Dynamometry

Dr. Venkaiah N

Without involvement, there is no commitment. Mark it down, asterisk

it, circle it, underline it. No involvement, no commitment.

~ Stephen Covey
 Learning Outcomes
At the end of this lecture, student should be able to

1.  show the general principle of measurement

2.  classify and apply different transducers for converting cutting forces
into suitable signals

3.  state the design requirements of tool-force dynamometers

4.  develop and use strain gauge type dynamometer for

• turning
• drilling
• milling and
• grinding
 Cutting Forces
PZ : Main or major component as it is the largest in magnitude.
•  Acts along VC
•  Also called power component (PZ.VC)
•  Helps in determining cutting power and specific energy requirement
PY : May not be that large in magnitude, but responsible for causing
dimensional inaccuracy and vibration.
PX : It, even if larger than PY, is the least harmful and hence least
significant
Px Py PZ

Pz
Py
Px
 Principle of Measurement
Physical variable
(cutting force, temp. etc.)

Conversion into another

suitable variable Transducing stage (1)
(deflection, expansion etc)

Signal

Amplification, filtration and Conditioning stage (2)

stabilization

Conditioned signal

Reading or recording Read out stage (3)

 Principle …
The measurement process is comprised of three stages:

Stage – 1 : The target physical variable (say force) is converted
proportionally into another suitable variable (say voltage) called
signal, by using appropriate sensor or transducer.

Stage – 2 : The feeble and noisy signal is amplified, filtered,
rectified (if necessary) and stabilized for convenience and
accuracy of measurement.

Stage – 3 : where the conditioned signal (say voltage) is
quantitatively determined and recorded by using some read out
unit like galvanometer, oscilloscope, recorder or computer.
 Different Methods of Measurement
Measurement of cutting force(s) is based on three basic
principles :
1.  Measurement of elastic deflection of a body subjected to
the cutting force
2.  Measurement of elastic deformation, i.e. strain induced by
the force
3.  Measurement of pressure developed in a medium by the
force.

The type of the transducer depends upon how that deflection,
strain or pressure is detected and quantified.
 easuring deflection caused by the cutting force(s)
beam)
I = size (plane moment of inertia) of the beam section.
the actionMeasuring
of the cutting force, say PZForce(s)
Cutting in turning, the bytool or tool holder
Deflection
Since for a given cutting tool and its holder, E and I are fixed and the equation
10.1 becomes,
cally deflects as indicated in Fig. 10.2. Such tool deflection, δ is δ α PZ or, δ = kPZ
Method
(10.2)
where, k is a constant of proportionality.
rtional to the magnitude of the cutting force, PZ, simply as,
P
⎛ L ⎞
3 Z

δ = PZ ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ (10.1)
⎝ 3EI ⎠ L

, L L =
= overhang
overhang orof equivalent projected
the cantilever length ofδthe cantilever
type tool (holder)
type tool (holder)
E = physical property (Young’s modulus of elasticity of the
E = physical property (Young’s
Version 2 ME IIT, Kharagpur
modulus of elasticity of the beam)
Fig. 10.2 Cutting tool undergoing deflection, δ due to cutting force, P
For a given cutting tool and
Z

I = size (plane moment of inertia)

The deflection, δ, can be measured
• mechanically
of the beam section. •
its holder, E and
I are fixed,
by dial gauge (mechanical transducer)
electrically by using several transducers like;
⎯ potentiometer; linear or circular
⎯ capacitive pickup
α PZ or, δ
⎯δinductive pickup = kPZ
⎯ LVDT
as schematically shown in Fig. 10.3.
• opto-electronically by photocell where the length of the slit through
where, k is a constant of
which light passes to the photocell changes proportionally with the
tool – deflection
proportionality.
All such transducers need proper calibration before use.
In case of mechanical measurement of the tool deflection by dial gauge,
calibration is done by employing known loads, W and the corresponding tool
deflections, δ are noted and then plotted as shown in Fig. 10.4. Here the slope
 Different Types of Transducers
The deflection, δ, can be measured

1.  Mechanically
•  Dial gauge

2.  Electrically
•  Potentiometer (linear or circular)
•  Capacitive pickup
•  Inductive pickup
•  LVDT

3.  Opto-electronically by photocell where the length of the slit
through which light passes to the photocell changes
proportionally with the tool – deflection

Transducers need proper calibration before use

 Calibration Transducers

250

200
PZ

150 α
Load, N

100 tanα = k

50
δ*
0 2 4 6 8
Deflection, δ, mm
Fig.Fig.
10.4 Calibration
Calibration of mechanical
of mechanical measurement
measurement system(dial
system (dialgauge)
gauge)

(b) Measuring cutting force by monitoring elastic strain caused by the

force.
Increasing deflection, δ enhances sensitivity of the dynamometer but may
affect machining accuracy where large value of δ is restricted, the cutting
 proportional to the force. The final relation between PZ and ΔV is established
by calibration.
Fig. 10.2
In caseCutting toolthe
of LVDT, undergoing deflection,
linear movement δ due
of the core,to(coupled
cutting force, PZ tool),
with the
inside the fixed coil produces proportional voltage across the secondary coil.
Different Types of Transducers …
The deflection, δ, can
Fig. 10.3 Electrical transducers working based on deflection measurement
be measured
• mechanically by dial gauge (mechanical transducer)PZ
PZ
• electrically by using several transducers like;
⎯ potentiometer; linear or circular
⎯ capacitive pickup
⎯ inductive pickup
⎯ LVDT
as schematically shown in Fig. 10.3.
• opto-electronically by photocell
ri where the length of the slit through
which light
(a) passes to the photocell
R changes(b)proportionally with the
ΔV
tool – deflection
ΔV
All such transducers need proper calibration before use.PZ
In case of mechanical measurement of the tool deflection by dialE gauge,
calibration is done by employing known loads, W and the corresponding tool
deflections, δ are noted and then plotted as shown in Fig. 10.4. Here the slope
of the curve represents the constant, k of the equation (10.2). Then while
actual measurement of the cutting force, PZ, the δ* is noted and the
d
corresponding force is assessed from the plot as shown.
In capacitive pick up type dynamometer, the cutting
fixedforce
coil causes proportional
tool deflection, δ , which causes change in the gap (d) and hence
(c) moving core
ε .A
capacitance, C as C= (10.3)
3.6πd (d)

Fig. Fig.
Electrical transducers working based on deflection measurement
10.3 Electrical transducers working based on deflection measurment
(a) linear pot (a)(b) circular
linear pot (c)potcapacitive
pot (b) circular (c)Version 2pick
capacitive ME up
pick IIT, (d)LVDT
LVDTtypetype
Kharagpur
up (d)
 Process Activity
Draw the block diagram to show the principle of cutting force measurement
Physical variable
(cutting force, temp. etc.)

Conversion into another

suitable variable Transducing stage (1)
(deflection, expansion etc)

Signal

Amplification, filtration and Conditioning stage (2)

stabilization

Conditioned signal

Reading or recording 250

Read out stage (3)
200
PZ
Draw the calibration graph for dial gauge 150 α
Fig. 10.1 General principle of measurement. Load, N
100 tanα = k
(ii) Different types of transducers used in dynamometers for
measuring machining forces. 50
δ*
Measurement of cutting force(s) is based on three basic principles : 0 2 4 6 8
(a) measurement of elastic deflection of a body subjected to the Deflection, δ, mm
cutting force
Fig. 10.4 Calibration of mechanical measurement system (dial gauge)
(b) measurement of elastic deformation, i.e. strain induced by the
PZ) as,

Lo
σ M / Z PZ .l
ε= = = = k1 PZ (10.4)
E E Z .E 50
where,
Measuring Cutting Force(s) by Elastic Strain
M = bending moment
δ*
Z = sectional modulus (I/y) of the tool section
I = plane moment of inertia of the plane section
Method 2 4
y = distance of the straining surface from the neutral0plane
6 8
of the beam (tool)
PZ
Deflection, δ, mm
Fig. 10.4 Calibration of mechanical measurement system

(b)
Ll Measuring cutting force by monitoring elastic str
Tforce.

IncreasingStrain deflection,
gauges δ enhances sensitivity of the dyn
affect Cmachining accuracy where large value of δ is res
forces are suitably measured by using the change in st
force. Fig. 10.5Strain, ε, is proportional
shows the principle of force measurem
strain, ε, which would
BM diagram
to cutting force P
be proportional Zwith the magnitude
PZ) as,
Fig. 10.5 Measuring cutting forces by strain gauges
σ M / Z PZ .l
Version 2 ME IIT, Kharagpur ε= = = = k1 PZ
E E Z .E
M = Bending moment where, M = bending moment
Z = sectional modulus (I/y) of the tool se
I = Plane moment of inertia of theI plane = plane section
moment of inertia of the plane
y = Distance of the straining surface from theofneutral
y = distance plane surface from
the straining
Z = Sectional modulus (I/y) of the tool of section
the beam (tool)
PZ
 ΔV = [ε1 − (−ε 2 ) + ε 3 − (−ε 4 )] (10.6)
4
where, ε1 and ε2 are in tension and - ε3 and - ε4 are in compression

Measuring Cutting Force(s) by Elastic Strain

The gauge connections may be
• full bridge (all 4 gauges alive) – giving full sensitivity
• half bridge (only 2 gauges alive) – half sensitive
Method • quarter bridge (only 1 gauge alive) – ¼ th sensitivity

•  The strain, ε induced by the force PZ

changes the electrical resistance, R, of R1(T R3(T

ε induced by the force changes the electrical resistance, R, of )the
The strain,the strain gauges which are as )
strain gauges which are firmly pasted on the surface of the tool-holding beam
as
ΔR The strain, ε induced by the force changes the electrical
= Gε (10.5) R4(C)
R strain gauges which are firmlyR2(C)
pasted on the surface of t
where, •  where, G G = gauge factor
= gauge factor as
(around
(around 2.0 2.0
for conductive gauges)
The change in resistance of the gauges connected in a wheatstone
for conductive gauges) ΔR bridge
produces voltage output ΔV, through a strain measuring bridge= (SMB) Gε R1 as R for balancing
indicated in Fig. 10.6. R 2

•  The change in resistance of the gauges

Out of the four gauges, R1, R2, R3 andwhere, R4, two are put in tension G =andgauge
two infactor (around 2.0 for cond
compression connected
as shown in a Wheatstone
in Fig. 10.6. The Theoutputbridge
change in resistance
voltage, ΔV, depends R upon
of
4
the gauges
R3 SMB connected in
the constant, G and the summation of strains as,
produces voltage output ΔV, through a
GE
produces voltage output ΔV, through a strain measuri
[ε1 − (−ε 2 ) + εindicated
strain measuring bridge (SMB)
ΔV = 3 − ( −ε 4 )] in Fig. 10.6. (10.6) E
4
where, ε1 and ε2 are in tension and - ε3 and Out- εof the four gauges,
4 are in compression
R1, R2voltage,
•  The output , R3 and ΔV, Rdepends
4, two are put i
•  Two gauges are put in tension (R1, R3)compression as shown inthe
Fig.constant,
The gauge connections may be Fig. 10.6 Forceupon
measurement by10.6. The
G based
strain gauge output
and the voltage
transducer.
and two in compression (R2, R4).
• full bridge (all 4 gauges alive) – givingthe constant, G and the
full sensitivity summation of strains as,
summation of strains as,
bridge (only 2 gauges alive) – half sensitive
• half
GE
• quarter bridge (only 1 gauge alive) – ¼ th sensitivity ΔV = [
ε1 − ( −ε 2Version
) + ε 3 2−ME ]
ε 4Kharagpur
( −IIT, )
4
PZ where, ε1 and ε2 are in tension and - ε3 and - ε4 are in com
 Measuring Cutting Force(s) by Pressure
Sensing Method
•  This type of transducer functions in two ways :
1.  The force creates hydraulic pressure (through a diaphragm or piston)
(c) Measuring cutting forces by pressure caused by the force
which is monitored directly by pressure gauge
2.  The force causes pressure on a piezoelectric crystal and produces an emf
This type of transducer functions in two ways :
• the force creates hydraulic pressure (through a diaphragm or piston)
proportional to the force or pressure as indicated in Fig..
which is monitored directly by pressure gauge
•the force causes pressure on a piezoelectric crystal and produces an
emf = λtp Here, emf proportional to the force or pressure as indicated in Fig. 10.7.
emf = λtp (10.7)
where where λ = voltage sensitivity of the crystal
t = thickness of the crystal
λ = voltage sensitivity of the crystal t = thickness of the crystal
p = pressure
p = pressure Force
or
pressure

Piezoelectric
crystal t

emf
 Comparison
•  Commonly used now-a-days for measuring machining forces
(both static and dynamic characteristics) are

•  Strain gauge type dynamometers
•  Inexpensive
•  But less accurate and consistent

•  Piezoelectric type
•  Highly accurate, reliable and consistent
•  But very expensive
 Design Requirements for Tool–Force
Dynamometers
•  Sensitivity

•  Cross sensitivity

•  Rigidity

•  Stability against humidity and temperature

•  Quick time response

•  High frequency response

•  Consistency
Construction & Working of Some
Dynamometers
 Turning Dynamometer
Aluminum cover
•  1-D, 2-D or 3-D dynos

Tool
Shank
Fig. 10.9 Photographs of a strain gauge type 2 – D turning dynamometer
and its major components.
Dynamometer
Fig. 10.9 Photographs of a strain gauge type 2 – D turning dynamometer
and its major components.

Fig.
f a strain gauge type 2–DStrain gauge type
turning dynamometer 2-D Fig. Piezoelectric type 3-D
omponents.
turning dynamometer Fig. 10.10 Use of 3 – D piezoelectric type turning dynamometer.
turning dynamometer
• Drilling dynamometer
 Self-study
•  Drilling dynamometer

•  Milling dynamometer

•  Grinding dynamometer