AIRPORT

PLANNING MANUAL

4. GROUND MANEUVERING
4.1. GENERAL INFORMATION

This section provides the aircraft turning capability and maneuvering characteristics. To facilitate the
presentation, these data have been determined from theoretical limits imposed by the geometry of the
aircraft.
As such, they reflect the turning capability of the aircraft in favorable operating circumstances. These
data should be used only as guidelines for the method of determination of such parameters and for the
maneuvering characteristics of the aircraft.
In the ground operating mode, varying airline practices may demand that more conservative turning
procedures be adopted, to avoid excessive tire wear and reduce possible maintenance problems.
Variations from standard aircraft operating patterns may be necessary to satisfy physical constants
within the maneuvering area, such as adverse grades, limited area, or high risk of jet blast damage. For
these reasons, the ground maneuvering requirements should be coordinated with the using airline prior
to the layout planning.
This section is presented as follows:
• The turning radii for nose landing gear steering angles.

• The pilot’s visibility from the cockpit and the limits of ambinocular vision through the windows.
Ambinocular vision is defined as the total field of vision seen by both eyes at the same time.
• The performance of the aircraft on runway-to-taxiway, taxiway-to-taxiway and runway holding bays
dimensions.

4.2. TURNING RADII

This subsection presents the following information:

• The turning radii for various nose landing gear steering angles. The minimum turning radius is
determined, considering that the maximum nose landing gear steering angle is 76 degrees left and
right.
• Data on the minimum width of the pavement for a 180° turn.

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R = 18.61 m
(61 ft 1 in)

R = 21.90 m
(71 ft 10 in)

R = 6.66 m
(21 ft 10 in)

76°

R = 19.13 m
(62 ft 9 in) 1
R = 7.29 m
(23 ft 11 in)
R = 15.10 m
(49 ft 7 in)

22.68 m
(74 ft 5 in)
RUNWAY
MINIMUM
WIDTH R = 15.39 m
(50 ft 6 in)

NOTE:
ACTUAL OPERATING DATA MAY BE GREATER THAN VALUES SHOWN
SINCE TIRE SLIPPAGE IS NOT CONSIDERED IN THESE CALCULATIONS.
EM170APM040015B.DGN

1 THEORETICAL CENTER OF TURN FOR MINIMUN RADIUS.

SHOWS CONTINUOUS TURNING WITH ENGINE THRUST AS REQUIRED.
NO DIFFERENTIAL BRAKING.

Turning Radii - No Slip Angle

Figure 4.1

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4.3. MINIMUM TURNING RADII

R5

R6

R = 6.66 m
(21 ft 10 in)

76° R3
70°
65°
60° R4
55°
50°
45°
40°
22.68 m 35°
(74 ft 5 in)
RUNWAY
R = 15.10 m
MINIMUM
(49 ft 7 in)
WIDTH

R1

R2

NOTE:
DATA PRESENTED IS BASED ON THEORETICAL CALCULATIONS.
ACTUAL OPERATING DATA MAY BE GREATER THAN SHOWN SINCE
TIRE SLIPPAGE IS NOT CONSIDERED IN THESE CALCULATIONS.

STEERING NOSE NOSE GEAR OUTBOARD GEAR INBOARD GEAR RIGHT WINGLET RIGHT TAILTIP
STEEL R1 R2 R3 R4 R5 R6
35° 28.26 m (92 ft 9 in) 25.92 m (85 ft) 24.73 m (81 ft 2 in) 17.52 m (57 ft 6 in) 35.77 m (117 ft 4 in) 33.51 m (109 ft 11 in)
40° 25.75 m (84 ft 6 in) 23.25 m (75 ft 11 in) 21.23 m (69 ft 8 in) 14.02 m (46 ft) 32.31 m (106 ft) 30.75 m (100 ft 11 in)
EM170APM040016B.DGN

45° 23.90 m (78 ft 5 in) 21.06 m (69 ft 1 in) 18.40 m (60 ft 4 in) 11.18 m (36 ft 8 in) 29.50 m (96 ft 9 in) 28.62 m (93 ft 11 in)
50° 22.50 m (73 ft 10 in) 19.45 m (63 ft 10 in) 16.02 m (52 ft 7 in) 8.80 m (28 ft 10 in) 27.15 m (89 ft 1 in) 26.94 m (88 ft 5 in)
55° 21.44 m (70 ft 4 in) 18.20 m (59 ft 9 in) 13.96 m (45 ft 10 in) 6.75 m (22 ft 2 in) 25.13 m (82 ft 5 in) 25.57 m (83 ft 11 in)
60° 20.62 m (67 ft 8 in) 17.23 m (56 ft 6 in) 12.15 m (39 ft 10 in) 4.93 m (16 ft 2 in) 23.34 m (76 ft 7 in) 24.45 m (80 ft 3 in)
65° 20.00 m (65 ft 7 in) 16.47 m (54 ft) 10.50 m (34 ft 5 in) 3.29 m (10 ft 10 in) 21.73 m (71 ft 4 in) 23.51 m (77 ft 2 in)
70° 19.52 m (64 ft 1 in) 15.89 m (52 ft 2 in) 8.99 m (29 ft 6 in) 1.78 m (5 ft 10 in) 20.25 m (66 ft 5 in) 22.71 m (74 ft 6 in)
76° 19.13 m (62 ft 9 in) 15.39 m (50 ft 6 in) 7.29 m (23 ft 11 in) 0.08 m (3 in) 18.61 m (61 ft 1 in) 21.90 m (71 ft 10 in)

Minimum Turning Radius

Figure 4.2
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4.4. VISIBILITY FROM COCKPIT

VISUAL ANGLE IN PLANE

PARALLEL TO LONGITUDINAL
AXIS THROUGH PILOT’S EYE
POSITION
PILOT’S EYE POSITION
27.8°
3.91 m
(12 ft 10 in.) 15°
CL FUS HOR

0.75 m
(2 ft 6 in.)

REF. GROUND (BOW)

2.92 m
(9 ft 7 in.)
14.58 m
(47 ft 10 in.)

MAXIMUM AFT VISION PILOT’S EYE POSITION

WITH HEAD ROTATED
ABOUT SPINAL COLUMN

0.53 m
(1 ft 9 in.)
120.6°

0.53 m
(1 ft 9 in.) PILOT’S EYE POSITION
VISUAL ANGLE IN PLANE
PERPENDICULAR TO LONGITUDINAL
AXIS THROUGH PILOT’S EYE POSITION
EM170APM040010.DGN

27.5°

28.1°

Visibility from Cockpit in Static Position

Figure 4.3
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4.5. RUNWAY AND TAXIWAY DIMENSIONS

To determine the minimum dimensions for runway and taxiway where the aircraft can be operated, the
reference code of the aircraft must be determined.
The reference code of a specific aircraft is obtained in accordance with the Aerodrome Design and
Operations - Volume 1, by the ICAO.
The code is composed of two elements, which are related to the aircraft performance characteristics and
dimensions:

• Element 1 is a number based on the aircraft reference field length;

• Element 2 is a letter based on the aircraft wingspan and outer main landing gear wheel span.

The table below shows the reference codes:

Table 4.1 - Reference Codes

CODE ELEMENT 1 CODE ELEMENT 2
CODE AIRCRAFT REFERENCE CODE OUTER MAIN LANDING
WING SPAN
NUMBER FIELD LENGTH LETTER GEAR WHEEL SPAN
less than 800 m Up to 15 m Up to 4.5 m
1 A
(2624 ft 8 in) (49 ft 3 in) (14 ft 9 in)
800 m (2624 ft 8 in) up to 15 m (49 ft 3 in) to 4.5 m (14 ft 9 in) to
2 B
1200 m (3937 ft) 24 m (78 ft 9 in) 6 m (19 ft 8 in)
1200 m (3937 ft) up to 24 m (78 ft 9 in) to 6 m (19 ft 8 in) to
3 C
1800 m (5905 ft 6 in) 36 m (118 ft 1 in) 9 m (29 ft 6 in)
1800 m 36 m (118 ft 1 in) to 9 m (29 ft 6 in) to
4 D
(5905 ft 6 in) and over 52 m (170 ft 7 in) 14 m (45 ft 11 in)
52 m (170 ft 7 in) to 9 m (29 ft 6 in) to
5 _ E
65 m (213 ft 3 in) 14 m (45 ft 11 in)

In accordance with the table, the reference code for the EMBRAER 195STD and 195LR is 3C and the
reference code for the EMBRAER 195AR is 4C.

NOTE:
• Classification considering CF34-10E7 engines.
• This classification may change depending on aircraft engine model and takeoff weight.

With the reference code it is possible to obtain the limits of the runway and taxiway where the aircraft
can be operated.
• For reference code 3C the limits are:
The width of a runway should be not less than 30 m (98 ft 5 in);
The width of a taxiway should be not less than 15 m (49 ft 2 in);
The design of the curve in a taxiway should be such that, when the cockpit remains over the taxiway
centre line marking, the clearance distance between the outer main landing gear wheels of the
aircraft and the edge of the taxiway should not be less than 3 m (9 ft 10 in);
The clearance between a parked aircraft and one moving along the taxiway in a holding bay should
not be less than 15 m (49 ft 3 in).
• For reference code 4C the limits are:
The width of a runway should be not less than 45 m (147 ft 7.6 in);

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The width of a taxiway should be not less than 15 m (49 ft 2 in);

The design of the curve in a taxiway should be such that, when the cockpit remains over the taxiway
centre line marking, the clearance distance between the outer main landing gear wheels of the
aircraft and the edge of the taxiway should not be less than 3 m (9 ft 10 in);
The clearance between a parked aircraft and one moving along the taxiway in a holding bay should
not be less than 15 m (49 ft 3 in).

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30 m
(98 ft 5 in.)

NOTE:
COORDINATE WITH AIRLINE OPERATOR
FOR THE SPECIFIC PLANNED OPERATING
PROCEDURE.

NOSE LANDING GEAR STEERING ANGLE IS

45° APPROXIMATELY 15.

15 m
100 ft RADIUS (49 ft 2 in.)
(30 m)
EM170APM040017A.DGN

PATH OF MAIN LANDING

GEAR TIRE EDGE

More than 90° Turn - Runway to Taxiway

Figure 4.4

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NOTE:
COORDINATE WITH AIRLINE OPERATOR
30 m FOR THE SPECIFIC PLANNED OPERATING
(98 ft 5 in.) PROCEDURE.

NOSE LANDING GEAR STEERING ANGLE IS

APPROXIMATELY 30.

100 ft RADIUS
(30 m)

90°

15 m
(49 ft 2 in.)

100 ft RADIUS
(30 m)

PATH OF MAIN LANDING

GEAR TIRE EDGE.
EM170APM040018A.DGN

90° Turn - Runway to Taxiway

Figure 4.5

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15 m NOTE:
(49 ft 2 in.) COORDINATE WITH AIRLINE OPERATOR
FOR THE SPECIFIC PLANNED OPERATING
PROCEDURE.

NOSE LANDING GEAR STEERING ANGLE IS

APPROXIMATELY 28.

90°

15 m
(49 ft 2 in.)

100 ft Radius
(30 m)

3m
(9 ft 10 in.)

PATH OF MAIN LANDING

GEAR TIRE EDGE.
EM170APM040019A.DGN

90° Turn - Taxiway to Taxiway

Figure 4.6

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4.6. RUNWAY HOLDING APRON

RUNWAY
30 m
(98 ft 5 in.)

MINIMUM
CLEARANCES
15 m 75 m
(49 ft 2 in.) (246 ft)

3m
(9 ft 10 in.)

3m
(9 ft 10 in.)

PATH OF MAIN LANDING

GEAR TIRE EDGE.

TAXIWAY
15 m
EM170APM040020A.DGN

(49 ft 2 in.)

PATH OF MAIN LANDING

GEAR TIRE EDGE.

Runway Holding Bay

Figure 4.7
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