, there is generally greater air flow and heat
transfer at one end of the motor than the other. Square laminated frame AC motors
have been offered by a variety of manufacturers as a method to improve heat
transfer. The laminated frame design eliminates the stator-to-frame interface and
provides a more direct and effective heat transfer path to the cooling air while
integral cooling ducts trap the air in contact with the frame along the motor's
length. This laminated frame construction has been common in variable speed DC
motors for over twenty years.

67
An offshoot of motor cooling is the need to protect the motor should the motor
cooling system fail. While thermostats and thermistors are not common in fixed
frequency AC motors they should be required for variable speed applications. A
standard AC motor operates at a fixed speed on a well-defined power supply
which allows the shaft driven fan to provide adequate cooling air in all normal
circumstances. By design a variable frequency control will allow the motor to
operate at very low speeds where little or no cooling is provided. This might occur
during maintenance, jog, or threading operation for example. On the other hand, if
a separately powered blower is provided the drive motor must be protected from a
potential blower failure. As is the case with DC motors, over temperature
protection is recommended.

Figure 5
Cooling Curves for TEFC Motors

Disadvantages of over sizing (Derating) Motors

In applying variable frequency controllers attempts are often made to use either "in
place" AC motors, or standard sine wave power designs. To do this, and operate
across a speed range the motor is often oversized relative to the rating required by
the application. This can sometimes be done successfully, but there are a number
of potential pitfalls. These can range from something as basic as a motor insulation
system which is fine on sine wave power, but inadequate for the voltage and
current wave shapes on the controller, to drive system instability due to a lack of
damping. The oversized motor will have correspondingly higher rotor inertia,
which could lengthen acceleration and deceleration times and reduce process
productivity. Also, since no load current tends to be a fairly constant percentage of
full load current within a motor product line, the higher no load current of a
derated motor could result in lower power factor and higher current at the load
point required by the application. This current may exceed the capability of the
variable frequency controller requiring a costly over sizing of the controller as
well. A derated motor will have a lower nominal slip at the application load than a
matched motor, which can cause problems either with load sharing in the case of
multi-motor drives or with IET trips whenever the load changes quickly. While it
often appears to be economic to oversize a standard motor to achieve a greater

68
speed range, this course of action should be approached cautiously while weighing
all factors of the desired performance of the drive.

The Effect of Fast Power Transistors

As power transistor technology has evolved, there has been a proliferation of variable
frequency controllers operating at an AC input voltage of 460 V, using these transistors
as the power-switching device. As the transistor manufacturers have continued to push
toward devices with lower losses and the capability of the higher switching rates, a result
has been very rapid transition times between the "off" and "on" states. This is the case for
both bipolar (BJT) as well as insulated gate (IGBT) transistors.

The combination of fast transitions (turn-on time) and the DC bus voltages of 460 VAC
(input) controllers results in the high "dV/dt" levels as seen in Figure 6. What is typically
referred to as dV/dt is the time derivative of the voltage, or the slope of the voltage versus
time curve.

Figure 6
Typical Transistors Transistion
Voltage

Increasing the dV/dt levels at the variable frequency controller output (and motor
input) can have effects which need to be considered in the design of motors for
such applications. The significance of these effects can be shown by the following
equation:

I = C x dV/dt

As can be seen from this equation, as dV/dt increases, the capacitively coupled
current increases linearly with it. While items such as lead wires and motors are
not usually thought of in terms of capacitance, three phases AC motor windings
have a capacitance to ground as well as between phases. The leads between the
controller and motor also exhibit similar effects. While these capacitance values
are normally considered negligible, given enough dV/dt, it does not take much "C"
to get quite a bit of "I".

A second way of viewing the high dV/dt levels is to use transmission line theory
to compute the voltage distribution due to the propagation of the steep wave front.

69
This involves careful modeling of the leads and motor windings as well as
transition points such as conduit box connections. Reflected as well as incident
wave fronts must be computed and combined. This type of analysis will not be
described in this paper. Analyses done by this methodology are susceptible to
errors due to many things including the choice of appropriate complex impedance
models for circuit components. Generally, the results of this type of analysis have
indicated that the first length of wire in a motor will see higher voltages than will
subsequent parts of the winding. This type of modeling is typically used for the
analysis of high voltage surges incident on the terminals of very large machinery.

Another result of the very fast transition time of today's transistors is that the
voltage at the inverter output and the motor terminals is not the same. The voltage
wave shapes in Figures 7 and 8 demonstrate typical differences. Using the
transmission line model mentioned above, the two major differences in these wave
shapes can be explained as follows. The impedance of the leads results in the
voltage wave front being distributed to some extent across those leads, softening
the wave front to a lower dV/dt level at the motor terminals. Secondly, the
termination of the transmission line (leads) at the motor results in a reflected wave,
producing the overshoot and dampened oscillation seen in Figure 8. This
waveform could also be modeled as the response of an L, R, C, circuit to an
impulse input.

Figure 7
Voltage Wave front at Inverter Output

Figure 8
Voltage Wave front at Motor Terminals

70
The end result of these wave shapes being applied to the motor terminals is
increased stress on the insulation system. Since these wave shapes do not exist in
sine wave applications it is clear that their effect has not been considered in
standard AC motor insulation systems. The motor insulation system must be
capable of withstanding the increased thermal stress as well as the capacitively
coupled currents and voltage stresses. Appropriate selection of individual
materials, properly integrated into a motor insulation system is needed to
withstand the demands of operation on variable frequency controllers.

Motor Flux Level

The fundamental frequency component of the voltage output of a variable

frequency controller can be as high as the AC input to the controller. However,
this is often not achieved. In order to maintain PWM modulation for example, the
output voltage may be limited to 90-95% of the incoming AC voltage. As long as
this situation is recognized, and appropriate design choices made, it does not
usually present a problem. When an existing motor design (expecting 460 V at 60
Hz, for example) is applied to a controller which delivers only 420V, there can be
problems.

While NEMA standards for fixed speed AC motors allow for a 10% voltage
variation from nominal, it is important to recognize that at 10% lower than
nominal flux, performance including the nominal HP rating will vary. For
example, it may require 10% more current than nominal to deliver rated HP.
While this additional current is almost always available from the incoming line it
may not be available from the variable frequency controller. Users that are
familiar with static DC drives and their characteristics in low line conditions may
be unpleasantly surprised to find that AC variable frequency controllers often do
not provide the same rating capability at low line conditions. Operation of an AC
motor at lower than nominal flux levels will result in increased slip and rotor
heating which is self compounding and may lead to a thermal runaway condition.
High efficiency AC motors designed for sine wave operation are often particularly
susceptible to poor performance when the controller output voltage is low, since
they usually employ low flux density designs at nominal terminal conditions.

Measurements in a PWM Environment

Another effect of the rapid-rise-time pulses which today's variable frequency

controllers can apply to motors is to challenge existing measurement tools and
techniques. The high dV/dt voltage pulses are themselves not trivial to measure.
Typically, an oscilloscope with a single shot bandwidth greater than 10 MHz, plus
a high voltage probe with high frequency capability (carefully impedance

71
matched) is required. Since voltage isolators typically cannot faithfully reproduce
these wave shapes, the scope must be "floated" unless the variable frequency
controller is operating on a floating power system. This then requires appropriate
care to avoid electrical shock to the operator.

Not only is measuring the voltage pulses difficult, all other measurements on the
equipment are exposed to this high dV/dt environment. This requires the use of
equipment which has high noise immunity and excellent rejection of common
mode voltages. Common devices such as thermocouple and tachometer readouts
often "misbehave" and provide unreliable readings if they are not capable of
faithful operation in these high dV/dt conditions. This effect makes activities such
as drive start-up and troubleshooting difficult as specialized equipment is required
to take even basic measurements.

Noise

Operation of standard industrial AC induction motors on adjustable frequency

power over a speed range often results in unacceptable sound power levels as well
as an annoying tonal quality. While the actual sound power level has proven to be
unpredictable due to the large number of possible motor and controller designs,
the increase in sound level is typically in the range of 7 to 10 db. There has been
some success in reducing these sound levels by pushing the variable frequency
controller's carrier frequency above the motor structure natural frequency spectral
band. However, there are also motor design considerations which will improve
sound levels.

As discussed earlier, one source of acoustic noise is the air noise caused by
running shaft driven fans above their design speed to achieve a wider speed range.
A separately powered, unidirectional, constant speed cooling fan will provide a
consistent level of air noise independent of motor speed and eliminates annoying
sound level changes as the motor accelerates and decelerates.

A second source is the magnetic noise from flux harmonics which are driving the
magnetic core steel into a saturated condition. A well planned design will use
lower than nominal flux levels with particular emphasis on avoiding localized
regions of higher flux density or "pinch points". Air gap length and rotor slot
bridge thickness, which reduce saturation in localized areas are two contributing
areas where additional reductions in sound power level can be achieved.

Electro-magnetic-mechanical noise from parasitic forces which are caused by flux

and current harmonic interactions produce mechanical vibrations within the motor
and contribute to an overall increase in sound power levels. This mechanism will
usually become a problem when amplified by mechanical resonances in the motor
or driven machine. To offset this source rotor and stator slots can be designed to

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reduce harmonic flux that contributes to parasitic torques. Also, the use of a
laminated frame construction eliminates a separate frame and stator structure
which simplifies the mechanical system and reduces the richness of possible noise
producing natural frequencies and modes of vibration. If a square frame
configuration is used it will tend to suppress odd ordered modes of vibration
which are present round bodied configurations. This is illustrated in Figure 9.

Third-order mode of vibration in a Square configuration tends to

round-bodied shell configuration suppress odd modes

Figure 9

In summary, there are many factors that combine and ultimately result in noise at
the motor. The motor and controller must be considered as a system to insure the
desired results.

Mechanical Flexibility

A motor designed for operation on a high performance variable frequency drive

must have considerable flexibility inherent in its construction to accomplish the
variety of tasks it will be called upon to perform. A comparison of the
standardized NEMA enclosures for fixed frequency AC motors to the wide variety
of DC motor constructions available demonstrates the difference in the
fundamental design approach. Since high performance variable frequency drives
will typically be used in "DC like" applications as opposed to converting fixed
frequency AC (pumps and fans, etc.) to variable speed, it can be assumed that
more DC like construction will be required in definite purpose AC motors.

One consideration is to achieve the maximum output from the smallest possible
motor. High performance adjustable frequency drives are often incorporated as
part of specialized machinery or processes where machine real estate is at a
premium. The standardization of NEMA fixed frequency dimensions creates
unnecessarily large motors and offers few alternatives. The practice of over sizing
the rating in order to achieve a speed range aggravates the problem. The
replacement of the inactive frame material of conventional AC induction motors

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with active materials (conductors and magnetic steel) in a laminated frame
construction allows a larger air gap diameter and increased power density (Figure
10). Often up to two frame diameters can be reduced by using this technique.

Optimized space utilization of square, laminated configuration

allows increased active materials and higher power density

Figure 10

Also, to take full advantage of the variable frequency controller the motor must be
capable of operating above its fixed frequency design speed at 60 Hz. The
standard motor design considers only acceleration up to and operation near its
synchronous speed. As a result few of these designs are expected to operate above
3600 RPM. The conventional AC motor rotor support to ground system (via
bolted joints to the frame, etc.) can give rise to a low stiffness-to-ground and to
second order modes of vibration (two level dynamic systems, as shown in Figure
11), which tend to reduce the value of the lowest critical speed. While all elements
of a high speed motor system (bearings, rotor balance and strength, etc.) must be
evaluated for suitability, the use of integral feet on the end brackets provides
increased stiffness to ground by eliminating one of the joints. This can result in
increased values of the lowest critical speed and permit operation at higher speeds.

Figure 11
Standard feet-on-frame design can result in a two
level dynamic system with lower operating speed
capability.

Finally, the motor design must be capable of accepting a variety of accessory

devices that are typically mounted on the motor. This includes not only a motor

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mounting flange but also combinations of brakes, speed feedback devices, and a
variety of cooling airflow methods and directions. The design must allow for these
devices to be accessed, removed and replaced in service with little difficulty.
Providing these features results in a design approach very similar to DC designs
and conflicts with much of the standardization in standard AC motors.

Motor Synchronous Speeds (RPM)

Number Of Poles
Frequency
2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18
60-cycles 3600 1800 1200 900 720 600 514 450 400
50-cycles 3000 1500 1000 750 600 500 428 375 334

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