==== Types of observation techniques.

Casual and Scientific observation – An observation can be sometimes casual in nature

or sometimes it may act scientifically. An observation with a casual approach involves
observing the right thing at the right place and also at the right time by a matter of chance or
by luck whereas a scientific observation involves the use of the tools of the measurement, but
a very important point to be kept in mind here is that all the observations are not scientific in
nature.
2. Natural Observation – Natural observation involves observing the behaviour in a
normal setting and in this type of observation, no efforts are made to bring any type of
change in the behavior of the observed. Improvement in the collection of the information
and improvement in the environment of making an observation can be done with the help of
naturalobservations.
3. Subjective and Objective observation – All the observations consist of the two main
components, the subject and the object. The subject refers to the observer whereas the object
refers to the activity or any type of operation that is being observed. Subjective observation
involves the observation of the one’s own immediate experience whereas the observations
involving observer as an entity apart from the thing being observed, are referred to as the
objective observation. Objective observation is also called as the retrospection.
4. Direct and Indirect observation – With the help of the direct method of observation,
one comes to know how the observer is physically present in which type of situation is he
present and then this type of observation monitors what takes place. Indirect method of
observation involves studies of mechanical recording or the recording by some of the other
means like photographic or electronic. Direct observation is relatively more straight forward
as compared to the indirect observation.
5. Participant and Non Participant observation – Participation by the observers with
the various types of operations of the group under study refers to the participant type of
observation. In participant observation, the degree of the participation is largely affected by
the nature of the study and it also depends on the type of the situation and also on its
demands.But in the non participant type of observation, no participation of the observer in
the activities of the group takes place and also there occurs no relationship between the
researcher and the group.
6. Structured and Unstructured observation – Structured observation works
according to a plan and involves specific information of the units that are to be observed and
also about the information that is to be recorded. The operations that are to be observed and
the various features that are to be noted or recorded are decided well in advance. Such
observations involve the use of especial instruments for the purpose of data collection that
are also structured in nature. But in the case of the unstructured observation, its basics are
diametrically against the structured observation. In such observation, observer has the
freedom to note down what he or she feels is correct and relevant to the point of study and
also this approach of observation is very suitable in the case of exploratory research.
7. Controlled and Non Controlled observation: Controlled observations are the
observations made under the influence of some of the external forces and such observations
rarely lead to improvement in the precision of the research results. But these observations
can be very effective in the working if these are made to work in the coordination with
mechanical synchronizing devices, film recording etc. Non controlled observations are
made in the natural environment and reverse to the controlled observation these
observations involve no influence or guidance of any type of external force.

=== Challenges in occupational psychology

Industrial and organizational psychology (I/O psychology), which is also known as

occupational psychology, organizational psychology, and work and organizational psychology, is
an applied discipline within psychology. I/O psychology is the science of human behaviour
relating to work and applies psychological theories and principles to organizations and individuals
in their places of work as well as the individual's work-life more generally.[1] I/O psychologists are
trained in the scientist–practitioner model. They contribute to an organization's success by
improving the performance, motivation, job satisfaction, and occupational safety and health as
well as the overall health and well-being of its employees. An I/O psychologist conducts research
on employee behaviours and attitudes, and how these can be improved through hiring practices,
training programs, feedback, and management systems

Research methods[edit]
As described above, I/O psychologists are trained in the scientist–practitioner model. I/O
psychologists rely on a variety of methods to conduct organizational research. Study designs
employed by I/O psychologists include surveys, experiments, quasi-experiments,
and observational studies. I/O psychologists rely on diverse data sources including human
judgments, historical databases, objective measures of work performance (e.g., sales volume),
and questionnaires and surveys.
I/O researchers employ quantitative statistical methods. Quantitative methods used in I/O
psychology include correlation, multiple regression, and analysis of variance. More advanced
statistical methods employed in I/O research include logistic regression, structural equation
modeling,[17] and hierarchical linear modeling (HLM; also known as multilevel modeling).[18] I/O
research has also employed meta-analysis.[19][20][21] I/O psychologists also
employ psychometric methods including methods associated with classical test
theory,[22] generalizability theory, and item response theory (IRT).[23]
I/O psychologists have also employed qualitative methods, which largely involve focus
groups, interviews, and case studies. I/O research on organizational culture research has
employed ethnographic techniques and participant observation. A qualitative technique
associated with I/O psychology is Flanagan's Critical Incident Technique.[24] I/O psychologists
sometimes use quantitative and qualitative methods in concert.[25] OHP researchers have also
combined and coordinated quantitative and qualitative methods within a single study.[26]

Occupational Psychology is the application of the science of psychology to work. Occupational

psychologists use psychological theories and approaches to deliver tangible benefits by enhancing the
effectiveness of organisations and developing the performance, motivation and wellbeing of people in
the workplace.
The field of Occupational Psychology brings benefits to both organisations and the people
who work in them. Occupational Psychology is discipline of Psychology and uses
psychological knowledge, research and theories to address a wide range of organisational
and employee issues such as; personnel selection, wellbeing, leadership, team
performance, human factors and organisational culture but to name a few. The largest
proportion of Occupational Psychologists in practice are employed in the public sector,
others work in consultancies or independently. This in itself can create challenges. In
competitive markets, employers or clients can ‘call the shots’ simply wanting to buy a service
or have an off the shelf solution. Their decisions can be driven by what is popular or
pressure to be seen to be doing something by tax payers, external bodies or shareholders.
This can create a bias towards the interests of management and key stakeholders.
Academics in the field are driven by different contexts, such methodologically rigorous
publishable research. They can be seen by practitioners as removed from the real world and
needs of clients. Often these research findings are not easily accessed or understood by
clients.
For the lay person it appears that there is nothing that Occupational Psychologists offer that
other ‘management consultancies’ do not. What distinguishes us as Occupational
Psychologists is our understanding of research, evidence and the application of scientific
methods to address real world issues. We need to make sure we are able to translate and
use this knowledge and science to present relevant, reliable meaningful information to our
clients. Metrics need to show the value created. Often clients will know little of statistics or
Occupational Psychology it’s how we communicate and translate our findings and approach
it that’s important.
Organisational clients are the most powerful stakeholders for practitioners, and in their effort
to address their urgent organisational issues, they can push practitioners towards Popularist
Science. This involves the use of tools and techniques possess no scientific grounding at all.
With the absence of a foundation in valid research, the techniques tend to be superficial,
providing no long-lasting impact upon the organisation. These can be seen as a quick fix or
management fad but delivers no sustainable change.
Anderson and Colleagues (2001) propose a useful model to conceptualise Occupational
Psychology work. This model consists of 4 quadrants.

Quadrant 1: Popularist Science, this has high practical application but low methodological
rigour. For example clients may know of something that has worked in another organisations
or a popular fad in the media and want to apply it in their organisation.
Quadrant 2: Puerile Science, is where there is low practical application and low
methodological rigour. It appears to be whimsical and although popular with the media
quickly fades into obscurity with little or no organisational application. Large organisations
facing scrutiny about their performance sometimes try to implement such interventions,
spending considerable amounts but to no avail and quickly realise this is puerile and a waste
of time and money. This may strike a chord with those of you who work in public sector
organisations!
Quadrant 3: Pedantic Science, this is the combination of low practical application with high
methodological rigour. This can often be viewed as typical of academic research. Clients
reactions are often, “very interesting, but so what?”
Quadrant 4: Pragmatic Science, has high practical application is combined with high
methodological rigour. Findings and recommendations are based on sound research and
valid theory. These are regarded as pragmatic, relevant, practical and easily applied to the
challenges faced by organisations.
I have on many occasions had to justify and argue the benefits of using scientific methods
and have been encouraged to take a popularist approach … ‘oh you psychologists, can’t you
just do it’. Being an Occupational Psychologist can be a tough job, not only in terms of
delivering the work but also continuing to ‘sell the benefits’ of using a more methodologically
rigorous approach. For almost every project or industry funded research I have worked on; I
have had to have continual dialogue at numerous stages with the client and key
stakeholders on why using scientific methodologies to implement and evaluate an
intervention is fundamental to their success. The feedback is almost always the same that
will take too much time I want results now. However through careful dialogue we can more
often than not find can a middle ground where I’m able are to use pragmatic science to help
clients address the challenges they face, and the methodological approach is still robust
enough to meet academic rigour. Occupational Psychologists in both academia and practice
have a lot to offer, we need to learn to communicate our value and approach more
effectively to corporate clients, key stakeholders and policy decision makers