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Chapter - I 1.1 General
Chapter - I 1.1 General
INTRODUCTION
1.1 GENERAL
DC to DC DC to AC
DC-to-DC converter Inverter
Voltage regulator AC to AC
Linear regulator Transformer/autotransformer
AC to DC Voltage converter
Rectifier Voltage regulator
Mains power supply unit Cycloconverter
(PSU) Variable-frequency transformer
Switched-mode power supply
LITERATURE SURVEY
PROPOSED SYSTEM
3.1 INTRODUCTION
Operating principle:
The key principle that drives the boost converter is the tendency of an
inductor to resist changes in current by creating and destroying a magnetic
field. In a boost converter, the output voltage is always higher than the input
voltage. A schematic of a boost power stage is shown in Figure 3.8.
(a) When the switch is closed, electrons flow through the inductor in
clockwise direction and the inductor stores some energy by generating a
magnetic field. Polarity of the left side of the inductor is positive.
(b) When the switch is opened, current will be reduced as the impedance is
higher. The magnetic field previously created will be destroyed to maintain
the current towards the load. Thus the polarity will be reversed (means left
side of inductor will be negative now). As a result two sources will be in
series causing a higher voltage to charge the capacitor through the diode D.
If the switch is cycled fast enough, the inductor will not discharge
fully in between charging stages, and the load will always see a voltage
greater than that of the input source alone when the switch is opened. Also
while the switch is opened, the capacitor in parallel with the load is charged
to this combined voltage. When the switch is then closed and the right hand
side is shorted out from the left hand side, the capacitor is therefore able to
provide the voltage and energy to the load. During this time, the blocking
diode prevents the capacitor from discharging through the switch. The
switch must of course be opened again fast enough to prevent the capacitor
from discharging too much.
Continuous mode:
During the On-state, the switch S is closed, which makes the input
voltage ( ) appear across the inductor, which causes a change in current (
) flowing through the inductor during a time period (t) by the formula:
So, the inductor current has to be the same at the start and end of the
commutation cycle. This means the overall change in the current (the sum
of the changes) is zero:
If the ripple amplitude of the current is too high, the inductor may be
completely discharged before the end of a whole commutation cycle. This
commonly occurs under light loads. In this case, the current through the
inductor falls to zero during part of the period (see waveforms in figure 4).
Although slight, the difference has a strong effect on the output voltage
equation. It can be calculated as follows:
As the inductor current at the beginning of the cycle is zero, its maximum
value (at ) is
The load current Io is equal to the average diode current (ID). As can
be seen on figure 4, the diode current is equal to the inductor current during
the off-state. Therefore the output current can be written as:
i) Inspiration
Grey wolf (Canis lupus) belongs to Canidae family. Grey wolves are
considered as apex predators, meaning that they are at the top of the food
chain. Grey wolves mostly prefer to live in a pack. The group size is 5–12
on average. Of particular interest is that they have a very strict social
dominant hierarchy as shown in Figure 3.3.The leaders are a male and a
female, called alphas. The alpha is mostly responsible for making decisions
about hunting, sleeping place, time to wake, and so on. The alpha’s
decisions are dictated to the pack.
The second level in the hierarchy of grey wolves is beta. The betas
are subordinate wolves that help the alpha in decision-making or other pack
activities. The beta wolf can be either male or female, and he/she is
probably the best candidate to be the alpha in case one of the alpha wolves
passes away or becomes very old. The betawolf should respect the alpha,
but commands the other lower-level wolves as well. It plays the role of an
advisor to the alpha and discipliner for the pack. The beta reinforces the
alpha’s commands throughout the pack and gives feedback to the alpha.
The lowest ranking grey wolf is omega. The omega plays the role of
scapegoat. Omega wolves always have to submit to all the other dominant
wolves. They are the last wolves that are allowed to eat. It may seem the
omega is not an important individual in the pack, but it has been observed
that the whole pack face internal fighting and problems in case of losing the
omega. This is due to the venting of violence and frustration of all wolves
by the omega(s). This assists satisfying the entire pack and maintaining the
dominance structure. In some cases the omega is also the babysitters in the
pack.
These steps are shown in Figure 3.4 In this work this hunting
technique and the social hierarchy of grey wolves are mathematically
modeled in order to design GWO and perform optimization
Grey wolves encircle a prey during the hunt and the encircling
behavior can be modeled by the following equations:
⃗ = |𝐶 . ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐷 𝑋𝑝 (𝑡) − ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑋𝑝 (𝑡)|
⃗
𝑋(𝑡 + 1) = 𝑋(𝑡) − 𝐴. 𝐷
𝐴 = 2𝑎. ⃗⃗⃗
𝑟1 − 𝑎
𝐶 = 2. ⃗⃗⃗
𝑟2
Where components of a linearly decreases from 2 to 0 during the course
of iterations and r1, r2 are random vectors in [0, 1]. The hunt is usually
guided by alpha called leaders followed by beta and delta which might also
participate in hunting occasionally.
The proposed social hierarchy assists GWO to save the best solutions
obtained so far over the course of iteration.
The proposed encircling mechanism defines a circle-shaped
neighborhood around the solutions which can be extended to higher
dimensions as a hyper-sphere.
The random parameters A and C assist candidate solutions to have
hyper-spheres with different random radii.
The proposed hunting method allows candidate solutions to locate the
probable position of the prey.
Exploration and exploitation are guaranteed by the adaptivevalues of
a and A.
The adaptive values of parameters a and A allow GWO to smoothly
transition between exploration and exploitation.
With decreasing A, half of the iterations are devoted to exploration
(|A|P1) and the other half are dedicated to exploitation (|A| < 1).
The GWO has only two main parameters to be adjusted (a andC).
Figure 3.6 Pseudo code of the GWO algorithm
Ants live together in colonies and they use chemical cues called
pheromones to provide a sophisticated communication system. An isolated
ant moves essentially at random but an ant encountering a previously laid
pheromone will detect it and decide to follow it with high probability and
thereby reinforce it with a further quantity of pheromone. The repetition of
the above mechanism represents the collective behaviour of a real ant
colony which is a form of autocatalytic behaviour where the more the ants
follow a trail, the more attractive that trail becomes. The above behaviour of
real ants has inspired ACO which has proved to be an effective
metaheuristic technique for solving many complex COPs [3, 5, 9, 11, 14].
This technique uses a colony of artificial ants that behaves as cooperative
agents in a mathematical space where they are allowed to search and
reinforce pathways (solutions) in order to find the optimal ones. The
features of artificial ants are: having some memory, not being completely
blind and the process time is discrete [8]. In the proposed work an
initialisation phase takes place during which ants are positioned on different
duty cycles with empty tabu lists and initial pheromone distributed equally
on paths connecting these sessions. Ants update the level of pheromone
while they are constructing their schedules by iteratively adding new
sessions to the current partial schedule. At each time step, ants compute a
set of feasible moves and select the best one according to some probabilistic
rules based on the heuristic information and pheromone level. The higher
value of the pheromone and the heuristic information, the more profitable is
to select this move and resume the search. The selected node is putted in the
tabulist related to the ant to prevent to be chosen again. Heuristic
information represents the nearer sessions around the current session, while
pheromone level “memory” of each path represents the usability of this path
in the past to find good schedules. At the end of each iteration, the tabu list
for each ant will be full and the obtained cheapest schedule is computed and
memorized. For the following iteration, tabu lists will be emptied ready for
use and the pheromone level will be updated. This process is repeated till
the number of iterations (stopping criteria) has been reached. In more
details, the proposed GPS-ACO technique constructs the cheapest
observation schedule for a GPS network using the following two stages:
After each move, an ant leave a pheromone trail on the connecting path to
be collected by other ants to compute the transition probabilities. Starting
from the initial session i, an explorer ant m chooses probabilistically session
j to observe next using the following transition rule:
i , j i , j
if j S m i
(1)
Pm i, j
i , j
kSm i i , j
0 otherwise
where
(i,j) : the intensity measure of the pheromone deposited by each ant on the
path (i,j). The intensity changes during the run of the program.
: the intensity control parameter.
(i,j) : the visibility measure of the quality of the path (i,j). This visibility,
which remains constant during the run of the program, is determined by
(i,j)=1/l(ij), where l(ij) is the cost of move from session i to the session j.
: the visibility control parameter.
Sm(i) : the set of sessions that remain to be observed by ant m positioned at
session i.
Equation 1 shows that the quality of the path (i,j) is proportional to its
shortness and to the highest amount of pheromone deposited on it (i.e., the
selection probability is proportional to path quality).
Ants change the pheromone level on the paths between sessions using the
following updating rule:
i, j i , j i , j (2)
where
: the trail evaporation parameter.
(i,j) : the pheromone level.
Ant Colony System (ACS) differs from the other ACO instances due to its
strategy of constructing an observation schedule [10]. This strategy can be
categorized in three step. An ant positioned on session i selects the session j
to observe by applying the following equation:
arg max ksm i [ i ,k . i ,k ] if q q0
p(i , j ) (3)
I otherwise
where
I : a random variable selected according to the probability given by
Equation 1.
q : a uniformly distributed random number to determine the relative
importance of exploitation versus exploration q[0,..,1].
q0 : a threshold parameter and the smaller q0 the higher the probability to
make a random choice (0 q0 1).
In each step of building a schedule, an ant located at session i samples the
parameter q to move to session j. Using Equation 3, an ant selects the best
path to reach the next session when (q q0) (exploitation). Otherwise, the
ant will probabilistically choose the next session to be observed using
Equation 2 with a bias toward the best possible path (biased exploration).
While ants build their schedules, at the same time they locally update the
pheromone level of the visited paths using the local updating rule as
follows:
i , j 1 i , j 0 (4)
Where
: a persistence of the trail and the term (1- ) can be interpreted as trail
evaporation.
0: the initial pheromone level which is assumed to be a small positive
constant distributed equally on all the paths of the network since the start of
the survey.
The aim of the local updating rule is to make better use of the pheromone
information by dynamically changing the desirability of paths. Using this
rule, ants will search in wide neighbourhood of the best previous schedule.
When all ants have completed their schedule, the pheromone level is
updated by applying the global updating rule only on the paths that belong
to the best found schedule since the beginning as follows:
i , j 1 i , j i , j (5)
C
if i, j Global Best Schedule
1
i , j m (6)
0 oherwise
where
: a pheromone decay parameter.
Cm : the cost of the best schedule performed from the beginning by ant m.
The strategy of the MAX-MIN Ant System (MMAS) states that if the
amount of the pheromone has a finite upper bound max and a positive lower
bound min, then ACO converges to the optimal solution [21]. The main
features of MMAS algorithm for obtaining an improved performance on the
basic ACO metaheuristic are as follows:
Deep exploitation to the search space of the best found schedule by
allowing a single ant to add pheromone after each iteration. This ant may be
the one which found the best schedule in the current iteration (iteration-best
ant) or the one which found the best schedule from the beginning (global-
best ant).
Wide exploration to the search space of the best found schedule by
initialising the pheromone trails to max. Thus, in the next iteration only the
paths that belong to the best schedule will receive pheromone, while the
pheromone values of the other paths are only evaporated.
As shown from the above, the aim of using only one schedule is to make the
paths of the best found schedule receive large reinforcements
where
The values blo and bup are respectively the lower and upper
boundaries of the search-space. The termination criterion can be number of
iterations performed, or a solution with adequate objective function value is
found. The parameters ω, φp, and φg are selected by the practitioner and
control the behavior and efficacy of the PSO method.
Convergence
The specifications are provided as per the following Table 4.1 parameters.
Table 4.1 Specification of PV model
Vin 220 Vrms
Vout 300V
Switching Frequency 5kHz
L 600𝜇𝐻
Capacitance 2000𝜇𝐹
Rload 50Ω
The following figure represents the control blocks for the proposed
algorithm
The results obtained from both the GA based PID, conventional PID
models and GW optimizations are shown in the following figures.
PF 0.9895 unity
Table 4.3 Comparison between existing and proposed system at load
side
GAPID+PID (Existing) Grey wolf optimization
(Proposed )
Delay time 0.55 0.1
The graphical chart that comparing the proposed work on both load
and source side is shown in the following two figures respectively.
15
values
10
0
Delay time Rise time Settling time
parameters
The GWO is producing the maximum efficiency as 99% and the PSO
is producing the second maximum efficiency as 96.2%. The ACO based
system is producing the least efficiency in this work which is 76.8%.
Table 4.3 Comparison of different optimizers