Professional Documents
Culture Documents
2.2 Studies at The International Level: Part-1
2.2 Studies at The International Level: Part-1
2.2 Studies at The International Level: Part-1
into tea plantations. This culture of the plantation community operates negatively
was also argued that social capital development into tea plantations was important
not only for productivity improvement but also for reasons of political & social
obligation for the nation, because migrant plantation workers have been working &
Others (Biyanwila & Janaka, 2003) look at the case of an union into the tea
plantation & its potential towards developing an social movement unionism strategic
orientation. into particular, the dimension focuses onto the deepening of democratic
tendencies within the union which may be capable of reinforcing the movement
dimension of union.
The study conducted elsewhere (Moxham, 2003) focuses onto the effect of
British tea addiction onto British policies into Asia & Africa.
issues into the Sri Lankan tea industry, which contrary to conventional thinking
onto economies of scale, was dominated into production, yield, efficiency &
contribution to the national economy by newly emerged small holder sector. The
study found that socio cultural & political relations dominate production & as an
consequence, the theory of economies of scale has loose interpretation into the
labour productivity into tea plantations has improved after privatization due to
Uprooting & replanting of degraded old seedling tea plantation with clonal
As seen elsewhere (KHRC, 2008) the sexual harassment was prevalent into
large scale estates & the formal mechanism to report cases of sexual harassment
were either absent or underutilized. The housing condition of the worker was
deplorable. The workers living into such condition were not living into an dignified
life.
Most of the workers have heard about human rights but have scanty
knowledge onto what exactly human rights are. As such they do not know what to
do when the rights were violated (Malavi Centre for Advice, Research &
campaign into human & labour rights can address the gap & empower the workers
into tea estates to start demanding for their rights whenever there were violations.
prospects for production, consumption & trade of tea & its impact onto the world
tea market (Hicks, 2009). Tea was considered as having an share of the global
as market share become more sophisticated & competitive. The tea industry must
Another view (Blowfield & Dolan, 2010) explores the complex nature of an
beneficial outcome for the poor & marginalized & the gap that can exist between
ethical intention & the experience of their intended beneficiaries. Any commercial
initiative that seeks to achieve outcomes beneficial & recognizable to the poor will
need to address.
crops over time to determine the proportions accounted for by labourers into
countries that have ratified the plantations convention. The study contributes to an
global value chains that were located into the global south. It points to the need for
2011) shows that how the actual forms of labour organization among the tea
peasants into the Usambara mountains have their roots into the colonial past & post
– independence Tanzania.
performance based pay, & employees training were the main factors that had an
impact onto employee performance into Kenya tea development agency (Messah
estate limited, an organic garden into Bangladesh, observes that if the perceived
competitive markets at the grass roots for tea leaves, supply of natural gas &
resolving problems like power crisis could accelerate the production of tea. Kazi &
Kazi tea estate needs to initiate more social activities into the wider scale into the
Others (Kagira, Kimani, & Githii, 2012) address the challenges facing the
small holder tea sector into Kenya. Supplier & customer relationship, value
irrigation, venturing into new market through partnership & civil society
involvement as competitive supply chain strategies into the face of declining &
The study conducted elsewhere (Kipkorir, Feng, Li, Wang, & Kipsat,
2012) estimates how socio economic factors influence small holder farmers
decision to adopt the available tea farming technologies. The study concludes that
the management skills seem to be lacking among the tea farmers into Nandi hills &
calls for its inclusion into the training package. An organization to specifically
represent the interests of estate small holders would also be welcomed & useful.
Tea into Sri Lanka was one of the country’s biggest cash crops. But families
working onto tea estates were among the nation’s poorest into terms of earnings as
well as nutrition. One into every five children below the age of five years was
malnourished nationwide & one into six newborn has an low birth weight
(Tea estate worker families were Sri Lanka's poorest into earnings &
nutrition, 2012).
Part -2
public policy should be such that to create confidence among producers. The
central & state government should follow an integrated & coordinated policy
towards the tea industry. An attempt (Halayya, 1972) to point out the defect into
public policy, suggests that quality seeds must be made available into adequate
so that India can regain its place as the world’s largest exporter of tea.
The low price of land & labour into India played an pivot role into the
growth of Indian tea industry. An analysis (Chaudari, 1978) of the growth of tea
industry with special reference to price of land & labour into India points out that
the land for plantation crop was available at cheap price & so extensive cultivation
The urban cup of tea at present into India was an entirely different beverage
compared to the rural sauces of tea. Due to increased exposure & higher literacy
rates the knowledge & awareness of urban consumers into respect of beverage
The Indian tea industry into general & the South Indian tea industry into
particular were passing through an serious crisis due to cost escalation & declining
or stagnant prices. The attempt of the industrial producer to improve his output
levels to keep up with the cost increase has been aborted by the declining or stagnant
To retain our position as the large exporter of tea, it was most important to
maintain an consistently high quality, into view of new competition emerging into
the international tea scene (Turbo, 1986). It was important to maintain an certain
level of equilibrium into production, domestic consumption, export & prices to the
Majority of tea estates into Coimbatore started production 50 years back &
therefore it needs developmental activities to improve the health of the tea bushes.
Planting could not be undertaken by the planters due to restrictive land legislation
& state enactment into conversion of forests (Banerjee, 1990). an joint strategy was
The Indian tea industry has always been shy & was not taking available
development loans from various financial institutions due to the fact that it cannot
even service such loans (Kankani, 1990). Re-planting of the area, yielding less
than the average yield of the particular gardens as well as less than the district
average yield, must be ordered & to be uprooted & replanted with best available
clone material. The expense into this activity should be given 200% deduction into
The total planted area into an garden was not proportionate to the total area
of the garden & area available for new extension. It varies from 14.5 percent to 46
percent of the total area & 58 percent of the area actually under tea (Misra, 1990).
The availability of virgin land, its soil, climate, rainfall & irrigational facilities were
the factors that grow the possibility for further extension, apart from the financial
The plantations have to increase the area under cultivation & improve their
productivity if they want to maintain the current level of exports & to meet the
strategies of the Indian tea industry & highlighted the problems currently
experienced by the tea industry into India due to the collapse of Soviet Union.
The techno economic survey (TBI, 1994) reveals that the estates under
public sector undertaking may lay greater stress onto the essential field operations
& into order to make use available resources & optimum capacity utilization, work
study personnel may study the existing methods & to formulate ways & means for
growth has, no doubt, been felt & an ambitious target of one million tonnes by the
The main problem with the tea industry was the relationship between the
employers & the workers were feudal into nature & under these conditions the
employer by & large refuse to recognize the worker as an asset (Bhowmik S. K.,
1996). This was perhaps why these people were denied their basic needs.
According to an study (Damodaran, 1996) though an large volume of data
of costs of production, yields & productivity were available into regard to plantation
methodology which enumerates the cost & benefits, both into their static & dynamic
The general picture of the position of the tea garden labourers into the state
of Assam (Xaxa, 1996) shows that the living conditions of the labourers were
inadequate & the trade unions were there but the extent of awareness about their
right was very poor. They do not know that the welfare measures were an part of
Despite forming half the labour force into plantation, women workers have
Sarkar, 1998).
Though India was still the largest producer of tea into the world, increasing
domestic intake entails that production must increase if exports were to remain
Another view (Chatterjee, 2001) points out how the female tea pluckers
seen into advertisements picturesque women into mist shrouded fields - came to
symbolize the heart of colonialism into India. The study exposes how this image
has distracted from terrible working condition, low wages & coercive labour
revolve around prices & costs. It has performed badly yet again & was facing its
worst crisis ever into consumption, export & quality terms. If the price uptrend
plucking & pruning will aid into improving the quality (Muraleedaran &Hudsen,
2001). The incidence of pests & diseases affects various quality parameters.
Adequate & timely control measures must be taken not only to prevent crop loss
The studies onto the blister blight diseases of tea into south India
(Premkumar, 2001) reveals that the drastic fluctuation into the weather pattern
during monsoon results into an increase or decrease into the disease incidence.
When the weather was conducive the disease incidence increases which results into
The challenge before the tea industry was to increase price, improve quality
& ensure that tea was available at an price remunerative to the producers &
affordable to the domestic consumers & have sufficient surplus to meet the export
The decline into production could be due to weather factors which were less
favorable than the normal conditions into certain districts & reduction into inputs
into some garden. Obviously the approach should be to maintain if not increase the
productivity levels, contain the cost of production & make concerted efforts for
2002).
Concentration of quality was an must & it was to be intensified by the
quality up gradation scheme with innovative strategies. Apart from assisting the
undertaken. Problem of exports especially with regard to delays & procedures for
The south Indian tea industry has been highlighting the worst plight
plaguing the tea industry into various reports to the government. Tea price into the
auction centers at Kochi, Coonoor, & Coimbatore all collapsed into 1999
(Srinivasan, 2002).
To really enhance the image of Indian tea & be an value exporter, India has
to upgrade content, keen to play into the high value markets into Germany, the U.S,
Japan & others (Bose, 2003). The reorientation of the primary market was an must
so that trade margins can be reduced & producers get an premium sufficient to
maintain quality. Drastic reduction into wage costs was imperative not only to
attributes of pesticides based onto tea was not only essential but was also an
imperative. The agricultural practice can reduce the hazards of pesticides use onto
tea but diverse data especially onto eco-toxicological aspect have to be generated
The phenomenon of falling prices was far worse into India than into
auctions (Devaraj, 2003). When the prices of Indian tea fell by 18.73 percent into
2000, the prices of Indonesian tea actually rose by 13.55 percent, Kenya tea prices
into an more systematic manner for which substantial investment needs to be made.
Some generic promotion campaigns were to be adopted into the selected markets
based onto the market research surveys so that India can meet up the requirements
of product & packaging standard into the international markets (Chandani, 2004).
contribute significantly to the overall tea production into the country. Another study
(Ghosh & Roy, 2004) suggested an package for decision support system with the
help of which the management can take proper decisions at the right time.
Around 800 tea garden workers have died of starvation, with several
surviving onto wild roots & rats into the Indian state of west Bengal where closure
The cut into prices was largely attributed to the inferior quality tea being produced
India plays an significant role into world tea trade being the world’s largest
producer, consumer & exporter. Hence fluctuation into India’s tea production,
consumption & exports were enough to disturb the international tea trade (Paul,
2004). To improve the Indian economic position, the government should take
appropriate steps to increase the export of tea & develop the industry as well.
Tea taste needs to be promoted amidst the non-users too to increase the
demand & to solve the problem of excess production (Rao & Selvarasu, 2004).
The central government needs to fix an appropriate minimum floor price &
minimum support price to protect the interest of the producers & planters.
The production of tea into North Indian garden was affected by floods &
the production into South India suffered due to severe drought (Singh, 2004). He
concluded that the total production of Indian tea by the end of the year will be down
by 10 million Kilograms.
Another study (Kokila, 2005) enquired into the marketing strategies of the
tea factories into Nilgiris district. Efforts should be taken by all factories to adopt
strong marketing strategy to improve sales. Competition was identified as the major
problem of most of the tea factories & hence they should strive hard into the
In the long term the labour intensive characteristic has to be changed into
capital intensive nature. For this capital assets of very high production potential
provided with far better & modern tools, implements & machines & by this process
the worker will become skilled or semi-skilled operative (Menon, 2005). into this
process his output or productivity will automatically increase by leaps & bounds &
The ongoing negative socio economic impact of the tea industry, increasing
population & other factors have meant that the tea plantations were unable to
(Tirkey, 2005) describes the impact of tea plantations onto the geoecological &
Nilgiris was the home to 65000 small growers & all belonging to Badaga
Community which was the single largest indigenous group into the district. The
Nilgiris district tea growers pleaded for promotion of their tea into the domestic
At the end of colonial rule the Assam valley tea plantation employed nearly
half an million labourers out of an labour population of more than three quarters of
an million & more than 3,00,000 lac acres were under tea cultivation out of an total
(Behal, 2006).
Another study (Ghosal, 2006) reveals that foreign buyers who used to
source both Kenyan as well as Indian teas place more shipment orders with Indian
tea producers into anticipation that drought affected Kenya might not able to supply
Indian productivity into tea into kilogram per hectare has increased from
around 1070 kilograms into 1961 to 1584 kilograms into financial year 2005.
However, yields per hectare declined into recent years because of the increased age
of Indian tea bushes. Tea yields were highly sensitive to temperature, drought, &
heavy rainfall. An increase into the frequency of droughts & extreme rainfall events
can result into an decline into tea yield, which were greatest into low country
There was scarcity of reliable information onto health & nutritional status
among tea garden population of Assam to enable initiating public health response
to their health needs (Medhi G., 2006). The health status of the population can be
The earnings of the workers & the employees involved into the industry
have to improve along with time. But it has to be into tune with the growth of the
industry & the long time sustenance. Wages should be linked to productivity,
efficiency & the capacity of the industry to bear it into the long run, especially
because into the existing system, an decision taken onto wage cannot be reversed
(Nambi, 2006).
plantation get exemption from the application of the contract labour (rules &
conversion) Act into respect of those activities which were of seasonal &
Around 15 tea factories into the private small scale sector called bought leaf
factories have closed their operations into the Nilgiris (Sundar, 2006). They were
closed because they were unable to run any more with the coarse green leaf which
Being an perennial crop, the future of the industry was cyclical into nature
with periodic boom & depression. Another study (Boriah, 2007) opines that with
the world supply position steadily increasing, the main thrust or approach will be
make estates reopen. If this was done, the estates might re-open & again divert
funds & equipments for their own purposes (Bose J., 2007). The tea board & other
government agencies supposed to support & promote the tea plantations must take
appropriate measures to shift the teas into organic tea. Such tea commands higher
The existing Labour Act has to incorporate an social security net that will
include multi-skill training, job counseling & retraining social security payments.
These additions to the Labour Act will stimulate an multi-skill environment into
the resident garden society & prevent the occurrence of famine when the
methods for assured water supply can increase crop productivity by reducing pest
attack, improving bush health & producing quality leaf fetches an good price into
were suggested. However the present old seeding population has its own
limitations. Therefore it may not respond fully to all these measures (Ilango &
Mohankumar, 2007).
Improved cultivation practices, optimization of inputs & irrigation were
some of the short term measures that will assist into increasing the vertical growth
of south Indian tea into an sustainable manner. Integration of these measures with
long term policy comprising of infilling & replanting with high yielding quality
clones was essential to meet the demand for good quality tea & to retain India’s
share into the export. Moreover it will help the growers to generate more income
from per unit area besides creating more employment opportunities for dependent
Plantation owners will have no other alternative but to cut wages, reduce
spending onto estates, & finally, strip the estates of all assets & transfer the money
workers the wages & benefits prescribed by law (John & Mani, 2007). Many
estates have resorted to selling standing trees as timber, taking huge loans, diverting
money to other business & even illegally transferring part of their properties to other
activities. The large number of abandoned plantations stands testimony to this
situation.
Labourers working into the closed tea estates of Gudalur were living onto
the edge of extreme poverty. They have an uncertain future. Their plight was same
even into other big estates (Kumar, 2007). Even into working estates, workers were
suffering badly & have not been paid wages for months.
Another study (Mathew, 2007) enquired into the impact of closure onto the
workers families & women into particular. The present abandoned plantation
situation has adversely affected the families with greatest burden resting onto the
Tea drinkers stand to have their immune system primed to fight infection &
chronic diseases because its antioxidants content help the body destroy free radicals
(Oguntola, 2007). Water was essentially replaces fluid but tea replaces fluid &
certain antioxidants, those who were taking six small cup of tea daily for two weeks
South Indian tea had an secure market until the disintegration of the Soviet
Union into the early 1990s. into order to bring back the glory, the industry needs
technology wherever possible & large scale promotion campaigns overseas as well
It was up to the state to decide the size of land for tea cultivation, resumed
land & utilization of the resumed & khet land. The state government should take
an final decision onto the state of closed & abandoned tea estates, especially for
those gardens that were closed for an continuous period of more than five years
(Rasaily, 2007).
The labourers & other cash benefits like bonus were to be linked with the
labour productivity for reducing the production cost. The cost of production has to
(Shanmughan, 2007). The plantation should go for mechanization into planting &
The area, production & productivity of Indian tea recorded an consistent rate
of growth between the years 1950 & 2000 after which there was an slowdown. Tea
production was 5% more than the consumption. As an direct result of this supply
demand imbalance, the global tea prices were depressed by 25% which was
reflected into Indian tea revenue (Jain, 2008). an four pronged approach to
address this.
Another view (Kumar P., 2008) suggests that concrete efforts have to be
made by different stakeholders to increase the productivity of tea plantations & new
cannot be said to be high particularly looked at with the urban looking glasses &
without the knowledge of the additional social security benefits, annual bonus &
2008).
agricultural labourers observed that the conditions of female labourers were better
into irrigated area & their conditions into non-irrigated area were miserable
(Vithob, 2008). There was an need for comprehensive policy & minimum wage to
promote welfare of the rural female labour class into the study region.
Due to lack of consciousness of the management & vision of the new group
years after years (Chatterjee & Banerjee, 2009). If at all we want to survive one
of the most important pillars of the North-East economy, we have to take bold,
giving mere excuses about crisis into the world tea market.
In India, tea estates into both the north & the south improved their qualities.
This was evident into the higher realizations that have come during the year (Dutta,
2009).
local groups as well as the tea industry’s importance into the local migration
towards the white planter’s raj, tea enterprise retained an hallowed place for the
measurement model suited to the tea industry. It reveals that the model was
effectiveness. The proposed model identifies the areas of poor resource utilization
responsible for measured total productivity decline into the tea industry.
The incidence of injuries was greater among male workers, those working
both into the field & factory & those handling multiple tasks. The most common
morbidities suffered were small cuts & abrasion into about 53 percent of the
workers (Joseph & Minj, 2010). Continuous monitoring of the risk assessment by
the workers could help into an planned reduction of commonly occurring injuries
Important tradeoffs between the business level strategy adopted & the
performance objective may help the firms into this industry more ahead into an
more focused manner. High level of efficiency & an lower level of asset parsimony
Another view (Hazarika, 2012) highlights how tea tribes or tea workers
were far away from the fruits of urbanization & living into vulnerable conditions
reveals that tea garden labourers were still into very deprive condition & were far
established between management & workers into tea plantation into India. The
study argues that the invisibility of fair trade among workers inversely hides the
patronage of the management & the workers were empowered when an premium
party organization.
Although small tea growers have developed into the Udalguri district of
Assam, yet efforts were to be made to change the socio economic condition of the
district (Nath & Sen, 2012). The roles that can be played by the small tea growers
to minimize the socio economic problem have been highlighted into the
article.
Others (Sumitha, 2012) review the studies onto labour market issues into
the Indian plantation sector like the challenges faced by plantation labourers by
focusing onto the role of labour market institutions into plantations, nature of
industrial relations prevailing into the sector & most importantly, the impact of
educationally lagging behind, health facilities were not adequate & safety measures
were lacking. This has resulted into an number of work related accidents & the
market economy was to improve its own business performance. For all business
enterprises, business ethics was the first step towards this. Performance can be
improved by not only doing justice to the stakeholders but also engaging them to
the maximum extend. But there were still blocks into the minds of an few
Women comprise an large segment of the working class into the tea sector
& were visible only when organized but were not organized or encouraged to take
up union leadership. into the absence of such an approach, they were compelled to
create their social support system or mechanism to cater to their needs, which
continue to remain unaddressed within the trade union movement lead to having no
voice into trade union (Rasaily, 2013). into the context of changing production &
labour market relation, the role of trade union has been weakened. Making women
central to trade union organizing may help to reinvigorate the trade union
movement.
The tea community was highly deprived into all respects of socio economic &
political aspects (Sharma G., 2013) & therefore it was an high time for the government
as well as the owners & management to come forward & uplift this particular society.
The small tea growers were losing their identity & individual culture
because of continuous fall into green tea leave price into Nilgiris. It was not an
encouraging sign. With the help of government schemes, efforts need to be made
Part- 3
2.4 Studies into Kerala
Most of the tea bushes into Kottayam & Idukki district were less than 30
practices & adoption of necessary inputs can improve the condition of the bushes.
The procedure for registration into respect of small garden may be simplified.
To sustain the economic health of the tea industry, various agencies like
financial institutions, state government, central government & tea industries should
work onto an cohesive manner. The tea management should ensure internal
generation of more funds for plough back out of profits earned & scientific
Another study (Nair, 1990) examines the problems & prospects of the tea
industry into Kerala by ascertaining the problems into the cultivation of plantation
substituting & therefore assume special significance from the national point of
view. The four major crops, rubber, coffee, tea & cardamom together occupy 6.35
hectare accounting for 28% of the net cropped area into the state. All acts & rules
regulating & enforcing the rights & welfare of workers into the tea plantations,
matters relating to excise duty, marketing & export of tea were also administered
by the Government of India (Divakaran, 2002). Hence the state has many
constraints into solving the various problems that has led to the present
crisis.
Another view (George, 2002) aims to understand the development of tea
enquire into the theory & practice of human resource management into the present
industrial world.
The tea plantation industry into Kerala has been encouraged for its
earnings. Tea plantation into Kerala seems to have failed to plough back the short
term profits for capital investments (Merlin, 2002). The contribution of tea to the
economic growth into Kerala was remarkable into terms of its backward & forward
linkages. At the macro level the plantation industry has been facing adverse impacts
of globalization & trade liberalization. The price has declined sharply & the
except some training into rubber plantations by rubber board (Namboothiri K.,
2003). into order to increase production & efficiency of employees, some training
facilities were to be arranged for the employees & supervising staff by the
Another study (Raman, 2003) analyses the tea commodity chain into
Kerala by highlighting the predicament of the labour force working into the sector.
They were trying to bring into light the struggles & resistance of the labouring poor
against the ruthless & brutish attack of the forces of global capital into an
into areas with least possibility of other crops. If tea cultivation had not been
introduced into Kerala such land would have remained barren & supports provide
by various boards to the farmers with respect to the processing & marketing was
not up to the mark & there were imperfections into agriculture marketing into
Kerala (Kurian, 2004). Kerala should take lead onto major challenge of
globalization & we shouldn’t miss the opportunities that the global system was
offering. We have to blend our strengths into the agriculture, manufacturing &
of many vagaries. Kerala has got tremendous potential to promote its agricultural
production into the world scenario into the present context of globalization &
liberalization. We have to equip our farming community into all ways to reach that
prioritized agricultural sector & formulated various project that were underway to
solve the problem & to protect the interests of the farming community.
The prices of tea fluctuate based onto sentiments of the market players &
onto economic forces like supply & demand. Major consumers of Tea used to wait
to make their purchase till the prices come down to their favor. The scrapping of
dispensing of Tea Board’s inspection of imported tea, abolition of purchase tax onto
imports & the like attract the importers to import more tea into recent years (Anil,
2013).