rhHngOj;Jfspd; tiffs;:-

 capH vOj;Jfs; gd;dpuz;Lk;> nka;naOj;Jfs; gjpndl;Lk; jdpj;J ,aq;fp Kjd;ik ngw;W

tpsq;Ftjhy; mtw;iw KjnyOj;Jfs; vd;fpNwhk;.

rhHngOj;Jfs;:-
 KjnyOj;Jfisr; rhHe;JtUk; vOj;Jfisr; rhHngOj;Jfs; vd;fpNwhk;.

v.fh:-

 capH = c - capnuOj;J> ap – a; + ,; a; vDk; nka;naOj;Jk;> , vDk;

capnuOj;Jk; NrHe;J ‘ap’ vDk; capHnka;ahf gpwe;jJ. H – nka;naOj;J

rhHngOj;Jfs; gj;J tifg;gLk;:-

1) capHnka; 2) Ma;jk; 3) capusngil 4) xw;wsngil 5) Fw;wpaypfuk; 6) Fw;wpaYfuk; 7)
Ifhuf;FWf;fk; 8) xsfhuf;FWf;fk; 9) kfuf;FWf;fk; 10) Ma;jf;FWf;fk;.

1) capHnka;:-
 capH vOj;Jk;> nka;naOj;Jk; NrHe;jhy; capHnka; vOj;Jj; Njhd;Wk;. capH
vOj;J gd;dpuz;Lld;> nka;naOj;J gjpndl;ilAk; NrHj;J vOj
,UE}w;Wg;gjpdhW (216) capHnka;naOj;Jfs; Njhd;Wk;.
 capHnka;naOj;J capiuAk; nka;iaAk; rhHe;jpUg;gjhy; ,jidr; ‘rhHngOj;J’
vd;fpNwhk;.

2) Ma;jk;:-
 / vDk; ,t;ntOj;J %d;W Gs;spfisg; ngw;Ws;sJ. vdNt ,ij Kg;Gs;sp>
Kg;ghw;Gs;sp vdf; Fwpg;gpLtH.
 ,J capNuhLk; nka;NahLk; Nruhky; jdpj;Nj ,Ug;gjhy; ‘jdpepiy’ vdTk;
$WtH.
 ,ij Ma;jk;> m/Nfdk; vdTk; $WtH.
 xU nrhy;ypd; ,ilapy; kl;LNk tUk;. mt;ntOj;jpd; Kd; FwpYk;> mjd;gpd;
ty;ypd capHnka;f; FwpYk; tUk;.

msngil:-

 nra;Aspy; Xir FiwAk;NghJ xU nrhy;ypd; KjypYk; ,ilapYk; ,WjpapYk; epw;Fk;

nel;nlOj;Jfs; VOk; jkf;Fhpa ,U khj;jpiuapypUe;J ePz;L xypf;Fk;.
 mtw;Ws; ePz;L xypg;gij msngil vd;fpNwhk;.
 msG = khj;jpiu; vil = vLj;jy; vd;gJ nghUs;.
 ‘vOj;jpdJ khj;jpiu msit ePl;b xypj;jy;’

msngil ,U tifg;gLk;:-

1) capusngil
2) xw;wsngil

1
3) capusngil:-
 nra;Aspy; Xir FiwAk;NghJ me;j Xiria epiwT nra;a capHneby; vOj;Jfs;
VOk; msngLf;Fk;.
 mt;thW msngLf;Fk; NghJ mtw;Wf;F ,dkhd Fwpy; vOj;Jfs; gf;fj;jpy; tUk;.
 ‘I’fhuj;jpw;F ‘,’fuKk;> ‘xs’fhuj;jpw;F ‘c’fuKk; ,d vOj;jhf tUk;.
 ,t;Tapusngil ‘%d;W’ tifg;gLk;.
1) nra;Aspir msngil (m) ,irepiw msngil
2) ,d;dpir msngil
3) nrhy;ypir msngil

1) nra;Aspir msngil (m) ,irepiw msngil:-

 nra;Aspy; Xir FiwAk; ,lj;jpy; me;j Xiria epiwT nra;a nkhopapd;
KjypYk; ,ilapYk; ,WjpapYk; epd;w capHneby; vOj;Jfs; VOk;> jkf;F
,dkhfpa Fwpy; vOj;Jfisg; ngw;W chpa khj;jpiuapypUe;J kpFe;J
xypf;Fk;.
 ,ijNa nra;Aspir msngil vdf;$WtH.
 ,jw;F “,irepiw msngil” vDk; NtW ngaUk; cz;L.
 nra;Aspy; ,iria epiwf;f tUk; msngiliar; ‘nra;Aspir msngil’ vd;fpNwhk;.
 nra;Aspir msngil <uir nfhz;l rPHfspy; kl;Lk; tUk;.

v.fh:-

nflhm topte;j Nfz;ikahH Nfz;ik

tplhmH tpioAk; cyF

,f;Fwspy; nflh vd;gJ nflhm vd ,WjpapYk;> tplh vd;gJ tplhmH vd ,ilapYk;

msngLf;Fk;.

2) ,d;dpir msngil:-
 Xir Fiwahtpl;lhYk; ,dpa Xirf;fhf msngLj;jiy ,d;dpir msngil vd;gH.
v.fh:-
nfLg;gJ}ck; nfl;lhHf;Fr; rhHtha;kw; whq;Nf
vLg;gJ}ck; vy;yhk; kio.
 nfLg;gJk; vLg;gJk; vDk; Xir Fiwahj ,lj;jpYk; ,dpa Xir jUtjw;fhff; Fwpy;
nebyhf khwp msngLg;gJ ‘,d;dpirasngil’ MFk;.
 %tir nfhz;l rPHfspy; kl;Lk; tUk;.
v.fh:-
nfLg;gJ}ck;> vLg;gJ}ck;

3) nrhy;ypir msngil:-

 xU nrhy; kw;nwhU nrhy;yhfg; nghUs;gl tUk; msngil ‘nrhy;ypir

msngil’ MFk;.
 nra;Aspy; Xir Fiwahj ,lj;jpYk; ngaHr;nrhy; tpidnar;r nghUs;jUk;
nghUl;L msngLg;gJ nrhy;ypir msngilahFk;.

2
 v.fh:-

FbjoP, mbjoP,

 (joP – jOTjy; vd;gJ nghUs;); jOTjy; vDk; njhopw;ngaH nrhy; joP,

(jOtp) vd tpidnar;r nrhy;yhf msngLg;gJ ‘nrhy;ypir msngil’ MFk;.
 nrhy;ypir msngil – ‘,’ vDk; vOj;jpy; KbT ngw;wpUf;Fk;.

4) xw;wsngil:-
 nra;Aspy; Xir Fiwe;jhy; nka;naOj;JfSk; msngLf;Fk;. ,J ‘xw;wsngil’ MFk;.
 ty;ypd nka;fshd f;> r;> l;> j;> g;> w; vDk; MWk;> ,ilapdj;J H> o; vDk;
,uz;Lk; jtpHj;J> vQ;rpa gj;J nka;Ak; (q;> Q;> z;> e;> k;> d;> t;> a;> y;>
d;) Ma;jKk; NrHj;J gjpNdhH vOj;Jfs; msngLf;Fk;.
 me;je;j vOj;Nj mjd; gf;fj;jpy; tUk;.

v.fh:-

muq;q;fk;> kQ;Q;R

5) Fw;wpaYfuk;:-
 FWik + ,ay; + cfuk; = Fw;wpaYfuk;
 FWik vd;why; ‘FWfpa’ vd;gJ nghUs;.
 ,ay; vd;why; ‘Xir’
 cfuk; vd;why; ‘c’ vOj;J
 vdNt> FWfpa XirAila cfuk; ‘Fw;wpaYfuk;’

khj;jpiu:-

 vOj;J xypf;Fk; fhy msT MFk;.

 Fw;wpaYfuj;Jf;F miu khj;jpiu.
 Fwpyhfpa ‘c’fuk; xU khj;jpiu fhy msNt xypj;jy; Ntz;Lk;.
 Mdhy; mJ xU khj;jpiuasT xypf;fhky; rpy nrhw;fspy; miukhj;jpiuf; fhy
msNt xypf;Fk;.
 mt;thW xypg;gjidj;jhd; ‘Fw;wpaYfuk;’ vd;gH.
 nrhy;ypd; <w;W manyOj;J mbg;gilapy; Fw;wpaYfuk; ‘MW’ tifg;gLk;.
1) td;njhlHf; Fw;wpaYfuk;
2) nkd;njhlHf; Fw;wpaYfuk;
3) ,ilj;njhlHf; Fw;wpaYfuk;
4) Ma;jj; njhlHf; Fw;wpaYfuk;
5) capHj; njhlHf; Fw;wpaYfuk;
6) neby;j; njhlHf; Fw;wpaYfuk;
 rpy nrhw;fSf;F ,Wjpapy; MW ty;ypd nka; vOj;JfSld; cfuk; NrHe;J
tUk;NghJ> me;j cfuk; miu khj;jpiuahff; Fiwe;J xypf;Fk;.

3
  F¸R¸L¸JGW vDk; MW ty;ypd vOj;Jfs; jdp nebiy rhHe;J tUk;NghJk;> gy
vOj;Jfisr; rhHe;J nrhy;ypd; ,Wjpapy; tUk;NghJk; xU khj;jpiu mstpypUe;J
Fiwe;J xypf;Fk;.
 mt;thW Fiwe;J xypf;Fk; cfuk; Fw;wpaYfuk; MFk;.

1) td;njhlHf; Fw;wpaYfuk;:-
 F>R>L Mfpa vOj;jpw;F Kd; ty;ypd nka;naOj;Jfs; te;jhy; mJ ‘td;njhlHf;
Fw;wpaYfuk;’ MFk;.
v.fh:-
Rf;F> fr;R> gl;L.
2) nkd;njhlHf; Fw;wpaYfuk;:-
v.fh:-
rq;F> kQ;R> ez;L> re;J
 F>R>L>J Mfpa vOj;jpw;F Kd; nky;ypd nka;naOj;Jfs; te;jhy; mJ
‘nkd;njhlHf; Fw;wpaYfuk;’ MFk;.
3) ,ilj;njhlHf; Fw;wpaYfuk;:-
v.fh:-
nfha;J> rhHG> %o;F
 J>G>F Mfpa vOj;jpw;F Kd; ,ilapd vOj;Jfs; te;jhy; mJ ‘,ilj;njhlHf;
Fw;wpaYfuk;’ MFk;.
4) Ma;jj; njhlHf; Fw;wpaYfuk;:-
v.fh:-
v/F> f/R> m/J
 F>R>J vDk; ty;ypd nka;fs; Nky; CHe;j cfukhdJ Ma;j vOj;ijj; njhlHe;J
te;Js;sJ.
 vdNt ,J Ma;jj;njhlHf; Fw;wpaYfuk;.
5) capHj;njhlHf; Fw;wpaYfuk;:-
v.fh:-
muR> ghyhW> moF
 capHj;njhlHf; Fw;wpaYfuk; vd;gJ F>R>L>J>G>W Mfpa vOj;JfSf;F
Kd; ,uz;bw;F Nkw;gl;l vOj;Jfisg; ngw;W tUk;.
 <w;way; vOj;J capHnka;f; FwpyhfNth> nebyhfNth ,Uf;Fk;.
6) neby;njhlHf; Fw;wpaYfuk;:-
v.fh:-
ehF> fhR> ML> khJ
 capHneby;> capHnka;> nel;nlOj;Jfs; mLj;J tUk; cfuNkwpa ty;ypd
vOj;Jfs; neby;j;njhlHf; Fw;wpaYfuk; MFk;.
 neby; njhlHf; Fw;wpaYfuk; kl;LNk ,U vOj;Jfs; ngw;W tUk;.

6) Fw;wpaypfuk;:-
 FWik + ,ay; + ,fuk; = Fw;wpaypfuk;
 FWik vd;why; FWfpa; ,ay; vd;why; Xir; ,fuk; vd;why; , vDk; vOj;J.
 FWfpa XirAila ‘,’fuk; Fw;wpaypfuk;

4
  Fw;wpaypfuj;jpd; ,fuk; jd; xU khj;jpiuapypUe;J miu khj;jpiu msT Fiwe;J
xypf;Fk;.
 ehF + ahJ = ehfpahJ; tPL + ahJ = tPbahJ
 epiynkhop Fw;wpaYfuk; te;J tUnkhop afuk; thpd; epiynkhop cfuk; ,fukhf
jphpe;J jd;khj;jpiu mstpy; Fiwe;J xypg;gJ ‘Fw;wpaypfuk;’ vdg;gLk;.

v.fh:-
Nfz;kpah> nrd;kpah

o kpah vDk; Mirr;nrhy;ypy; cs;s ,fuKk; jd; khj;jpiuapy; Fiwe;J xypf;Fk;.

,JTk; Fw;wpaypfuk; vdg;gLk;.

Kw;wpaYfuk;
jdf;F chpa xU khj;jpiu mstpypUe;J Fiwahj cfuk; Kw;wpaYfuk;.

Kw;wpaYfuk; tUk; ,lq;fs;:-

1) jdpf;Fwpiy mLj;J tUk; ty;ypd cfuk; Kw;wpaYfuk; (v.fh:- gF> gR> gL> mJ)
2) fhZ> cz;Z> cUK - ,tw;wpd; <w;wpYs;s nky;ypd cfuq;fs; Kw;wpaYfuq;fs; (Z> K)
3) vO> js;S> fjT - ,tw;wpd; <w;wpYs;s ,ilapd cfuq;fs; (K> S> T) Kw;wpaYfuq;fs;.
 jdpf;Fwpiy mLj;Jr; nrhy;ypd; ,Wjpapy; tUk; ty;ypd nka;apd;Nky; CHe;J tUk;
cfuKk;>
 nghJthf nrhw;fspd; ,Wjpapy; nky;ypd nka;apd; Nky; CHe;J tUk; cfuKk;>
 ,ilapd nka;apd;Nky; CHe;J tUk; cfuKk; Mfpa %d;Wk; Kw;wpaYfuk; MFk;.

7) Ifhuf;FWf;fk;:-

 ‘I’ vDk; nel;nlOj;ij jdpahf xypf;f ,U khj;jpiu.

 ‘I’ vDk; vOj;ij xU nrhy;ypd; KjypYk; ,ilapYk; <w;wpYk; itf;Fk; NghJ xyp
Fiwe;J xypg;gij czuyhk;.
 ,t;thW I vDk; vOj;ij nrhy;Yf;F Kjy;> ,il> fil Mfpa %tplq;fspy; tUk; Ifhuk; jd;
khj;jpiu mstpypUe;J Fiwe;J xypf;Fk;. Ifhuk; ‘Ifhuf;FWf;fk;’ vdg;gLk;.

Ik;gJ - nrhy;Yf;F Kjypy; te;J ‘xd;wiu khj;jpiuahff;’

Fiwe;jJ.
jiytd; - nrhy;Yf;F ,ilapy; te;J ‘xU khj;jpiuahff;’

Fiwe;jJ.
fliy - nrhy;Yf;F <w;wpy; te;J ‘xU khj;jpiuahff;’

Fiwe;jJ.
8) xsfhuf;FWf;fk;:-

 xs vDk; vOj;J jdpahf xypf;Fk;NghJ ,U khj;jpiu.

5
  Mdhy; nrhy;Yf;F Kjypy; kl;Lk; tUk; xsfhuk; xd;wiu khj;jpiu mstpdjha;f;
Fiwe;J xypf;Fk;.
 mJNt xsfhuf;FWf;fk; vdg;gLk;.
 nrhy;Yf;F ,ilapYk; ,WjpapYk; xsfhuk; tuhJ.
 nkhopf;F Kjypy; kl;Lk; tUk; FWf;fk; ‘xsfhuf; FWf;fk;’ MFk;.

v.fh:-

xsit> ntsthy; - xd;wiu khj;jpiuahf Fiwe;jJ.

9) kfuf;FWf;fk;:-

 k; vDk; nka;naOj;J jd; khj;jpiu mstpypUe;J Fiwe;J xypj;jy; kfuf;FWf;fk;

vdg;gLk;.
 ‘k;’ vDk; nka;naOj;J nra;Aspy; jdf;Fhpa miu khj;jpiu mstpypUe;J
fhy;khj;jpiu msthff; Fiwe;J xypf;Fk;.

v.fh:-

NghYk; - Nghy;k; - Nghd;k;

kUSk; - kUs;k; - kUz;k;

 m) nra;Aspy; ,lk;ngWk; NghYk;> kUSk; Mfpa kfu <w;Wr; nrhw;fs;

<w;way; cfuq; nfl;L> Nghy;k;> kUs;k; vd;whfpg; gpd; Nghd;k; kUz;k; vdj;
jphpAk;.
 ,t;thW jphpAk; ‘d’fu> ‘z’fuq;fspd; Kd;Ds;s kfuk; jd; khj;jpiu mstpypUe;J
Fiwe;J fhy;khj;jpiu mstpy; xypf;Fk;.
 kfu <w;Wr;nrhy; Kd; ‘t’fu (t;) Kjy;nkhop te;J NrUk; NghJ epiynkhop kfuk;
Fiwe;J xypf;Fk;.

v.fh:-
tUk; + tz;b = tUk; tz;b

 ,t;tpU ,lq;fspYk; Fiwe;J xypf;Fk; kfuKk; kfuf;FWf;fk; vdg;gLk;.

10) Ma;jf;FWf;fk;:-

 Ma;jk; + FWf;fk; = Ma;jf; FWf;fk;

 (/ vDk; vOj;J Fiwe;J xypg;gJ epiynkhopapy; jdpf;Fwpiy mLj;JtUk; ‘y’fu>
‘s’fuq;fs; tUnkhopapYs;s ‘j’fuj;NjhL (j;) NrUk; NghJ Ma;jkhfj; jphpAk;.
 GzHr;rpapy; jphpe;j Ma;jk; jd; khj;jpiu mstpypUe;J Fiwe;J fhy;khj;jpiu
msthf xypf;Fk;.
 mJNt Ma;jf;FWf;fk; vdg;gLk;.
 gpd; tUnkhopapYs;s ‘j’fuk; (j;) epiynkhopf;Nfw;g ‘w’fukhf(w;)Tk;>
‘l’fukhfTk; (l;) khwpg; GzUk;.

6
 v.fh:-
fy; + jPJ = f/wPJ; Ks; + jPJ = K/BJ

ehy;tifr; nrhw;fs;
 ,yf;fz tifr; nrhw;fs; ehd;F tifg;gLk;.
 mitfs;:- 1) ngaHr;nrhy; 2) tpidr;nrhy;
3) ,ilr;nrhy; 4) chpr;nrhy;

1) ngaHr;nrhy;:-
 ngaiuf; Fwpj;J te;j nrhw;fs; ngaHr;nrhy; MFk;.

v.fh:-
mk;kh> mg;gh> kJiu.

 ngaHr;nrhy; MW tifg;gLk;.
1) nghUl;ngaH 4) rpidg;ngaH
2) ,lg;ngaH 5) Fzg;ngaH
3) fhyg;ngaH 6) njhopw;ngaH

1) nghUl;ngaH:-

 nghUisf; Fwpf;Fk; ngaH nghUl;ngaH MFk;.

 ,it 2 tifg;gLk;.
1) capUs;s nghUs;fs; : Fkud;> kyHf;nfhb> nts;shL
2) capuw;w nghUs;fs; : ehw;fhyp> mLg;G> jl;L.

2) ,lg;ngaH:-

 Xhplj;ijf; Fwpg;gJ ,lg;ngaNu MFk;.

v.fh:-
tPL> njU> gs;sp> Nfhtpy;> fhL.

3) fhyg;ngaH:-

 fz; ,ikf;Fk; nehbg;nghOJ Kjy; Copf;fhyk; tiu vy;yhNk fhyj;ijf; Fwpf;Fk;

ngaHfs; MFk;.

v.fh:-
nehb> tpdhb> kzp> thuk;> fpoik.

4) rpidg;ngaH:-

 rpid vd;gJ xd;wd; cWg;gpd; ngaiuf; Fwpg;gJ.

 kdpj cWg;Gfs;> tpyq;F cWg;Gfs;> jhtug;gFjpfs; nghUs;fspd; gFjpfs;
vd KOikahd xd;wpd; gFjpfisf; Fwpf;Fk; ngaHfs; rpidg;ngaHfs;.

7
 v.fh:-
jiy> fz;> %f;F> nrtp> ehf;F> gy;

5) Fzg;ngaH:-

 Fzg;ngaiug; ‘gz;Gg;ngaH’ vdTk; $WtH.

 epwk;> Rit> msT> tbtk; Mfpatw;wpd; mbg;gilapy; toq;fg;gLtJ Fzg;ngaH
MFk;.

v.fh:-
tl;lk;> moF

6) njhopw;ngaH:-

 nra;Ak; njhopiyf; Fwpf;Fk; ngaHfnsy;yhk; njhopw;ngaHfNs MFk;.

v.fh:-
gbj;jy;> fw;gpj;jy;> Mly;> ghly;

2) tpidr;nrhy;:-
 xU nghUspd; nraiyf; Fwpf;Fk; nrhw;fs; tpidr;nrhy; MFk;.

v.fh:-
te;jhd;> ele;jhd;

3) ,ilr;nrhy;:-
 ,izg;Gr;nrhw;fshf tUk; nrhw;fs; midj;Jk; ,ilr;nrhy; MFk;.
 ,ilr;nrhw;fs; jdpj;jpaq;fhky; ngaiuAk; tpidiaAk; rhHe;Nj tUfpwJ.

v.fh:-
1) jk;gp‘Ak;’ - ,jpYs;s ‘ck;’ ,ilr;nrhy; MFk;.
2) ,uhkidg; ghHj;Njd; - ,jpYs;s Ntw;Wik cUG ‘I’ ,ilr;nrhy; 3) fw;wjdh yha
gandd; nfhy;: ,jpYs;s ‘nfhy;’ vDk; mirr;nrhy;Yk; ‘,ilr;nrhy;Ny’ MFk;.

4) chpr;nrhy;:-
 gytifg;gl;l gz;Gfisf; nfhz;L ngaHr;nrhw;fs;> tpidr;nrhw;fs; tpl;L ePq;fhJ
nra;ASf;Nf chpik ngw;W tUtJ ‘chpr;nrhw;fs;’ MFk;.

v.fh:-
khefH - ,jpYs;s ‘kh’ vd;gJ chpr;nrhy; MFk;.
kh vd;gjd; nghUs; ‘nghpa’ vd;gjhFk;.

,yf;fpa tifr; nrhw;fs;:-

 ,yf;fpa tifr; nrhw;fs; 4 tifg;gLk;.

8
  mit 1) ,aw;nrhy; 3) jpirnrhy;
2) jphpnrhy; 4) tlnrhy;

1) ,aw;nrhy;:-
 vy;yhUf;Fk; nghUs; tpsq;Fk; tifapy; ,ay;gha; mike;j jkpo;r;nrhy; ‘,aw;nrhy;’
vdg;gLk;.
 ,J ,U tifg;gLk;.
1) ngaH ,aw;nrhy;
2) tpid ,aw;nrhy;

1) ngaH ,aw;nrhy;:-
 vspjpy; nghUs; tpsq;Fk; ngaHr;nrhw;fs;
v.fh:-
fhw;W> epyT> QhapW

2) tpid ,aw;nrhy;:-

 vspjpy; nghUs; tpsq;Fk; tpidr;nrhw;fs;

v.fh:-
gbj;jhd;> J}q;fpdhd;> te;jhd;.

2) jphpnrhy;:-
 fw;wtHfSf;F kl;LNk tpsq;ff; $badtha; ,Ug;gJ.
 ,it jphpnrhy; vdg;gLk;.
 gPyp – kapy;Njhif> cfpH - efk;> Mop – fly;> rf;fuk;
 ,J ngaH jphpnrhy;> tpidjphpnrhy; vd 2 tifg;gLk;.

1) ngaH jphpnrhy;:-
v.fh:-
vapW – gy;> Nta; - %q;fpy;> kb – Nrhk;gy;> ey;FuT – tWik

2) tpid jphpr;nrhy;:-

v.fh:-
tpdtpdhd; - Nfl;lhd;> tpspj;jhd; - mioj;jhd;> Nehf;fpdhH - ghHj;jhH.

3) jpirr;nrhy;:-
 jkpo;ehl;ilr; Rw;wpAs;s gpwgFjpfspypUe;J jkpopy; toq;Fk; nrhw;fs;
jpirr;nrhw;fs; MFk;.

9
 v.fh:-
Nfzp – fpzW> ngw;wk; - gR

4) tlnrhy;:-
 jkpopy; te;J toq;fpdhYk; jkpo;r;nrhw;fs; my;y> tlnkhop (rk];fpUjk;) nrhw;fs;

v.fh:-
fkyk; - jhkiu> tp~k; (tplk;) – eQ;R> G~;gk; (Gl;gk;) – kyH.

 ,t;thW tlnkhopr; nrhw;fs; jphpe;Jk;> jphpahkYk; jkpo;nkhopapy; te;J

toq;Fkhdhy; mit ‘tlnrhy;’ MFk;.

nrhy;
 XH vOj;J jdpahfNth> gy vOj;Jfs; njhlHe;Njh nghUs; jUtJ nrhy; vdg;gLk;.
 gjk;> nkhop> fpstp vd;gd xU nghUs; jUk; gy nrhw;fs;.
 gjk; gfhg;gjk;> gFg;gjk; vd 2 tifg;gLk;.

gfhg;gjk;:-
 gphpj;jhy; nghUs; juhj nrhy; gfhg;gjk; vdg;gLk;.
 ngaH> tpid> ,il> chp Mfpait mbg;gilapy; ‘gfhg;gjk; ehd;F tifg;gLk;’
1) ngaHg; gfhg;gjk; - kuk;> eha;> ePH
2) tpidg; gfhg;gjk; - cz;> fhz;> vL
3) ,ilg; gfhg;gjk; - jpy;> kd;> gpw
4) chpg; gfhg;gjk; - rhy> edp> fb> cW.

(,ilr;nrhy;Yk; chpr;nrhy;Yk; gfhg;gjq;fshfNt ,Uf;Fk;)

gFg;gjk;:-
 gFjp> tpFjp> ,ilepiy vdg; gphpf;fg;gLk; gjk; gFg;gjk; vdg;gLk;.
 (gFg;gjk; - gphpf;fKbe;j gjk;)
 gFg;gjk; ‘ngaHg;gFg;gjk;> tpidg;gFg;gjk;’ vd ,U tifg;gLk;.

1) ngaHg; gFg;gjk;:-
 nghUs;> ,lk;> fhyk;> rpid> Fzk;> njhopy; vDk; Mwpd; mbahfj;
Njhd;WtJ ngaHg;gFg;gjk; MFk;.
v.fh:-
1) nghd;dd; = nghd; + d; + md;
(nghd; vDk; nghUl;ngaH mbahfg; gpwe;jJ)
2) Cud; = CH + md;
(CH vDk; ,lg;ngaH mbahfg; gpwe;jJ)
3) Mjpiuahd; = Mjpiu + a; + Md;
(Mjpiu vDk; fhyg;ngaH mbahfg; gpwe;jJ)

10
 4) fz;zd; = fz; + z; + md; (fz; vDk; rpidg;ngaH
mbahfg; gpwe;jJ)
5) fhpad; = fUik + md; (fUik vDk; gz;Gg;ngaH mbahfg;
gpwe;jJ)
6) ebfd; = eb + f; + md; (ebj;jy; vDk; njhopw;ngaH mbahfg;
gpwe;jJ)

2) tpidg;gFgjk;:-

 gFjp> tpFjp> ,ilepiy Kjypadthfg; gFf;fg;gLk; tpidKw;W tpidg;gFgjk;

vdg;gLk;.
 nra;jhd; = nra; + j; + Md;

gFgj cWg;Gfs;:-
 gFjp> tpFjp> ,ilepiy> rhhpia> re;jp> tpfhuk; vDk; MW cWg;GfSk; gFgj
cWg;Gfs; MFk;.

1) gFjp:-
 gFgjj;jpy; Kjypy; epd;W nghUs;jUk; Kjdpiyia gFjp vd;gH.
(gbj;jhd; - gb vd;gJ gFjp
Xbdhd; - XL vd;gJ gFjp)
 gFjp ngUk;ghYk; Vty; tpidahf mikAk;.

2) tpFjp:-
 gFgjj;jpy; ,Wjpapy; epw;gJ tpFjp MFk;.
ele;jhd; - Md; - Mz;ghy; tpFjp
ele;jhs; - Ms; - ngz;ghy; tpFjp
ele;jdH - mH - gyHghy; tpFjp
ele;jJ - J - xd;wd;ghy; tpFjp
ele;jd - m - gytpd;ghy; tpFjp

3) ,ilepiy:-
 gFjpf;Fk; tpFjpf;Fk; ,ilapy; tUtJ ,ilepiy vdg;gLk;.
 ,ilepiy fhyk; fhl;Ltjhy; fhyq;fhl;Lk; ,ilepiy vdTk; $WtH.

m) epfo;fhy ,ilepiyfs;:-
o fpW> fpd;W> Mepd;W vd;gd epfo;fhy ,ilepiyfs;.
v.fh:-
cz;fpwhd; - fpW
cz;fpd;whd; - fpd;W
cz;zh epd;whd; - Mepd;W

M) ,we;jfhy ,ilepiyfs;:-
o j;> l;> w;> ,d; vd;gd ,we;jfhy ,ilepiyfs;.

11
 ,) vjpHfhy ,ilepiyfs;:-
o g;> t; vd;gd vjpHfhy ,ilepiyfs;.

<) vjpHkiw ,ilepiyfs;:-

o ,y;> my;> M Kjypad vjpHkiw ,ilepiyfs;.

4) re;jp:-
 gFjpf;Fk;> ,ilepiyf;Fk; ,ilapy; te;J re;jpf;f itg;gJ re;jp.
 ,J rpy ,lq;fspy; gFjpf;Fk; tpFjpf;Fk; ,ilapYk; tUk;.
ghHf;fpwhd; = ghH + f; + fpW + Md;

5) rhhpia:-
 ngaHr;nrhy;iyAk; tpidr;nrhy;iyAk; rhHe;J tUtJ rhhpia.
 ,J ,ilepiyf;Fk; tpFjpf;Fk; ,ilapy; tUk;.
cz;ldd; = cz; + l; + md; + md;
 md;>Md;>,d;>mj;J>mk; Kjypad rhhpiafs;.
6) tpfhuk;:-
 gFjp> ,ilepiy> tpFjp Nghd;wit NrUk;NghJ ,ilapy; Vw;gLk; khWghL
tpfhuk; vdg;gLk;.
 te;jhd; vDk; nrhy;ypy; cs;s ‘th’ vDk; gFjp ‘t’ vdf; Fiwe;J FWfy; tpfhuk;
Mapw;W.
re;jp rhhpia
gFjp ,ilepiy tpFjp

%tif nkhopfs;:-

nkhop:-
 jdpnkhop> njhlHnkhop> nghJnkhop vd %tifg;gLk;.

1) jdpnkhop:-
 xU nrhy; jdpj;J epd;W nghUis czHj;JtJ jdpnkhop MFk;.
v.fh:- th> fz;> nra;jhd;.

2) njhlHnkhop:-

 ,uz;L my;yJ mjw;F Nkw;gl;l nrhw;fs; njhlHe;J te;J nghUis czHj;JtJ

njhlHnkhop MFk;.

v.fh:- 1) glk; ghHj;jhd;

2) gRTk; fd;Wk; Njhl;lj;jpy; Nka;e;J nfhz;bUf;fpd;wd.

3) nghJnkhop:-

12
  xU nrhy; jdpj;J epd;W xU nghUisAk;> mr;nrhy;Ny gphpe;J epd;W NtW
nghUisAk; je;J jdpnkhopf;Fk; njhlHnkhopf;Fk; nghJtha; miktJ.

v.fh:- me;jkhd;.

 me;jkhd; vd;gJ xU jPitAk;> mr;nrhy;Ny me;j + khd; vdg; gphpe;J epd;W

me;jÆkhd; (tpyq;F) vd NtW nghUisAk; jUfpd;wJ.
 ,Nj Nghy; gyif> jhkiu> Ntq;if Kjypad nghJnkhopaha; tUfpwJ.

tpidr;nrhy;:-
,uhkd; te;jhd;> fz;zd; ele;jhd;

 ,jpy; te;jhd;> ele;jhd; Mfpa nrhw;fs; tUtJk;> elg;gJk; Mfpa nray;fisf; Fwpg;gjhy;
,it ‘tpidr;nrhy;’.
 vOtha; nra;Ak; nray; my;yJ njhopiyf; Fwpf;Fk; nrhw;fs; ‘tpidr;nrhw;fs;’ MFk;.

tpidKw;W:-
mUsuR te;jhd;> tstd; ele;jhd;

 Kw;Wg;ngw;W te;Js;s tpidr;nrhw;fis tpidKw;Wfs; vd;gH.

 ,J Kw;Wtpid vdTk; toq;fg;gLk;.
 tpidKw;W vOtha;f;Fg; gadpiyaha; mikAk;.
 %d;W fhyq;fspy; xd;iw czHj;Jk;.
 jpiz> ghy;> vz;> ,lk; Mfpatw;iwf; fhl;Lk;.
 ,t;tpidKw;W 1) njhpepiy tpidKw;W 2) Fwpg;G tpidKw;W vd ,U tifg;gLk;.

1) njhpepiy tpidKw;W:-

 nra;gtd;> fUtp> epyk;> nray;> fhyk;> nra;nghUs; vDk; MwidAk;

njhptpj;Jf; fhyj;ij ntspg;gilahff; fhl;LtJ njhpepiy tpidKw;W.
v.fh:- cotd; taypy; cOjhd;.
nra;gtd; - cotd;
fUtp - fyg;ig
epyk; - tay;
nray; - cOjy;
fhyk; - ,we;jfhyk;
nra;nghUs; - GOjpahjy;

2) Fwpg;G tpidKw;W:-

13
  nghUs; Kjyhd MwidAk; mbg;gilahff; nfhz;L> Kd; nrhy;yg;gl;l nra;gtd;
Kjyhd MwDs; fUj;jh xd;wid kl;Lk; njhptpj;Jf; fhyj;ijf; Fwpg;ghff; fhl;Lk;
tpidKw;W ‘Fwpg;G tpidKw;W’ MFk;.
mtd; nghd;dd; - nghd;id cilatd; - nghUs;
mtd; tpOg;Guj;jhd; - tpOg;Guj;jpy; tho;gtd; - ,lk;
mtd; rpj;jpiuahd; - rpj;jpiuapy; gpwe;jtd; - fhyk;
mtd; fz;zd; - fz;fis cilatd; - rpid
mtd; ey;yd; - ey;y ,ay;Gfis cilatd;- Fzk;
mtd; cotd; - cOjiyr; nra;gtd; - njhopy;
 mtd; vDk; vOtha;f;Fg; gadpiyaha; te;j ‘nghd;dd;’ vd;gNj Fwpg;G
tpidKw;W MFk;.
 nghd;id cilatdhf ,Ue;jhd;> ,Uf;fpd;whd;> ,Ug;ghd; vd nghd;dd; vd;gJ
Kf;fhyj;ijAk; Fwpg;ghf czHj;JfpwJ.

vr;rk;:-
fay;tpop gbj;jhs;> Nfhij nrd;whs;

 ,jpy; gbj;jhs;> nrd;whs; vd;gd tpidKw;Wfs;

 ,t;tpidKw;Wfs; rpy ,lq;fspy; ‘Ms;’ vDk; tpFjp Fiwe;J gbj;j> nrd;w vdTk;> gbj;J
nrd;W vdTk; tUk;.
 ,r;nrhw;fs; nghUspy; Kw;Wg;ngwhj (KOikailahj) tpidr;nrhw;fs;> Mjyhy; vr;rk;
vdg;gLk;.
 tpidKw;wpd; (Ms;) tpFjp Fiwe;J epw;Fk; nrhy;Ny vr;rk; vdg;gLk;.

nganur;rk;:-
 ngaiuf;nfhz;L KbAk; vr;rk; nganur;rk; vdg;gLk;.

gbj;j fay;tpop> nrd;w Nfhij

 gbj;j> nrd;w vDk; Kw;Wg;ngwhj vr;rtpidfs; fay;tpop> Nfhij vd ngaiuf;nfhz;L

Kbe;jjhy; mit ‘nganur;rq;fs;’ vdg;gLk;.
 ,g;nganur;rk; Kf;fhyj;jpYk; tUk;.
 ,g;nganur;rk; fhytifahy; %tifg;gLk;.
1) ,we;jfhyg; nganur;rk; - gbj;j fay;tpop> nrd;w Nfhij
2) epfo;fhyg; nganur;rk; - gbf;fpd;w fay;tpop> nry;fpd;w Nfhij
3) vjpHfhyg; nganur;rk; - gbf;Fk; fay;tpop> nry;Yk; Nfhij

1) njhpepiyg; nganur;rk;:-

te;j igaidg; ghHj;Jf; fz;zd; epd;whd;.

 ,j;njhlhpy; te;j vd;gJ igad; vDk; ngaiuf; nfhz;L Kbtjhy; nganur;rk;

vdg;gLk;.
 nra;j> nra;fpd;w> nra;Ak; vd;gd KiwNa Kf;fhyj;jpw;Fk; chpa nganur;r
tha;ghLfs;.
14
  ,it Kf;fhyj;ijAk; nraiyAk; ntspg;gilahff; fhl;br; nra;gtd; Kjyhd MWk; vQ;rp
epw;Fk;.
 ,it cld;ghl;bYk; vjpHkiwapYk; tUk;.

v.fh:- cz;l ,sq;Nfhtd;

nra;gtd; - ,sq;Nfhtd;
fUtp - fyk;
epyk; - tPL
nray; - cz;Zjy;
fhyk; - ,we;jfhyk;
nra;nghUs; - NrhW
 cz;fpd;w ,sq;Nfhtd;> cz;Zk; ,sq;Nfhtd; vd epfo;fhyk;> vjpHfhyk; fhl;Lk;
nganur;rq;fisAk; Nkw;fz;lthNw
cld;ghL - vjpHkiw
v.fh:- cz;l ,sq;Nfhtd; - cz;zhj ,sq;Nfhtd;
2) Fwpg;Gg; nganur;rk;:-
 fhyj;ijNah> nraiyNah czHj;jhky; gz;gpid kl;Lk; czHj;jp epd;W
ngaHr;nrhy;iyf; nfhz;L KbAk; vr;rk; Fwpg;Gg; nganur;rk; MFk;.
v.fh:- ey;y igad;
 ,j;njhlhpy; ey;y vDk; nrhy; fhyj;ijNah nraiyNah czHj;jhky; gz;gpid kl;Lk;
czHj;jp epd;W ngaHr;nrhy;iyf; nfhz;L Kbe;Js;sJ.
 ,J fhyj;ijf; Fwpg;ghy; czHj;Jk;.
cld;ghL - vjpHkiw
v.fh:- ey;y khztd; - jPa khztd;

tpidnar;rk;:-
 Kw;Wg;ngwhj tpidr;nrhw;fs; (vr;rq;fs;) NtnwhU tpidKw;iwf; nfhz;L Kbe;jhy; mJ
tpidnar;rk; MFk;.
v.fh:- gbj;J te;jhd;> ghl Nfl;lhd;.
 mjhtJ XH vr;rtpid> tpidiaf; nfhz;L Kbe;jhy; mJ tpidnar;rk; vdg;gLk;.
 ,t;tpidnar;rk; Kf;fhyj;jpYk; tUk;.
 ,t;tpidnar;rk; fhytifahy; %d;W tifg;gLk;.
1) ,we;jfhy tpidnar;rk; - gbj;J te;jhd;
2) epfo;fhy tpidnar;rk; - gbj;J tUfpd;whd;
3) vjpHfhy tpidnar;rk; - gbj;J tUthd;
 nganur;rj;jpy; vr;rq;fs; kl;LNk nra;j> nra;fpd;w> nra;Ak; vdf; fhyj;jpw;Nfw;g
khWk;. ngaHfs; khwhJ.
 tpidnar;rj;jpy; vr;rq;fs; khwhJ. vr;rq;fs; NkNy fhl;baJ Nghy Kf;fhy
tpidKw;WfisAk; ngw;W tUk;.

15
 1) njhpepiy tpidnar;rk;:-

gbj;Jj; Njwpdhd;> gbf;fr; nry;fpd;whd;

 ,j;njhlhpy; gbj;J. gbf;f vDk; nrhw;fs; vr;r tpidaha; epd;W fhyj;ijf; fhl;bj;
Njwpdhd;> nry;fpd;whd; Mfpa tpidKw;Wfisf; nfhz;L nghUs; KbT
ngWfpwJ.
 fhyj;ijAk;> nraiyAk; czHj;jp tpidKw;iwf; nfhz;L KbAk; vr;rtpid ‘njhpepiy
tpidnar;rk;’ MFk;.

2) Fwpg;G tpidnar;rk;:-

nky;yg; Ngrpdhd;> fz;zd; Nehapd;wp tho;e;jhd;

 ,j;njhlh;fspy; cs;s nky;y> ,d;wp vDk; vr;rtpidr; nrhw;fs; fhyj;ij ntspg;gilahf

czHj;jhky; gz;gpid czHj;jp epd;W tpidKw;iwf; nfhz;L Kbe;Js;sJ.
 Mifahy; ,it Fwpg;G tpidnar;rk; MFk;.

Kw;nwr;rk;:-
 xU tpid Kw;Wr;nrhy;> vr;rg;nghUspy; te;J kw;nwhU tpidKw;iwf; nfhz;L KbtNj
Kw;nwr;rk; MFk;.
v.fh:- ikjpyp te;jds; ghbdhs;> KUfd; gbj;jdd; Njwpdhd;
 ,j;njhlh;fspy; te;jds;> gbj;jdd; vDk; tpidKw;Wfs; te;J> gbj;J vd;Dk; tpidnar;rg;
nghUspy; epd;W NtW tpidKw;Wfisf; nfhz;L Kbe;Js;sJ.

ngaHr;nrhy;: njhopy;> gz;G> %tplg;ngaHfs;

njhopw;ngaH:-
 njhopiyf; Fwpf;Fk; ngaH njhopw;ngaH
v.fh:- Mly; - MLjy; vDk; njhopiyf; Fwpg;gjhy;

njhopw;ngaH tpFjpfs;:-
Mly; = ML + my;. my; - njhopw;ngaH tpFjp.

 jy;> my;> mk;> I> if> it> F> G> c> jp> rp> tp> cs;> fhL> ghL> muT> Mid> ik> J
vd;gd.
 tpidg;gFjpNahL Nkw;Fwpj;j tpFjpfisr; NrHj;jhy; njhopw;ngauhFk;.
v.fh:- ngWjy; = ngW + jy;> Nfhly; = NfhL + my;

njhopw;ngaH tiffs;:-
njhopw;ngaH ,uz;L tifg;gLk;.
1) Kjdpiyj; njhopw;ngaH
2) Kjdpiyj; jphpe;j njhopw;ngaH

16
 1) Kjdpiyj; njhopw;ngaH:-
 njhopw;ngaH tpFjpfNs ,y;yhky;> gFjp kl;Lk; te;J njhopy;Ghptjw;F
Kjdpiyj; njhopw;ngaH vdg;ngaH.
v.fh:- fgpyDf;F mb tpOe;jJ
 ,j;njhlhpy; mb vd;gJ tpFjpngwhky;> gFjpaha; epd;W njhopiy czHj;JfpwJ.

2) Kjdpiy jphpe;j njhopw;ngaH:-

 njhopw;ngahpd; Kjdpiyahfpa gFjp jphpe;J tUtJ Kjdpiy jphpe;j
njhopw;ngaH MFk;.
v.fh:- mwptwpe;j kf;fl; NgW
mtDf;F vd;d NfL?
 ,q;Fg; ngW> nfL Kjdpiyfs; NgW> NfL vdj; jphpe;J ngWjy;> nfLjy; vDk;
nghUis czHj;JfpwJ.

tpidahyizAk; ngaH:-
 xU tpidKw;W tpidiaf; Fwpf;fhky; tpidnra;jtiuf; Fwpg;gJ tpidahyizAk; ngaH
vdg;gLk;.
 ,J tpidf;Fhpa fhyk; fhl;Lk;.
 ngaHf;Fhpa Ntw;Wik cUGfisAk; ngw;W tUk;.
v.fh:- KUfd; ghpR ngw;whd;
ghpR ngw;whidg; ghuhl;bdH.
 ,t;tpU njhlHfspYk; ngw;whd; vDk; tpidr; nrhy; te;Js;sJ.
 Kjy; njhlhpYs;s ngw;whd; vd;gJ KUfd; vDk; vOtha;f;Fg; gadpiyahf te;Js;sJ.
 ,uz;lhtJ njhlhpYs;s ngw;whid vd;gJ KUfidf; Fwpf;Fk; ngauhf te;Js;sJ.
ngw;whid - ,we;jfhyk;
ngWfpd;whid - epfo;fhyk;
ngWthid - vjpHfhyk;
 ngw;whd; + I vd ,uz;lhk; Ntw;Wik cUG ‘I’ Vw;W te;Js;sJ.

njhopw;ngaH tpidahyizAk; ngaH

njhopYf;Fg; ngauha; tUk; njhopy; nra;gtUf;Fg; ngauha; tUk;. glHf;if

,lj;jpy; tUk; %tplq;fspYk; tUk;
fhyq;fhl;lhJ Kf;fhyj;ijAk; fhl;Lk;

gz;Gg;ngaH:-
 gz;ig czHj;Jk; ngaH gz;Gg;ngaH.
 mWtifg; ngaHfSs; xd;whd gz;Gg;ngaH epwk;> Rit> msT> tbtk; Mfpait
mbg;gilapy; Njhd;Wk;.
1) nrk;ik> ntz;ik> fUik - epwg;gz;G
2) tl;lk;> rJuk;> $k;G> nrt;tfk; - tbtg;gz;G
3) xd;W> miu - msTg;gz;G
4) fhuk;> Gspg;G - Ritg;gz;G

17
gz;Gg;ngaH tpFjpfs;:-
 ik> I> rp> G> c> F> wp> W> mk;> eH> gk;> J> kd;> ,y; vd;gd gz;Gg;ngaH
tpFjpfs;.

Ntw;Wik cUNgw;Fk;NghJ jphpAk; ngaHfs;:-

 Ntw;Wik cUGfshd I> My;> F> ,d;> mJ> fz; Mfpait jd;ik> Kd;dpiy> glHf;if Mfpa
%tplg; ngaHfis Vw;Fk; NghJ mit jphpAk;.
1) jd;ikg; ngaHfs;:-
 ehd;> ahd; vd;git jd;ik xUikg; ngaHfs;
 ehk;> ahk; vd;git jd;ik gd;ikg; ngaHfs;

1) ahd; vDk; jd;ik xUikg; ngaH Ntw;Wik cUNgw;Fk; NghJ vd; vdj; jphpAk;.

I - vd;id

My; - vd;dhy;

ahd; F - vdf;F

,d ; - vd;dpd;

mJ - vdJ

fz; - vd;fz;

2) ahk; vDk; jd;ikg; gd;ikg; ngaH Ntw;Wik cUNgw;Fk; NghJ vk; vdj; jphpAk;.
 vk;ik> vk;khy;> vkf;F> vk;kpd;> vkJ> vq;fz; vd tUk;.
3) ehk; vDk; jd;ik gd;ikg; ngaH ek; vd FWFk;.
 ek;ik> ek;khy;> ekf;F> ek;kpd;> ekJ> eq;fz; vd tUk;.
4) ahq;fs;> ehq;fs; vDk; jd;ikg; gd;ikg; ngaHfs; Ntw;Wik cUNgw;Fk; NghJ
vq;fs; vdj; jphpAk;.
 vq;fis> vq;fshy;> vq;fSf;F> vq;fspd;> vq;fsJ vd tUk;.

2) Kd;dpiyg; ngaHfs;:-
 eP vd;gJ Kd;dpiy xUikg; ngaH
 ePH> ePq;fs; Mfpait Kd;dpiyg; gd;ikg; ngaH

1) eP vDk; Kd;dpiy xUikg;ngaH Ntw;Wik cUNgw;Fk; NghJ epd; vdTk; cd;

vdTk; khWk;.

I - epd; - cd;id

My; - epd;dhy; - cd;dhy;

eP F - epdf;F - cdf;F

,d ; - epd;dpd; - cd;dpd;

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 mJ - epdJ - cdJ

fz; - epd;fz; - cd;fz;

2) ePH vDk; Kd;dpiyg; ngaH Ntw;Wik cUNgw;Fk; NghJ> Ek;> ck; vdj; jphpAk;.

I - Ek;ik - ck;ik

My; - Ek;khy; - ck;khy;

ePH F - Ekf;F - ckf;F

,d ; - Ek;kpd; - ck;kpd;

mJ - EkJ - ckJ

fz; - Ek;fz; - ck;fz;

3) ePq;fs; vDk; Kd;dpiyg; gd;ikg;ngaH Ntw;Wik cUNgw;Fk; NghJ Eq;fs;> cq;fs;

vd khWgLk;.

I - Eq;fis - cq;fis

My; - Eq;fshy; - cq;fshy;

ePq;fs; F - Eq;fSf;F - cq;fSf;F

,d ; - Eq;fspd; - cq;fspd;

mJ - Eq;fsJ - cq;fsJ

fz; - Eq;fs;fz; - cq;fs;fz;

3) glHf;ifg; ngaHfs;:-

 jhd;> jhk;> jhq;fs; vDk; glHf;ifg; ngaHfs; Ntw;Wik cUNgw;Fk;NghJ

gpd;tUkhW jphpAk;.
1) jhd; vDk; glHf;if xUikg;ngaH Ntw;Wik cUNgw;Fk; NghJ jd; vd khWk;.

I - jd;id

My; - jd;dhy;

jhd; F - jdf;F

,d ; - jd;dpd;

mJ - jdJ

fz; - jd;fz;

19
 2) jhk; vDk; glHf;ifg; gd;ikg; ngaH jk; vdj; jphpe;J Ntw;Wik cUNgw;Fk;.

I - jk;ik

My; - jk;khy;

jhk; F - jkf;F

,d ; - jk;kpd;

mJ - jkJ

fz; - jq;fz;

3) jhq;fs; vDk; glHf;ifg; ngaH jq;fs; vdj; jphpAk;.

I - jq;fis

My; - jq;fshy;

jhq;fs; F - jq;fSf;F

,d ; - jq;fspd;

mJ - jq;fsJ

fz; - jq;fz;

Ntw;Wik
 ngaHr;nrhy;ypd; nghUis NtWgLj;JtJ Ntw;Wik vdg;gLk;.
 ngaHr;nrhy;ypd; ,Wjpapy; mike;J nghUs; NtWghl;ilr; nra;Ak; cUGfis ‘Ntw;Wik
cUGfs;’ vd;gH.
 ngaiu NtWgLj;jpf; fhl;Lk; cUG ‘Ntw;Wik cUG’ vdg;gLk;.

v.fh:- ,uhkidf; fz;Nld;

 ,jpy; ‘I’ Ntw;Wik cUG MFk;.

 Ntw;Wik vl;L tifg;gLk;.
1) Kjy; Ntw;Wik (m) vOtha; Ntw;Wik
2) ,uz;lhk; Ntw;Wik
3) %d;whk; Ntw;Wik
4) ehd;fhk; Ntw;Wik
5) Ie;jhk; Ntw;Wik
6) Mwhk; Ntw;Wik
7) Vohk; Ntw;Wik
8) vl;lhk; Ntw;Wik (m) tpsp Ntw;Wik

1) Kjy; Ntw;Wik:-

20
  XH vOtha;> tpidKw;W> ngaHr;nrhy;> tpidr;nrhy; Mfpatw;Ws; xd;widg;
gadpiyahff; nfhz;L KbAk;.
 ,t;thW tUtJ vOtha; Ntw;Wik my;yJ Kjy; Ntw;Wik vdg;gLk;.
 ,jw;F cUG ,y;iy.
 ,J tpidiaAk;> ngaiuAk;> tpdhitAk; gadpiyahff; nfhz;L KbAk;.

v.fh:-

fz;zd; te;jhd; - tpidg; gadpiy

mtd; fz;zd; - ngaHg; gadpiy
mtd; ahH? - tpdhg; gadpiy

2) ,uz;lhk; Ntw;Wik:-
 ,uz;lhk; Ntw;Wik cUG ‘I’ MFk;.
 xU ngaHr;nrhy;ypd; nghUisr; nrag;gLnghUshf NtWgLj;JtJ ,uz;lhk;
Ntw;Wik vdg;gLk;.
 ,jidr; nrag;gLnghUs; Ntw;Wik vdTk; toq;FtH.
 ,J> Mf;fy; - tstd; gs;spiaf; fl;bdhd;
mopj;jy; - Nrhod; giftiu mopj;jhd;
miljy; - Njd;nkhop Nfhtpiy milj;jhs;
ePj;jy; - Fofd; rpdj;ij tpLj;jhd;
xj;jy; - fay;tpop Fapiyg; Nghd;wts;
cilik - fz;zd; nry;tj;ij cilatd;

3) %d;whk; Ntw;Wik:-
 %d;whk; Ntw;Wik cUGfs; ‘My;> Md;> xL> XL> nfhz;L> cld;’ MFk;.
 ,it ngaHg;nghUis fUtp> fUj;jh> cldpfo;r;rpg; nghUshf NtWgLj;Jk;.
 My;> Md; cUGfs; fUtp> fUj;jh Mfpa ,UnghUs;fspYk; tUk;.

1) fUtp:-
 fUtp Kjw;fUtp> Jizf;fUtp vd 2 tifg;gLk;.
 fUtpg;nghUspy; nfhz;L vDk; nrhy; nrhy;YUGfshf tUk;. v.fh:-
E}y;nfhz;L ijj;jhd;

v.fh:-

1) ehuhy; fapW jphpj;jhd;

Kjw; fUtp (fhhpakhf khwp m/jhfNt ,Ug;gJ)
2) ifahy; fapW jphpj;jhd;
Jizf; fUtp (fhhpak; nray;gLk; tiu Jizahf ,Ug;gJ)

2) fUj;jh:-
,NjNghy; fUj;jhTk; ,aw;Wjy; fUj;jh> VTjy; fUj;jh vd ,U tifg;gLk;.
v.fh:-
1) jr;rdhy; ehw;fhyp nra;ag;gl;lJ.
,aw;Wjy; fUj;jh (jhNd nra;tJ)

21
 2) Nfhtpy; murdhy; fl;lg;gl;lJ.
VTjy; fUj;jh (jhd; nra;ahky; gpwiur; nra;aitg;gJ)
3) cldpfo;r;rpg; nghUs;:-
Xh; vOthapd; nraYld; gpwpnfhd;wdJ nraYk; cldpfo;tJ ‘cldpfo;r;rpg;
nghUs;’ vdg;gLk;.
v.fh:- 1. jhnahL Foe;ij nrd;wJ
ehnahL Fl;bAk; nrd;wJ.
cldpfo;r;rpg; nghUspy; ‘cld;’ vDk; nrhy; nrhy;YUg;ghf tUk;.
v.fh:- MWKfDld; ts;sp nrd;whs;.

4) ehd;fhk; Ntw;Wik:-
 Ntw;Wik cUG ‘F’
 ,J nfhil - GytHf;Fg; ghpR nfhLj;jhH

gif - Neha;f;Fg; gif kUe;J

el;G - ghhpf;F ez;gH fgpyH

jFjp - tPl;Lf;F xU gps;is

mJthjy; - tisaYf;Fg; nghd;

nghUl;L - $ypf;F Ntiy

Kiw - NfhtyDf;F kidtp fz;zfp

vy;iy - jpUj;jzpf;F tlf;Nf Ntq;flk;.

 vd gy nghUspy; tUk;.
 ‘F’Tf;Fg; gjpyhfg; ‘nghUl;L> epkpj;jk;’ vd;gd nrhy;YUGfshf tUk;.

v.fh:- $ypapd; nghUl;L Ntiy nra;jhd;

Ntiyapd; epkpj;jk; maY}H nrd;whd;

 F cld; Mf vd;gJk; NrHe;J tUk;.

v.fh:- $ypf;fhf Ntiy nra;jhd;.

5) Ie;jhk; Ntw;Wik:-
 Ntw;Wik cUGfs; ,y;> ,d; vd;gd MFk;.
 ,it ngaHg;nghUis

ePq;fy; - jiyapd; ,ope;j kapH

xg;G - ghypd; epwk; nfhf;F

22
 vy;iy - nrd;idapd; Nkw;F NtY}H

VJ - mwptpy; kpf;ftH xsit.

 ,Ue;J> epd;W> tpl> fhl;bYk; vd;gd Ie;jhk; Ntw;Wikf;Fhpa nrhy;YUGfs;

MFk;.

v.fh:-

,Ue;J - Ntyd; ChpypUe;J te;jhd;

epd;W - murd; Njhpdpd;W ,wq;fpdhd;

tpl - fay;tpop vd;idtplg; nghpats;

fhl;bYk; - jkpiof; fhl;bYk; Ritahd nkhop cz;lh?

6) Mwhk; Ntw;Wik:-
 Ntw;Wik cUGfs; mJ> MJ> m vd;gjhFk;.
 mJ> MJ vd;gd xUikf;Fk;> m vd;gJ gd;ikf;Fk; tUk;.
 Mwhk; Ntw;Wik cUGfs; fpoikg; (chpik) nghUspy; tUk;.

v.fh:-

1) vdJ tPL
2) vdhJ E}y;
3) ij> khrp vdj; jkpo; khjq;fs; gd;duz;L.

 Mwhk; Ntw;Wikf;F ‘cila’ vd;gJ nrhy;YUG MFk;.

v.fh:-

vd;Dila tPL
ez;gDila rl;il.

7) Vohk; Ntw;Wik:-
 Ntw;Wik cUGfs; fz;> fhy;> Nky;> fPNo> ,lk;> ,y;> cd;
v.fh:-
fz; - tPl;bd;fz; G+id
Nky; - mtDf;F vd;Nky; ntWg;G
,y; - kzpapy; xyp
,y; - ngl;bapy; gzk; cs;sJ
cs; - ngl;bf;Fs; gzk; cs;sJ.

 Vohk; Ntw;Wik cUgpy; ‘,y;’ ,lg;nghUspy; tUk;.

v.fh:-
khiyapy; kyHfs;
 Ie;jhk; Ntw;Wik cUG ‘,y;’ ePq;fy; nghUspy; tUk;.

23
 v.fh:-
khiyapypUe;J kyiug; gphpj;jhd;

8) vl;lhk; Ntw;Wik:-
 Ntw;Wik cUG ,y;iy.
 ngaHr;nrhy; rpy khw;wq;fSld; mioj;jw; nghUspy; tUjy; tpspNtw;Wik MFk;.
 glHf;ifg; ngaiu Kd;dpiy ngauhf;fp miof;f ,t;Ntw;Wik gad;gLfpwJ.
 ,J tpspNtw;Wik MFk;.
v.fh:-
fz;zh th!
fpspNa NgR!

milnkhop
 gytifg;gl;ljhf ,Uf;Fk; xU nghUisg; nghJthfr; Rl;Lk; nghOJ> mjd; tif Fwpj;J Iak;
Vw;glyhk;.
 vdNt mtw;iw ,dk; gphpj;Jf; fhl;Ltjw;Fj; jdpr; nrhy;iyg; gad;gLj;JtH.
 mj;jdpr;nrhy;Ny milnkhop MFk;.
 milnkhop 1) ,dKs;s milnkhop
2) ,dkpy;yh milnkhop
vd 2 tifg;gLk;.

,dKs;s milnkhop:-
 nghUs;fis ,dk; gphpj;jwpa cjTk; milnkhopfs; ,dKs;s milnkhopfs; MFk;.

v.fh:-

 rhd;whf> ghlE}y; vdr; nrhy;y mJ Fwpj;J Iak; Njhd;Wk;.

 mijg; Nghf;f jkpo;g;ghlE}y;> Mq;fpyg;ghlE}y;> fzf;Fg; ghlE}y; vd mil nfhLj;Jf;
$wy; Ntz;Lk;.

,dkpy;yh milnkhop:-
 nghUs;fis ,dk; gphpj;jwpa cjthj milnkhopfs; ,dkpy;yh milnkhopfs; MFk;.

v.fh:-

 ntz;zpyT> fUq;fhf;if> nrq;fjpNuhd; ,tw;Wf;nfy;yhk; ,dkhff; $w Ntz;Lkhdhy;

fUepyT> ntz;fhf;if> fUq;fjpNuhd; vd $wy; Ntz;Lk;.
 mt;thW xd;W ,y;yhjjdhy; ,it ‘,dkpy;yh milnkhopfs;’ vd;gH.

%tifg; Nghypfs;
Nghyp:-
 xU nrhy;ypd; vOj;J NtWgl;lhYk; nghUs; khWglhJ ,Ug;gjidg; ‘Nghyp’ vd;gH.

24
 xU nrhy;ypy; KjypYs;s vOj;Njh> ,ilapy; cs;s vOj;Njh> ,WjpapYs;s vOj;Njh
khWgl;lhYk; nghUs; khWglhJ ,Ug;gpd; mJ ‘Nghyp’ vdg;gLk;.
 ,g;Nghyp 1) Kjw;Nghyp 2) ,ilg;Nghyp 3) filg;Nghyp vd 3 tifg;gLk;.
 ,Wjpg; Nghypiaf; filg;Nghyp vdTk; miog;gH.

1) Kjw;Nghyp:-
 xU nrhy;ypd; KjnyOj;J khwpdhYk; nghUs; khWglhJ tUtJ
Kjw;NghypahFk;.
v.fh:-
kQ;R – ikQ;R> kapy; - ikapy;

2) ,ilg;Nghyp:-
 xU nrhy;ypd; ,ilnaOj;J khwpdhYk; nghUs; khWglhJ ,Ug;gJ ,ilg;Nghyp
vdg;gLk;.
v.fh:-
KuR – KiuR> ,yQ;rp - ,iyQ;rp

3) filg;Nghyp:-
 xU nrhy;ypd; <w;nwOj;J khwpdhYk; nghUs; khWglhJ ,Ug;gJ
,Wjpg;Nghyp (filg;Nghyp) vd;gH.
v.fh:-
mwk; - mwd;> ge;jy; - ge;jH
Kw;Wg;Nghyp:-
 nrhy;ypy; cs;s midj;J vOj;JfSk; khwp> nghUs; khwhJ ,Ug;gpd; mJ
‘Kw;Wg;Nghyp’ MFk;.
v.fh:-
mQ;R – Ie;J

MFngaH
 xU nghUspd; ngaH> jdf;Fhpa nghUisf; Fwpf;fhky; jd;NdhL njhlHGila NtnwhU
nghUSf;F njhd;Wnjhl;Lg; ngauhfp tUtJ MFngaH vdg;gLk;.
 MFngaH gjpdhW tifg;gLk;.

1) nghUshF ngaH:-
ky;ypif #bdhs;
 ,q;F ky;ypif vd;gJ nfhbahfpa Kjw;nghUisf; Fwpf;fhky; G+ vDk; rpidiaf;
Fwpf;fpwJ.
 ,t;thW Kjw;nghUs; rpidf;F (cWg;Gf;F) Mfp tUtJ KjyhF ngaH vdg;gLk;.
 ,ijg; nghUshF ngaH vdTk; $WtH.

2) ,lthF ngaH:-
G+z;bg;gs;sp Ngr;Rg;Nghl;bapy; ntd;wJ.
 ,q;F gs;sp vDk; ,lg;ngaH> mg;gs;spapy; gapYk; khztpf;F Mfpte;jJ.

25
  mjdhy; ,J ,lthFngaH MFk;.

3) fhythF ngaH:-
jprk;gH G+
 jprk;gH vDk; khjg;ngaH mk;khjj;jpy; G+f;Fk; G+tpw;F Mfp te;jJ.
 vdNt ,J fhythFngaH.

4) rpidahF ngaH:-
rpid vd;why; cWg;G
 ntw;wpiy el;lhd;
 ,j;njhlhpy; ntw;wpiy vd;gJ rpidahfpa ,iyiaf; Fwpf;fhky; mjd; Kjy;
nghUshfpa nfhbf;F Mfp tUtJ rpidahF ngaH.

5) FzthF ngaH:-
Rthpy; nts;is mbj;jdH
 nts;is vd;gJ epwg;gz;G
 Mdhy; mJ epwj;ijf; Fwpf;fhky; Rz;zhk;igf; Fwpj;J te;jJ.
 mjdhy; ,J gz;ghFngaH (m) FzthFngaH vdf; $WtH.

6) njhopyhF ngaH:-
nghq;fy;
 nghq;fy; vd;gJ nghq;Fjyhfpa njhopw;ngaH
 ,j;njhopw;ngaH njhopiyf; Fwpf;fhky;> mj;njhopyhy; MFk; czitf; Fwpj;jJ.
 mjdhy; ,J njhopyhFngaH MFk;.
 msitf; Fwpf;Fk; ngaHfis msitg;ngaHfs; vd;gH.

7) vz;zy; msit MFngaH:-

‘xd;W’ ngw;why; xspkak;
 ,j;njhlhpy; xd;W vd;gJ vz;Zg;ngaH
 ,J mt;ntz;Zf;Fj; njhlHGila Foe;ijf;Fg; ngauhfp te;jJ.
 vdNt ,J vz;zy; msit MFngaH.

8) vLj;jy; msit MFngaH:-

Ie;J ‘fpNyh’ vd;d tpiy?
 ,j;njhlhpy; fpNyh vDk; vLj;jy; msitg; ngaH> mt;tsitf; Fwpf;fhky; mt;tsTila
nghUSf;F (mhprp> gUg;G) Mfp tUtJ vLj;jy; msit MFngaH.

9) Kfj;jy; msit MFngaH:-

ehd;F ypl;lH Njit
 ,j;njhlhpy; ‘ypl;lH’ vDk; Kfj;jy; msitg;ngaH> mt;tsitf; Fwpf;ftpy;iy.
 mt;tsTila ghy;> vz;nza; Kjypatw;Ws; xd;Wf;F Mfp te;jJ.
 vdNt ,J ‘Kfj;jy; msit MFngaH’

26
10) ePl;ly; msit MFngaH:-
%d;W ‘kPl;lH’ nfhL
 ,j;njhlhpy; %d;W ‘kPl;lH’ vd;gJ mt;tsTila msTNfhiyf; Fwpf;fhJ. mjdhy;
ePl;b msf;fg; ngWk;. Jzpf;F Mfp te;jJ.
 vdNt ,J ePl;ly; msit MFngaH.

11) nrhy;yhF ngaH:-

‘ts;StH nrhy;’ tho;f;iff;F ,dpJ
 ,jpy; ‘ts;StH nrhy;’ vd;gJ nrhy;iyf; Fwpf;fhJ. nghUSf;Fg; ngauhfp
te;jjhy;> ,J nrhy;yhFngaH.

12) jhdpahF ngaH:-

ghiy ,wf;F
 ghypd; ngaH ghiyf; Fwpf;fhky; ghj;jpuj;ijf; Fwpf;fpwJ.
 XH ,lj;jpy; cs;s xU nghUspd; ngaH (jhdp) mJ rhHe;jpUf;Fk; ,lj;jpw;Fg;
(jhdj;jpw;F) ngauhfp tUtJ jhdpahF ngaH.
1) ,lk; nghUSf;F Mfp tUtJ ,lthF ngaH
2) nghUs; ,lj;jpw;F Mfp tUtJ jhdpahF ngaH

13) fUtpahF ngaH:-

aho; Nfl;L kfpo;e;jhs;
 ,j;njhlhpy; aho; vDk; fUtp ,irf;F Mfp te;jjhy; fUtpahF ngaH.
14) fhhpathF ngaH:-
ehd; rikay; fw;Nwd;
 ,q;F rikay; vDk; fhhpaj;jpd; ngaH mjd; fhuzj;jpw;Fg; ngauhfp tUtJ
fhhpathF ngaH.
1) fUtpahF ngaH:-
fUtpg;nghUisf; Fwpf;fhky; mjdpd; Njhd;wpa fhhpaj;jpw;F Mfp tUk;.
v.fh:- tPiz Nfl;L nka;kwe;Njd;

2) fhhpathF ngaH:-
fhhpag;nghUs; fUtpg;nghUSf;F Mfp tUtJ.
v.fh:- ed;D}y; fw;Nwd;

15) fUj;jhthF ngaH:-

jpUts;Stiug; gbj;Jg;ghH
 ,j;njhlhpy; jpUts;StH vd;gJ mtuhy; ,aw;wg;ngw;w E}Yf;F Mfp te;jjhy;
fUj;jhthF ngaH.

16) ctikahF ngaH:-

ehujH tUfpwhH

27
  ,j;njhlhpy; ehujH vDk; ngaH mtiuf; Fwpf;fhky;> mtiug; Nghd;w
(fyf%l;LgtH) NtnwhUtUf;F Mfpte;jJ.
 mjdhy; ,J ctikahF ngaH.

njhifepiyj; njhlHfs;
 nrhw;fs; njhluhFk; NghJ ,U nrhw;fSf;fpilNa Ntw;Wik> tpid> ctik Kjypatw;Ws;
VNjDk; xd;W kiwe;J tUk;.
 ,t;thW cUGfs; kiwe;J tUk; njhlHfisj; njhifepiyj; njhlHfs; vd;gH.
 njhifepiyj; njhlH MW tifg;gLk;
1) Ntw;Wikj; njhif 4) ctikj; njhif
2) tpidj;njhif 5) ck;ikj; njhif
3) gz;Gj;njhif 6) md;nkhopj; njhif

1) Ntw;Wikj; njhif:-
 ngahpd; nghUis NtWgLj;jpf; fhl;Lk; cUGf;F Ntw;Wik cUG vd;W ngaH.
 ,t;Ntw;Wikfs; vz; tifg;gLk;.
 ,jpy; Kjy;> vl;lhk; Ntw;Wikf;F cUG ,y;iy.
 kw;w Ntw;WikfSf;F cUG cz;L.
 mit I> My;> F> ,d;> mJ> fz; vd;gd.
 ,uz;lhk; Ntw;Wik cUG Kjy; Vohk; Ntw;Wik cUGtiu cs;stw;Ws; VNjDk;
xd;W Ntw;Wik cUgha; tUk;.
 ,U nrhw;fSf;fpilNa ,t;Ntw;Wik cUG kiwe;J tUtjid Ntw;Wikj;njhif
vd;fpNwhk;.
1) ghy; gUfpdhd; - ,uz;lhk; Ntw;Wikj; njhif
(ghy; + I + gUfpdhd;)- ,q;F I vDk; cUG kiwe;Js;sJ.
2) jiy tzq;fpdhd; - %d;whk; Ntw;Wikj; njhif
(jiy + My; + tzq;fpdhd;)
3) Ntyd; kfd; - ehd;fhk; Ntw;Wikj;njhif
(Ntyd; + F + kfd;)
4) CH ePq;fpdhd; - Ie;jhk; Ntw;Wikj;njhif
(CH + ,d; + ePq;fpdhd;)
5) nrq;Fl;Ltd; rl;il - Mwhk; Ntw;Wikj;njhif
(nrq;Fl;Ltd; + mJ + rl;il)
6) Fifg;Gyp - Vohk; Ntw;Wikj;njhif
(Fif + fz; + Gyp)

2) tpidj;njhif:-
 fhyq;fhl;Lk; ,ilepiyAk;> nganur;r tpFjpAk; kiwe;J tUk; nganur;rk;>
tpidj;njhif vdg;gLk;.
 fhyq;fue;j nganur;rk; tpidj;njhif
v.fh:- cz;fyk;
 ,jid cz;lfyk;> cz;fpd;w fyk;> cz;Zk; fyk; vd Kf;fhyj;jpw;Fk; Vw;g nghUs;
nfhs;syhk;.

28
3) gz;Gj;njhif:-
ntz;zpyT> rJuf;fy;> ,d;Rit
 ,j;njhlHfspy; ntz;ik> rJuk;> ,dpik Mfpa gz;Gg; ngaHfs; epyT> fy;> Rit
Mfpa ngaHr;nrhw;fNshL NrHe;J tUk;NghJ ,uz;bw;Fk; ,ilapy; Mfpa> Md
vDk; gz;GfSk; ik tpFjpAk; kiwe;J te;Js;sJ.
 vdNt ,it gz;Gj;njhif gapd;W te;j njhlHfs;.

,Unganuhl;Lg; gz;Gj;njhif:-

ky;ypifg;G+

 ky;ypifg; vd;gJ rpwg;Gg;ngaH. G+ vd;gJ nghJg;ngaH ,uz;Lf;Fk;

,ilapy; Mfpa vd;Dk; gz;G cUG kiwe;J te;Js;sJ.
 vdNt ,/J ‘,Unganuhl;Lg; gz;Gj;njhif’ vdg;gLk;.

4) ck;ikj; njhif:-
fgpyguzH> cw;whH cwtpdH
 ,j;njhlHfspy; fgpyUk; guzUk;> cw;whUk; cwtpdUk; vd tphpe;J nghUis
czHj;JfpwJ.
 ,ilapYk; ,WjpapYk; ‘ck;’ vDk; ,ilr;nrhy; kiwe;J te;J nghUs; jUtjdhy;
‘ck;ikj;njhif’ vdg;gl;lJ.

5) ctikj; njhif:-
fay;tpop
 ,r;nrhy;ypy; fay;> tpop vDk; ,uz;L nrhw;fs; cs;sJ.
 ,t;tpU nrhw;fSf;F ,ilNa Nghd;w vDk; ctk cUG kiwe;J te;Js;sJ.
 ,jid ctikj;njhif vd;gH.

6) md;nkhopj;njhif:-
fay;tpop te;jhs;
 ,j;njhlhpy; fay; Nghd;w tpop cila ngz; te;jhs;
 ,t;thW ctikj;njhifia mLj;J my;yhj nkhop njhf;fp tUtjdhy; ,j;njhliu ‘ctikj;
njhifg; Gwj;J gpwe;j md;nkhopj;njhif’ vdg;gLk;.
 ,ijg;Nghd;W Ntw;Wik> tpid> gz;G> ck;ik Mfpa njhifepiyj; njhlHfSf;Fg;
Gwj;Nj my;yhj rpy nkhopfs; njhf;fp epd;W nghUs; jUtJ ‘md;nkhopj;njhif’
MFk;.

njhfhepiyj; njhlH
 xU njhlhpy; ,U nrhw;fs; mike;J> ,uz;bw;Fk; ,ilapy; nrhy;Nyh cUNgh kiwahJ
nghUis czHj;JtJ ‘njhfhepiyj; njhlH’ vdg;gLk;.
v.fh:- KUfd; gbf;fpwhd;
 njhfhepiyj;njhlH nkhj;jk; xd;gJ.

29
1) vOtha;j; njhlH:-
fgpyd; te;jhd;
 ,j;njhlhpy; fgpyd; vDk; vOthiaj; njhlHe;J ‘te;jhd;’ vDk; gadpiy te;Js;sjhy;
,J ‘vOtha;j;njhlH’ MFk;.

2) tpspj;njhlH:-
fjputh th!

3) tpidKw;Wj; njhlH:-
fz;Nld; rPijia
 tpidKw;W Kjypy; te;J ngaiuj; njhlHfpwJ.
 mjdhy; ,J tpidKw;Wj;njhlH.

4) nganur;rj; njhlH:-
tpOe;j kuk;
 tpOe;j vDk; vr;rtpid ‘kuk;’ vDk; ngaHr;nrhy;NyhL Kbtjdhy; ,J
nganur;rj;njhlH.

5) tpidnar;rj; njhlH:-
te;J Nghdhd;
 te;J vDk; vr;rtpid Nghdhd; vDk; tpidKw;iwf; nfhz;L Kbe;Js;sjdhy; ,J
‘tpidnar;rj; njhlH’

6) Ntw;Wikj; njhfh epiyj;njhlH:-

tPl;ilf; fl;bdhd;
 ,jpy; I vDk; Ntw;Wik cUG ntspg;gilahf te;Js;sjdhy;
 ,J Ntw;Wikj;njhfh epiyj;njhlH.

7) ,ilr;nrhw;nwhlH:-
kw;nwhd;W – kw;W + xd;W
 kw;W vDk; ,ilr;nrhy;iy mLj;J xd;W vDk; nrhy; njhlHe;J te;jjdhy; ,J
‘,ilr;nrhw;nwhlH’

8) chpr;nrhw;nwhlH:-
khKdptH
 ,j;njhlhpy; ‘kh’ vd;gJ chpr;nrhy;
 ,ijj;njhlHe;J ‘KdptH’ vDk; nrhy; te;Js;sjhy; ,J chpr;nrhw;nwhlH.

9) mLf;Fj;njhlH:-
tho;f tho;f tho;f
 xNu nrhy; gyKiw mLf;fp te;Js;sjdhy; ,J mLf;Fj;njhlH vdg;gLk;.
 nrhw;fs; jdpj;jdpNa epw;Fk;.

30
  ,ijg; gphpj;jhy; nghUs; jUk;.
 ,uz;L> %d;W> ehd;F Kiw mLf;fp tUk;.
 ,J tpiuT> ntFsp> ctif> mr;rk;> mtyk; Mfpa nghUs; fhuzkhf tUk;.

,ul;ilf;fpstp:-
 ryry> glgl.
 nrhw;fs; xd;Wgl;L epw;Fk;.
 ,J ,ul;ilr; nrhy;yhfNt tUk;.
 gphpj;jhy; nghUs; juhJ.
 ,ir> Fwpg;G> gz;G gw;wp tUk;.
 ,J milnkhopaha; ‘Fwpg;Gg;nghUspy;’ tUk;.

,LFwpg;ngaUk; fhuzg;ngaUk;
,LFwpg;ngaH:-
 ek; Kd;NdhHfs; ve;j fhuzKk; fUjhky; xU nghUSf;F FwpaPlhf ,l;l ngaNu
‘,LFwpg;ngaH’.
v.fh:- kz;> kuk;.

,LFwpg;ngahpd; tiffs;:-
1) ,LFwpg; nghJg;ngaH
2) ,LFwpr; rpwg;Gg;ngaH

1) ,LFwpg; nghJg;ngaH:-
 midj;Jf;Fk; nghJthf tUk; ,LFwpg;ngaHfis ‘,LFwpg; nghJg;ngaH’ vd;gH.
v.fh:- kiy vd;gJ midj;J kiyfSf;Fk; nghJg;ngaH
fhL vd;gJ midj;J fhLfSf;Fk; nghJg;ngaH

2) ,LFwpr; rpwg;Gg;ngaH:-

 xU ,LFwpg;ngauha; epd;W> xU nghUSf;Nf rpwg;gha; tUtjdhy; ‘,LFwpr;

rpwg;Gg;ngaH’
v.fh:- njd;id kuk;.

fhuzg;ngaH:-
 ek; Kd;NdhHfs; fhuzk; fUjp xU nghUSf;F ,l;l ngaHfs; ‘fhuzg;ngaH’ MFk;.
v.fh:- gwit – (gwg;gjdhy;)

fhuzg;ngahpd; tiffs;:-
1) fhuzg; nghJg;ngaH
2) fhuzr; rpwg;Gg;ngaH

31
 1) fhuzg; nghJg;ngaH:-
 gwg;gjdhy; ‘gwit’ vdf; fhuzk; fUjp toq;Fk; ngauhapDk; fhfk;> Fapy;>
Gwh> fpsp Mfpa midj;ijAk; ‘gwit’ vDk; nghJr;nrhy;yhy; miof;fpNwhk;.
 vdNt ,J fhuzg;nghJg;ngaH MFk;.

2) fhuzr; rpwg;Gg;ngaH:-
 fhuzg;ngauha; epd;W xU nghUSf;F rpwg;gha; tUtjdhy; mJ ‘fhuzr;
rpwg;Gg;ngaH’ MFk;.
v.fh:- gwit vd;gJ fhuzg; nghJg;ngauhf ,Ug;gpDk; mjpy; fpsp> kapy;
vd;gJ fhuzr; rpwg;Gg;ngaH.

tof;F
 ek; Kd;NdhHfs; ve;jg;nghUis ve;jr; nrhy;yhy; toq;fp te;jdNuh> mjid mg;gbNa
ehKk; toq;fp tUtjw;F ‘tof;F’ vd;W ngaH.

tof;F ,U tifg;gLk;
1) ,ay;G tof;F
2) jFjp tof;F

1) ,ay;G tof;F:-
 ,J ,yf;fzKilaJ> ,yf;fzg;Nghyp> k&c vd 3 tifg;gLk;.

m) ,yf;fzKilaJ:-
 ,yf;fzg;gpio ,y;yhky; toq;fp tUtjid ,yf;fzKilaJ vd;gH.
v.fh:- ahopdp ghlk; gbj;jhs;

M) ,yf;fzg;Nghyp:-
 efHg;Gwk;> fhy;tha;> nfhk;G Edp Nghd;w ,yf;fzKila nrhw;fisg; GwefH>
tha;f;fha;> Edpf;nfhk;G vd khw;wp> ek; Kd;NdhH ,yf;fzKilaJ Nghy toq;fp
tUtjid ‘,yf;fz Nghyp’ vd;fpNwhk;.
,) k&c:-
 jQ;rhT+H> NfhaKj;J}H CHfs;> jQ;ir> Nfhit vd rpije;J tUtjhy; ,it ‘k&c’
vdg;gLk;.

2) jFjp tof;F:-
 ,lf;fulf;fy;> kq;fyk;> F*cf;Fwp vd %tifg;gLk;.

m) ,lf;fulf;fy;:-
 gyH Kd;Nd $Wtjw;F ,lHg;ghlhfj; Njhd;Wk; nrhw;fis ePf;fpj; jFe;j
nrhw;fshy;> mg;nghUisj; njhptpg;gJ ‘,lf;fulf;fy;’ vd;gH.

32
 v.fh:- tha; fOtp te;Njd; vDk; ,j;njhliu ePf;fp> tha; G+rp te;Njd; vdf;
$WtH.

M) kq;fyk;:-
 mkq;fykhd nrhy;iy ePf;fp kq;fykhd nrhy;yhy; mg;nghUis toq;FtJ ‘kq;fyk;’
vd;gH.
v.fh:- ,we;jhiu ,iwtdb NrHe;jhH vdf; $WtH.

,) F*cf;Fwp:-
 xU FOtpdH jkf;F kl;Lk; GhpAk;tifapy;> xU nghUSf;Ff; Fwpg;ghf toq;Fk;
ngaiuf; ‘F*cf;Fwp’ vd;gH.
 rhd;whf nghw;nfhy;yH nghd;idg; ‘gwp’ vd;gH.

GzHr;rp
 epiynkhopapd; <Wk; tUnkhopapd; KjYk; NrUtJ GzHr;rp MFk;.
 ,it 1) ,ay;Gg; GzHr;rp 2) tpfhug; GzHr;rp

1) ,ay;Gg; GzHr;rp:-
 epiynkhopAk;> tUnkhopAk; NrUk; NghJ vt;tpj khw;wKk;
Vw;gltpy;iynad;why; mJ ,ay;Gg; GzHr;rp MFk;.
v.fh:- thio + kuk; = thiokuk;

2) tpfhug; GzHr;rp:-

 epiynkhopAk;> tUnkhopAk; NrUk;NghJ khw;wq;fs; Vw;gLkhdhy; mJ

‘tpfhug;GzHr;rp’ MFk;.
 ,J Njhd;wy;> jphpjy;> nfLjy; vd 3 tifg;gLk;.

v.fh:-

1) Njhd;wy;:-
gyh + Ris = gyhr;Ris - nka; Njhd;wpaJ

2) nfLjy;:-
glk; + fhl;rp = glf;fhl;rp - epiynkhop <Wnfl;L nka;
Njhd;wpaJ (k; - f; MdJ)

3) jphpjy;:-
nghd; + rpiy = nghw;rpiy - epiynkhop <W jphpe;jJ (d; - w;
MdJ)

m) caphpW:-

33
  ‘,ay;gpDk; tpjpapDk; epd;w caph;Kd; frjg’ kpFk;.
 capH <w;Wr; nrhy;Kd; ty;ypd vOj;Jfs; te;jhy; mjd; nka;naOj;J kpFk;.
v.fh:-
1) gyh + Ris = gyhr;Ris
2) gdp + NghH = gdpg;NghH

M) clk;gLnka; (capH Kd; capH):-

 ‘,<I top ‘a’t;Tk;
Vid capHthpd; ‘t’t;Tk; (m> M> c> C> x)
VKd; ,UikAk;
capHthpd; clk;gL nka;nad; whFk;’.

1) kzp + mb
 kzp vd;gJ epiynkhop; mb vd;gJ tUnkhop mjd; Kjy; vOj;J capH (m)
 epiynkhopAk;> tUnkhopAk; xd;whfr; NrUk;NghJ kzp + mb = kzp + a; +
mb = kzpab vd ,izAk; NghJ ,ilapy; ‘a;’ vDk; nka; tUfpwJ.
(,> <> I Mfpad Kd; capHthpd; ‘a;’ Njhd;Wk;)
v.fh:- fpsp + myF = fpsp + a; + myF = fpspayF.
 Vid caph; top ‘t’t;Tk; (m> M> c> C> x)
Fz + mofp = Fz + t; + mofp = Fztofp
gyh + ,iy = gyh + t; + ,iy = gyhtpiy
m> M> c> C> x Kd; ‘t;’ Njhd;Wk;.
 V Kd; ,UikAk; (a> t)
 V Kd; capHthpd; ‘t;> a;’ ,uz;Lk; tUk;.
v.fh:-
Nj + Muk; = Nj + t; + Muk; = Njthuk;
mtNd + murd; = mtNd + a; + murd; = mtNdaurd;

,) nka;aPw;Wg; GzHr;rp:-
1) cly;Nky; capHte;J xd;WtJ ,ay;G
E}y; + Mil
 E}y; vd;gJ epiynkhop; Mil vd;gJ tUnkhop.
 epiynkhopapy; ,Wjpapy; nka; te;J (y;)> tUnkhop Kjypy; capH tUk; NghJ
(M)> nka; (y;) capNuhL (M) NrHe;J E}yhil vdg; GzUk;.
v.fh:-
ghy; + Mil = ghyhil
kyH + mb = kyub
2) jdpf;Fwpy; Kd; xw;W capHthpd; ,ul;Lk;
fz; + moF
 fz; epiynkhop; moF vd;gJ tUnkhop.
 Fwpy; mLj;J te;j nka;aPiw cila epiynkhopAk; (fz;)
 capH Kjiy cila tUnkhopAk; GzUk; NghJ (m)

34
  fz; + z; + moF = fz;zoF vdg; GzUk;.
v.fh:-
fy; + miz = fy;yiz
fz; + Mb = fz;zhb

<) Fw;wpaYfug; GzHr;rp:-

 1) epiynkhopapd; <w;nwOj;Jf; Fw;wpaYfukhf te;J> tUnkhopapd; KjnyOj;J
capuhf ,Ue;jhy; epiynkhopapYs;s Fw;wpaYfuk;> jhd; CHe;J te;j ty;ypd
nka;iatpl;L ePq;Fk;.
v.fh:-
ge;J + Ml;lk; = ge;j; + c + Ml;lk; = ge;jhl;lk;.
 ‘capHthpd; cf;Fws; nka;tpl;NlhLk;’ vDk; tpjpg;gb ‘c’ ePq;fpaJ.
 ‘cly;Nky; capHte;J xd;WtJ ,ay;G’ vDk; tpjpg;gb ge;j; + Ml;lk; = ge;jhl;lk; vdg;
GzUk;.

c) Kw;wpaYfug; GzHr;rp:-
 epiynkhop <w;W Kw;WfuKk;> tUnkhopapd; KjnyOj;J capH vOj;jhf ,Ug;gpd;
‘Fw;wpaYfug; GzHr;rpiag;’ Nghyg; GzUk;.
v.fh:-
caHT (t; + c) + mile;jhH = caHtile;jhH.
 2) lfuk; (l;)> CHe;J tUk; neby; njhlHf; Fw;wpaYfuk;> wfuk; (w;) CHe;J tUk;
capHj;njhlHf; Fw;wpaYfuk; tUnkhopNahL ,izAk; NghJ mit CHe;J tUk; xw;W
,ul;bj;Jg; GzUk;.
v.fh:- fhL + Nfhop = fhl; (l; + c) + Nfhop = fhl;Lf;Nfhop
MW + ghyk; = Mw; (w; + c) + ghyk; = Mw;Wg;ghyk;
 nebNyh LapHj; njhlHf;Fw; Wfuq;fSs;
‘lw’nthw; wpul;Lk; Ntw;Wik kpfNt.
 3) td;njhlHf; Fw;wpaYfuk; jtpu> Vida Fw;wpaYfuq;fspd; Kd; tUk; ty;ypdk;>
mt;topg; GzHr;rpapy; kpfhJ.
ehF + fbJ = ehFfbJ
v/F + rpwpJ = v/FrpwJ
tuF + jPJ = tuFjPJ
Fuq;F + nghpJ = Fuq;FnghpJ
njs;F + fhy; = njs;Ffhy;
 “td;nwhlH my;yd Kd;kpfh mt;top”
 4) Ntw;Wikg; GzHr;rpapy;> ,ilj;njhlH Kd;Dk;> Ma;jj;njhlH Kd;Dk; xw;W ,ilNa
kpfhj nebw;nwhlH Kd;Dk;> capHj;njhlH Kd;Dk; tUk; ty;ypdk; kpfhJ.
v.fh:-
njs;F + fhy ; = njs;F fhy;
v/F + rpWik = v/F rpWik
ehF + jiy = ehF jiy

35
  5) nkd;njhlHf; Fw;wpaYfuq;fSs; rpy Ntw;Wikg; GzHr;rpapy; jkf;F ,dkhd
td;njhluha; KbAk;.
v.fh:-
kUe;J + ig = kUe;Jg;ig
,Uk;G + Mzp = ,Uk;ghzp
fUg;G + tpy; = fUg;G tpy;

C) Fw;wpaypfug; GzHr;rp:-
 epiynkhopapd; <W (filrp) Fw;wpaYfukhf ,Ue;J> tUnkhopapd; Kjy; vOj;J ‘a’
fukhf ,Ue;J GzUk; NghJ cfuk; ,fukhfj; jphpAk;.
 ,ijf; Fw;wpaypfug; GzHr;rp.
 Fuq;F + ahJ = Fuq; (f; + c) + ahJ = Fuq;f; + , + ahJ = Fuq;fpahJ
 capHthpd; cf;Fws; nka;tpl;L XLk;
‘a’thpd; ‘,’ahk; Kw;Wkw;nwh Nuhtop.

v) jpirg;ngaHg; GzHr;rp:-
 Kjd;ik jpirfs; ehd;F.
 mit fpof;F> Nkw;F> njw;F> tlf;F Mfpad.
 jpirg;ngaHfNshL jpirg;ngaHfSk;> gpw ngaUk; NrHtJ jpirg;ngaHg; GzHr;rp
MFk;.
1) tlf;F + fpof;F = tlfpof;F
tlf;F + Nkw;F = tlNkw;F
 tlf;F vDk; epiynkhop; fpof;F> Nkw;F vDk; tUnkhopfNshL NrUk; NghJ
epiynkhopapd; ,Wjp vOj;Jfshd f;>F ePq;fpg; GzHe;jJ.
2) njw;F + Nkw;F = njd;Nkw;F
njw;F + fpof;F = njd;fpof;F
 njw;F vDk; jpirg;ngaNuhL Nkw;F> fpof;F vDk; jpirg; ngaHfs; NrUk;NghJ>
epiynkhopapd; ,WjpapYs;s ‘F’ ePq;Fk;.
 gpwF ‘w’fu nka; ‘d’fukhfpg; GzUk;.

V) jpirg;ngaNuhL gpw ngaHfspd; GzHr;rp:-

1) tlf;F + kiy = tlkiy

 ,jpy; epiynkhopapd; ,Wjp vOj;Jfshd f;>F Mfpad ,uz;Lk; ePq;fpg; GzHe;jJ.

2) njw;F + jpir = njd;jpir

 ,jpy; epiynkhopapd; ,Wjpahfpa ‘F’ ePq;fpaJ.

 ‘F’tpw;F Ke;ija vOj;jhd w; - d; Mf khwpg; GzHe;jJ.
3) fpof;F + ehL = fPo;ehL

 ,q;F epiynkhopapd; ,Wjpahfpa f;>F ePq;fp>

 o vDk; caph;nka;apy; (o; + m) mfuk; ePq;fp>

36
  fp vDk; Kjy; vOj;J fP vd ePz;L fPo; + ehL = fPo;ehL vdg; GzHe;jJ.

4) Nkw;F + ehL = Nky;ehL> NkdhL

 epiynkhopapy; F ePq;fpaJ
 mjd; may; vOj;jhd w; - y; Mf khwp
 Nky; + ehL = Nky;ehL vdTk;>
 w; - d; Mf khwp Nky; + ehL = NkdhL vdTk; ,Utifapy; GzHe;Js;sJ.
 jpirNahL jpirAk; gpwTk; Nrhpd;
epiyaPw;W capHnka; ft;nthw;W ePq;fYk;
wfuk; dythj; jphpjYk; Mk;gpw.

I) gz;Gg;ngaH GzHr;rp:-
 epwk;> Rit> msT> tbtk; Mfpad Fwpj;J tUk; nrhw;fs; gz;Gg;ngaHfshk;.
 nrk;ik> rpWik> Nra;ik> ed;ik> ,sik> GJik Nghy;tdTk; ,tw;Wf;Fhpa
vjpHr;nrhw;fSk; ,it Nghd;w gpwTk; ‘ikaPw;Wg; gz;Gg;ngaHfs;’ MFk;.
 <WNghjy; ,ilAfuk; ,a;ahjy;
MjpePly;> mbafuk; I ahjy;
jd;ndhw;wpul;ly;> Kd;dpd;w nka;jphpjy;
,dkpfy;> ,idaTk; gz;gpw; fpay;Ng.
1) fUtpop = fUik + tpop – fU + tpop = fUtpop
 ‘<WNghjy;’ tpjpg;gb epiynkhopapd; ,Wjp vOj;J ‘ik’ ePq;fpg; GzHe;jJ.

2) nghpad; = ngUik + md; - ngU + md;; nghp + md;; nghp + a; + md; = nghpad;
 ‘<WNghjy;’ tpjpg;gb epiynkhopapd; ,Wjp vOj;J> ik ePq;Fk;.
 gpd; ngU vd;gjd; ‘,Wjp cfuk; ,il cfuk; , Mjy;’ vDk; tpjpg;gb ‘nghp’ahFk;.
 gpd; afu clk;gLnka; ngw;W nghp + a; + md; vd;gJ ‘cly;Nky; capHte;J
xd;WtJ ,ay;Ng’ tpjpg;gb a; + m – a vdg; nghpad; vdg; GzHe;jJ.

3) ghrpiy = gRik + ,iy – gR + ,iy; ghR + ,iy ghr; + c + ,iy = ghrpiy

 epiynkhop <Wnfl;L ‘Mjp ePly;’ vDk; tpjpg;gb> ghR + ,iy vd;whfpaJ.
 ‘capHthpd; cf;Fws; nka;tpl;NlhLk;’ vDk; tpjpg;gb> ghr; + ,iy vd;whFk;
 gpd; ‘cly;Nky; capHte;J xd;WtJ ,ay;Ng’ tpjpg;gb ghrpiy vdg; GzHe;jJ.
4) igq;$o; = gRik + $o;; gR + $o;; igR + $o; = ig + $o;; igq; + $o; = igq;$o;
 ‘<WNghjy;’ vDk; tpjpg;gb> ‘ik’ ePq;fpaJ. (gR + $o;)
 ‘mb mfuk; ‘I’ Mjy;’ vDk; tpjpg;gb g – ig MdJ.
 ‘,izaTk;’ vDk; tpjpg;gb capHnka; (R) nfl;lJ.
 ‘,dkpfy;’ vDk; tpjpg;gb tUnkhopapd; Kjy; vOj;jhd ‘f;’ vOj;Jf;F ,dkhd ‘q;’
kpFe;J igq;$o; vdg; GzHe;jJ.

5) rpw;Nwhil = rpWik + Xil; rpW + Xil; rpw;W + Xil; rpw;w; + Xil = rpw;Nwhil.

37
  ‘<WNghjy;’ tpjpg;gb ik nfl;lJ.
 jd;ndhw;W ,ul;ly; tpjpg;gb> gFjpahfpa rpW vd;gjd; ‘w’fuk; ,ul;bj;Jr;
‘rpw;W’ vd MfpaJ.
 gpd; ‘capHthpd; cf;Fws; nka;tpl;L XLk;’ vDk; tpjpg;gb ‘c’fuk; nfl;L
rpw;w; vd;whfpaJ.
 gpd;dH ‘cly;Nky; capHte;J xd;WtJ ,ay;Ng’ tpjpg;gb tUnkhop capH
Vwpg; GzHe;J ‘rpw;Nwhil’ vd;whapw;W.

6) Nrjhk;gy; = nrk;ik + Mk;gy;; nrk; + Mk;gy;; Nrk; + Mk;gy;; Nrj; + Mk;gy; =

Nrjhk;gy;
 ‘<WNghjy;’ tpjpg;gb ik nfl;L nrk; + Mk;gy; Mapw;W.
 gpd;dH ‘MjpePly;’ tpjpg;gb> Nrk; + Mk;gy; Mapw;W.
 gpd; ‘Kd;dpd;w nka; jphpjy;’ tpjpg;gb ‘k’funka; ‘j’funka; Mfj; jphpe;J Nrj;
+ Mk;gy; vd;whfp>
 ‘cly; Nky; capHte;J xd;WtJ ,ay;Ng’ vDk; tpjpg;gb ‘Nrjhk;gy;’
vd;whapw;W.

7) fUq;Fapy; = fUik + Fapy;; fU + Fapy; = fUq;Fapy;

 ‘<WNghjy;’ tpjpg;gb ‘ik’ nfl;lJ.
 ‘,dkpfy;’ vDk; tpjpg;gb tUnkhop ‘f’fuj;jpw;F (F) ,dkhd nka;naOj;J ‘q;’
kpFe;J> fUq;Fapy; vdg; GzUk;.

x) kfu <w;Wg; GzHr;rp:-

1) kfu <w;Wr; nrhw;fs; tUnkhopNahL NrUk;nghOJ> ,Wjp kfuk; (k;) nfl;L> caphPW
Nghy epd;W> capH Kjy; nkhopNahL clk;gLnka; ngw;Wg; GzUk;.
v.fh:-
kuk; + mb = ku + mb; ku + t; + mb = kutb

2) epiynkhopapd; kfu <W nfl;L tUnkhop Kjypy; cs;s ty;ypd vOj;J kpf;fg; GzUk;.
v.fh:-
tl;lk; + fy; = tl;lf; fy; vdg; GzUk;.

3) epiynkhopapd; kfu<W tUnkhop KjypYs;s ty;ypdj;jpw;F ,dkhd nky;ypdkhfj; jphpe;J

GzUk;.
v.fh:-
epyk; + fle;jhd; = epyq;fle;jhd;

tohepiy> tO> tOtikjp

tohepiy:-
 ,yf;fz Kiwg;gb Fw;wkpy;yhJ NgRtJk;> vOJtJk; tohepiy MFk;.
 tohepiy vd;why; ‘gpioapd;ik> jtwpd;ik’ vdg; nghUs;.
v.fh:- nry;td; gbj;jhd;

38
  ,j;njhlhpy; nry;td; vDk; Mz;ghy; xUikg;ngaH> gbj;jhd; vDk; Mz;ghy; xUik
tpidKw;iwf; nfhz;Nl KbfpwJ.
 vdNt ,J tohepiy vdg;gLk;.
 tohepiy MW tifg;gLk;.
1) jpiz tohepiy : nry;tp ghbdhs;> khL te;jJ
2) ghy; tohepiy : fz;zd; te;jhd;> eha; XbaJ
3) ,l tohepiy : ehd; te;Njd;> eP tUtha;
4) fhy tohepiy : ehis tUNtd;> New;Wg; gbj;Njd;
5) tpdh tohepiy : jkpo; ,yf;fzk; vj;jid tifg;gLk;?
6) tpil tohepiy : jkpo;ehl;bd; jiyefuk; vJ? vd;w
tpdhtpw;F nrd;id vd tpilaspj;jy;.

tOepiy:-
 ,yf;fz Kiwapd;wpg; NgRtJk;> vOJtJk; tO vdg;gLk;.
 tO vd;why; gpio> jtW> Fw;wk; vd;W nghUs;.
 ,t;tO VO tifg;gLk;.

1) jpiz tO:-
vd; khkh te;jJ
 khkh vd;Dk; caHjpizg;ngaH te;jJ vDk; m/wpiz tpidnfhz;L Kbe;jJ.
 mjdhy; ,J jpiztO.

2) ghy; tO:-
fz;zfp te;jhd;
 fz;zfp vDk; ngz;ghw; ngaH> te;jhd; vDk; Mz;ghy; tpidnfhz;L Kbe;Js;sJ.

3) ,l tO:-
ehq;fs; te;jhHfs;
 ehq;fs; vd;gJ jd;ikaplj;Jg; gd;ikg;ngaH
 mg;ngaH te;jhHfs; vDk; glHf;ifapypUe;Jg; gyHghNyhL Kbe;Js;sJ.
 vdNt ,j;njhlH ,l tO.

4) fhy tO:-
fhpfhyd; ehis te;jhd;
 ,j;njhlhpy; ehis vDk; vjpHfhyg; ngaNuhL te;jhd; vd ,we;j fhy tpid kaq;fp
te;Js;sJ.
 mjdhy; ,J fhytO MFk;.

5) tpdh tO:-
Kl;ilapl;lJ Nrtyh? ngl;ilah?
 Nrty; vdg; nghUj;jkpy;yhj tpdhitf; Nfl;ljhy; tpdhtO.

6) tpiltO:-

39
 ehis gs;sp jpwf;fg;gLkh?
 vd;w tpdhTf;F> vd; mj;ijf;F cly;eykpy;iy vdf; $WtJ ‘tpiltO’

7) kuG tO:-
eha; fj;Jk;
 ,j;njhlH kuG tO. Vnddpy; eha; Fiuf;Fk; vd;gNj Kiwahd ‘xyp kuG’

tOtikjp:- (gpio – Mdhy; gpioahff; nfhs;shik)

 ,yf;fz Kiwg;gb Fw;wKilaJ vdpDk;> ,yf;fz MrphpaHfshy; Fw;wkd;W vd;W
Vw;Wf;nfhs;sg;gLtJ tOtikjp MFk;.
 ctif (kfpo;r;rp)> rpwg;G> caHT> cWjp> rpdk; fhuzkhf jpiztOTk;> ghy;tOTk;>
fhytOTk; tOtikjpahf Vw;Wf; nfhs;sg;gLk;.

1) jpiztOtikjp:-
 rpw;W}Hfspy; rpyH jhq;fs; tsHf;Fk; tpyq;FfSf;F ngahpl;L miof;Fk;
gof;fk; cz;L.
 tUfpd;w gRit ghHj;J> vd; ,yl;Rkp te;Jtpl;lhs; vdf; $WtH.
 ,t;thW $WtJ jpiztOthapDk; kfpo;r;rpapd; fhuzkhf ‘jpiztOtikjpahf’
Vw;Wf;nfhs;fpNwhk;.

2) fhytOtikjp:-
 FbauRj;jiytH ehis jkpofk; tUfpwhH
 ,j;njhlH FbauRj;jiytH ehis jkpofk; tUthH vd mikjy; Ntz;Lk;.
 mt;thW mikatpy;iy vd;whYk; ehk; gpioahff; fUjtpy;iy.
 Vnddpy; mtuJ tUifapd; cWjpj;jd;ik Nehf;fp ‘fhytOtikjp’ahf Vw;Wf;
nfhs;fpNwhk;.

tpdh> tpil tiffs;> xUnghUl; gd;nkhop

tpdhtif:-
 tpdh MW tifg;gLk;. mit

1) mwptpdh:-
 jhd; xUnghUis ed;fwpe;jpUe;Jk; mg;nghUs; gpwUf;Fj; njhpAkh vd;gjid
mwpAk;nghUl;L tpdhtg;gLk; tpdh mwptpdh.
v.fh:-
jpUf;Fwis ,aw;wpatH ahH? vd MrphpaH khztdplk; tpdhTtJ.

2) mwpahtpdh:-
 jhd; mwpahj xU nghUis mwpe;J nfhs;tjw;fhfg; gpwhplk; tpdTtJ> mwpah
tpdh

40
 v.fh:-
vl;Lj;njhif E}y;fSs; Gwk; gw;wpad vit? vd khztd; Mrphpahplk; tpdhTtJ.

3) Iatpdh:-
 jdf;F Iakhf ,Uf;fpd;w xUnghUs; Fwpj;J> Iaj;jpidg; Nghf;fpf; nfhs;tjw;fhf
tpdtg;gLk; tpdh Iatpdh.
v.fh:-
mq;Nf fplg;gJ ghk;Ngh? fapNwh?

4) nfhsy; tpdh:-
 jhd; xU nghUis thq;fpf;nfhs;Sk; nghUl;Lf; filf;fhuhplk; tpdTk; tpdh nfhsy;
tpdh.
v.fh:-
gUg;G cs;sjh? vd tzpfhplk; tpdTk; tpdh.

5) nfhil tpdh:-
 jhd; xU nghUisf; nfhLg;gjw;fhf mg;nghUs; ,Uj;jiyg;gw;wpg; gpwhplk;
tpdTtJ nfhil tpdh.
v.fh:-
khztHfNs! cq;fSf;Fr; rPUil ,y;iyNah?

6) Vty; tpdh:-
 xU njhopiyr; nra;Ak;gb VTk; tpdh> Vty; tpdh
v.fh:-
kdg;ghlr; nra;Aisg; gbj;jhah?
KUfh rhg;gpl;lhah?
 (,it gb> rhg;gpL vd;W Vty; nghUisj; jUfpd;wJ)

tpil tif:-
 tpdhtpw;F Vw;g tpilaspg;gJjhd; nkhop jilapd; rpwg;G.
 tpdhTk;> tpilAk; gpioapd;wp mikjNy Kiw.
 ,iw> nrg;G> gjpy; vd;gd tpilapd; NtWngaHfs;.
 tpil vz; tifg;gLk;.

1) Rl;L tpil:-
 nrd;idf;F top ahJ? vd;W tpdtpdhy; ,J vd;gJ Nghyr; Rl;bf; $Wk; tpil ‘Rl;L
tpil’

2) kiw tpil:- (vjpHkWj;Jf; $wy; tpil)

 ,J nra;thah? vd;gJ tpdtpa NghJ> nra;Nad; vd;gJ Nghy vjpHkWj;Jf; $Wk;
tpil> vjpHkiw tpil.

41
 3) NeHtpil (cld;gl;Lf; $wy;)
 ,J nra;thah? vd;W tpdtpa NghJ nra;Ntd; vd;W cld;gl;Lf;$Wk; tpil NeH
tpil.
 Rl;L> kiw> NeH Mfpa %d;Wk; ntspg;gil.
4) Vty; tpil:-
 ,J nra;thah? vd;W tpdtpa NghJ> ePNa nra; vd;W Vtpf; $WtJ Vty;tpil.
5) tpdh vjpH tpdhjy; tpil:-
 ,J nra;thah? vd;W tpdtpa NghJ> ‘nra;ahkypUg;NgNdh?’ vd;W tpdhitNa
tpilahff; $WtJ ‘tpdhvjpH tpdhjy; tpil’ MFk;.
6) cw;wJiuj;jy; tpil:-
 ,J nra;thah? vd;W tpdtpa NghJ> ‘clk;G nehe;jJ’ vd;W jdf;F cw;wjid
tpilahff; $WtJ> cw;wJiuj;jy; tpil MFk;.

7) cWtJ $wy; tpil:-

 nra;thah? vDk; tpdhtpw;F ‘if typf;Fk;’ vdj; jdf;F tug;Nghtjid tpilahff; $WtJ
cWtJ $wy; tpil.

8) ,dnkhop tpil:-
 ‘MLthah’? vd;W tpdtpa NghJ ‘ghLNtd;’ vd MLtjw;F ,dkhd ghLtjid
tpilahff; $WtJ> ,dnkhop tpil MFk;.
 Vty; tpil> tpdh vjpHtpdhjy; tpil> cw;wJ ciuj;jy; tpil> cWtJ $wy; tpil>
,dnkhop tpil Mfpa Ie;Jk; ‘tpiliaf; Fwpg;ghy; czHj;Jtd’.

xUnghUl; gd;nkhop:-
 jpUkhy; Fd;wk; caHe;Njhq;fp epw;fpwJ.
me;j Viof; Foe;ijapd; fz;fs; Fope;jho;e;J fhzg;gLfpwJ.
 ,t;tpU njhlHfspYk; xUnghUs; Fwpj;Jj; njhlHe;J tUk; ,Unrhw;fs; cs;sd.
 mit caHe;Njhq;fpa> Fope;jho;e;J vd;git.
 caHe;J> Xq;fp Mfpa ,U nrhw;fSk; caHe;j vDk; xNu nghUspYk;>
 Fope;J> Mo;e;J vd;git Fope;J vDk; xU nghUspYk; tUfpd;wJ.
 xU nghUisNa jUk; gy nrhw;fs; njhlHtJ> xU nghUl; gd;nkhop MFk;.
v.fh:-
1) eLikak;
2) kPkpir QhapW
 ,j;njhlHfspy; eLg;gFjp vDk; xNu nghUis czHj;Jk; eL> ikak; vDk; ,U nrhw;fSk;>
Nkw;gFjp vDk; nghUisj; jUk; kP> kpir vDk; ,U nrhw;fSk; ,ize;J te;J xNu nghUis
czHj;jpAs;sd.

nghJ
 vOj;jpyf;fzk; nrhy;ypzf;fk; Mfpa ,uz;bYk; $wg;glhj nghJthd nra;jpfs;
nrhy;yg;gLtjhy; ‘nghJ’ vd miof;fg;gLk;.

42
 1. ntspg;gil> Fwpg;G:-
ntspg;gil:-
 cyfpNyNa gz;ghl;by; jkpo;ehLjhd; jiyrpwe;J tpsq;FfpwJ.
 ,j;njhlhpy; te;Js;s jkpo;ehL vDk; nrhy; ntspg;gilahf ,lj;ijf; Fwpj;J te;Js;sJ.
 ,t;thwhf> ntspg;gilahfj; jd;nghUis czHj;Jk; nrhy; ntspg;gil vd $Wth;.

Fwpg;G:-
 G+g;ge;J tpisahl;by; jkpo;ehL Kjyplk; ngw;wJ.
 ,j;njhlhpy; te;Js;s jkpo;ehL vd;gJ MFngauha; epd;W Fwpg;ghy;
jkpo;ehl;L tpisahl;L tPuHfisf; Fwpf;fpwJ.
 xU njhlH Kd;Dk; gpd;Dk; tUfpd;w nrhw;fs; czHj;Jk;. Fwpg;ghy; xU
nghUisj; jUtJ Fwpg;G vdf; $WtH.

Fwpg;Gr; nrhw;fs;:-
 xd;nwhop nghJr;nrhy;> tpfhur;nrhy;> jFjp tof;Fr;nrhy; MFngaH>
md;nkhopj;njhif> tpidf;Fwpg;Gr; nrhy;> Kjw;Fwpg;Gr; nrhy;> njhif Fwpg;Gr;
nrhy; Nghd;wit Fwpg;ghy; nghUs; jUk; nrhw;fs;.

1) xd;nwhop nghJr;nrhy;:-
 caHjpiz> m/wpiz Mfpa ,uz;bYk; nghJthd nrhw;fs; cz;L.
 xU nrhy; njhlhpy; Kd;Dk; gpd;Dk; tUk; nrhw;fspd; njhlHghYk;
Fwpg;ghYk; xU ghiy ePf;fp> kw;nwhU ghiyr; Rl;Lk;.
 mjw;F xd;nwhop nghJr;nrhy; vd;W ngaH.

m) caHjpizapy;:-
v.fh:-
1) tPl;bd;Kd; ItH Nfhykpl;ldH
 ,j;njhlhpy; te;Js;s ItH vDk; nrhy; Nfhykpl;ldH vDk; Fwpg;ghy;
Mz;ghiy ePf;fp ngz;ghiy czHj;jp epd;wJ.
2) ehl;il fhf;f ItH NghHfsk; nrd;wdH
 ,j;njhlhpy; ItH vDk; nghJr;nrhy; Nghh;f;fsk; vDk; nrhy;ypd;
Fwpg;ghy; ngz;ghiy tpLj;J Mz;ghiy kl;Lk; czHj;jp epd;wJ.

M) m/wpizapy;:-
1) ,k;khL taypy; cOfpwJ 2) ,k;khL ghy; fwf;fpwJ
 Kjy; njhlhpy; te;Js;s ‘khL’ vDk; nghJr; nrhy; cOfpwJ vDk;
tpidf;Fwpg;ghy; fhis khl;ilAk;>
 ,uz;lhtJ njhlhpy; tUk; ‘khL’ vDk; nghJr;nrhy; fwf;fpwJ vDk;
tpidf;Fwpg;ghy; gR khl;ilAk; Fwpg;gpLfpwJ.

43
  ,t;thW xU nghJr;nrhy; Kd;gpd; NrHe;J tUk; nrhy;ypd; Fwpg;ghy;
Mz;ghiyNah ngz;ghiyNah czHj;jp tUtJ xd;nwhop nghJr; nrhy;
MFk;.

,) ,dq;Fwpj;jy;:-

 fjpHNty; ntw;wpiy jpd;whd;

 ,j;njhlH fjpHNty; ntw;wpiy kl;Lkh jpd;whd;
 ntw;wpiyNahL mjw;F ,dkhd ghf;F> Rz;zhk;G Kjyhdtw;iwAk;
NrHj;Jj; jpd;whd; vdg; nghUs;gLk;.
 ,t;thW xU nrhy;> jd; nghUisAk; Fwpj;Jj; jdf;F ,dkhd nghUisAk;
Fwpj;J tUtJ ‘,dq;Fwpj;jy;’ vdg;gLk;.

nghUs;Nfhs;
 xU nra;Aspy; cs;s rPHfisNah mbfisNah nghUs; czHTf;F Vw;wtifapy; mikj;Jf;
nfhs;Sk; Kiwiag; nghUs;Nfhs; (nghUs; nfhs;Sk; Kiw) vd toq;FtH.
 nghUs;Nfhs; vl;L tifg;gLk;.

1) Mw;WePHg; nghUs;Nfhs;:-
,ilawhJ nry;Yk; Mw;WePiug; Nghyg; ghlypd; nrhw;fs; Kd;gpd; khwhJ NeNu
nrd;W nghUs; nfhs;tJ nghUs;NfhshFk;.
v.fh:-
nghwpthapy; Ie;jtpj;jhd; ngha;jPH xOf;f
newpepd;whH ePLtho; thH.
 ‘nghwpthapy; Ie;jtpj;jhd;’ - nka;> tha;> fz;> %f;F> nrtp vDk;
Ik;nghwpfspd; topahff;nfhz;l Itif MirfisAk; tpl;l ,iwtdJ
 ‘ngha;jPH xOf;f newpepd;whH’ – nka;ahd xOf;f newpapy; epd;wtH.
 ‘ePL tho;thH’ – tPl;Lyfpy; vd;Wk; ,d;Gw;W tho;thH.
 ,f; Fwl;ghtpy; nghwpthapy; vdj;njhlq;fp> tPLtho;thH vd;gJ tiuapYs;s
nrhw;fs; Kd;gpd;dhf khw;wk; ngwhky; njhlHr;rpahf mike;J nghUs;
nfhs;Sk; tifapy; mike;jd.
 Mjypd; ,g;ghly;> ‘Mw;WePHg; nghUs;Nfhs;’ MFk;.

2) nkhopkhw;Wg; nghUs;Nfhs;:-
 xubAs; cs;s nrhw;fis> mitjUk; nghUSf;F Vw;g khw;wpf; $wy;
‘nkhopkhw;Wg; nghUs;Nfhs;’ vd toq;fg;ngWk;.
v.fh:-
mUsy;yJ ahnjdpy; nfhy;yhik Nfhwy;
nghUsy;yJ mt;[d; jpdy;
 mUs; ahnjdpy; nfhy;yhik; mUs; my;yJ ahnjdpy; capHf;nfhiy vdg;nghUs;
nfhs;tjhy; ‘nkhop khw;Wg; nghUs;Nfhs;’ vdg;gLk;.
 ,J mbNjhWk; cs;s nrhw;fis Kd;gpd;dhf khw;wpf; nfhs;tJ.

44
3) epuy;epiwg; nghUs;Nfhs;:-
 khwp khwp ,Uf;fpd;w nrhw;fis thpirahf mikj;Jg; nghUs;nfhs;tJ
‘epuy;epiwg; nghUs;Nfhs;’ MFk;.
v.fh:-
md;Gk; mwDk; cilj;jhapd; ,y;tho;f;if
gz;Gk; gaDk; mJ.
 ,f;Fwl;ghtpy; md;gpw;Fg; gz;Gk;> mwj;Jf;Fg; gaDk; epuy;epiwahf te;J
mike;Js;sjhy; ,g;ghly; ‘epuy;epiwg; nghUs;Nfhs;’

4) tpw;G+l;Lg; nghUs;Nfhs;:-
 tpy;ypd; ,UKidfisAk; ,izj;Jf; fl;Ljy; Nghyr; nra;Aspd; Kjypy; mike;Js;s
nrhy;Yk;> ,Wjpapy; mike;Js;s nrhy;Yk; nghUs;glg; nghUj;JtJ
‘tpw;G+l;Lg; nghUs;Nfhs;’.
 ,jidg; G+l;Ltpw; nghUs;Nfhs; vdTk; $WtH.
v.fh:-
neUey; csd;xUtd; ,d;wpy;iy vd;Wk;
ngUik cilj;jpt; TyF.
 cyF vd;Dk; ,Wjpr;nrhy; Kjy; nrhy;yhd neUey; vd;gNjhL NrHj;Jg; nghUs;
nfhs;tjhy; ,J ‘G+l;Ltpw;g; nghUs;Nfhs;’.

5) jhg;gpirg; nghUs;Nfhs;:-
 CQ;rypd; eLepd;w fapW Kd;Dk; gpd;Dk; nrd;W tUtJNghyr; nra;Aspd;
eLtpy; mike;jpUf;Fk; nrhy;>
 nra;Aspd; KjypYk;> ,WjpapYk; mike;jpUf;Fk; nrhw;fSld; nghUe;jpg;
nghUisj; jUtJ ‘jhg;gpirg; nghUs;Nfhs;’.
 jhk;G + ,ir = jhg;gpir. CQ;ry;fapW mirjy; Nghy
 jhk;G = CQ;ry;fapW
v.fh:-
,we;jhH ,we;jhH midaH rpdj;ijj;
Jwe;jhH Jwe;jhH Jiz
 ,g;ghlypy; \rpdj;ij’ vd;Dk; eLepd;w nrhy;iyr; rpdj;ij cilatH (,we;jhH)
,we;jhH midaH vdTk;>
 rpdj;ijj; Jwe;jhH (Jwe;jhH) Qhdpah Jiz vdTk; mikj;Jg; nghUs; nfhs;s
Ntz;Lk;.

6) miskwp ghg;Gg; nghUs;Nfhs;:-

 ghk;G Gw;wpy; jiyitj;J EioAk;NghJ> jiy NkyhfTk;> cly; mLj;Jk; nry;tJ
Nghyr; nra;Aspd; ,WjpapypUe;J nrhw;fis vLj;J Kjypy; itj;Jf; $l;bg; nghUs;
nfhs;tJ miskwp ghg;Gg; nghUs;Nfhs;.
 (mis – Gw;W> ghg;G – ghk;G)
v.fh:-

45
 jho;e;j czHtpduhaj; jhSile;J
jd;Ndwpj; jsHthH jhKk;
#o;e;j tpidahf;if Rltpspe;J
ehw;fjpapw; Roy;thH jhKk;
tho;e;j nghOjpNd thnda;J
newpKd;Nd Kayh jhNu.
 ,g;ghlypy; ‘tho;e;j nghOjpNd thnda;J newpKd;dp KayhjhNu’ vd;Dk;
,WjpapYs;s <ubfisg; ghlypd; Kjypy; nfhz;L nghUs;nfhs;s Ntz;Lk;.

7) nfhz;L $l;Lg; nghUs;Nfhs;:-

 nra;Aspd; gy mbfspYk; $wg;gl;Ls;s nrhw;fisg; nghUSf;F Vw;gf; $l;bg;
nghUs; jUtJ ‘nfhz;L $l;Lg; nghUs;Nfhs;’.
v.fh:-
fl;bf; fUk;G frf;Fk; kpff;fdpe;j
vl;bf; fdpapdpf;Fk; vd;D}hpy; - gl;bAs
fhis gbahy; fwf;FNk ey;ygR
Ntis jtpuh JOk;.
 ,jpy; cs;s nrhw;fisf; fl;bf; fUk;G ,dpf;Fk;.
 kpff;fdpe;j vl;bf;fdp frf;Fk;.
 gl;bapypUf;Fk; fhis khL Neue;jtwhJ cOk;.
 ey;y gR kb ghy; fwf;Fk;. vd ,t;thW nghUs; nfhs;tjw;F Vw;g mbNjhWk;
khwpf;fplf;fpd;w nrhw;fis mikj;Jf; nfhs;s Ntz;Lk;.
 nfhz;L $l;Lg; nghUs;Nfhs; vd;gJ mbfs; KOJk; cs;s nrhw;fis khw;wpg;
nghUs; nfhs;tJ.

8) mbkwpkhw;Wg; nghUs;Nfhs;:-
 nra;Aspd; vy;yh mbfisAk; Kd;gpd;dhf khw;wpg; nghUs; nfhz;lhYk;
nghUSk; XirAk; rpijahky; tUtJ mbkwp khw;Wg; nghUs;Nfhs;.
v.fh:-
khwhf; fhjyH kiykwe; jdNu
Mwhf; fl;gdp tuyh dhNt
Ntwh nkd;Njhs; tisnefp Ok;Nk
$wha; Njhop ahd;ntO khNw.
 ,g;ghlypy; cs;s mbfis Kd;gpd;dhf vg;gb khw;wpg; nghUs;nfhz;lhYk;
XirAk; rpijahJ.

ahg;G: nra;As; nghUs;fs;

(vOj;J> mir> rPH> jis)

nra;As; cWg;Gfs;:-
 ahg;G - ahf;fg;gLtJ - fl;lg;gLtJ
 ahg;G vd;gJ nra;As;
 vOj;J> mir> rPH> jis> mb> njhil vDk; MWk; nra;Aspd; cWg;GfshFk;.

46
 1) vOj;J:-
 nra;Aspy; Fwpy;> neby;> nka;> Ma;jk; vDk; vOj;Jfs; Kjd;ikahff;
fUjg;gLk;.
 Fwpypy; capHf;FwpYk;> capHnka;f;FwpYk; mlq;Fk;.
 nebypy; capHnebYk;> capHnka;nebYk; mlq;Fk;.
 nka; xw;W vdTk; nrhy;yg;gLk;.
 nra;Aspy; Ma;jk; nka;ahff; fUjg;gLk;.
 ehzy; ,r;nrhy;ypy; eh – neby;> z – Fwpy;> y; - xw;nwOj;J.

2) mir:-
 vOj;J jdpahfNth> gy NrHe;Njh Xirg;gl mire;J (gphpe;J) epw;gJ mir
vdg;gLk;.
 ,J Neuir> epiuair vd ,U tifg;gLk;.
1) Neuir:-
 Fwpy; jdpj;Jk; Fwpy; xw;nwLj;Jk;>
 neby; jdpj;Jk; neby; xw;nwLj;Jk; tUk;.
v.fh:-
Fwpy; jdpj;J tuy; -f
Fwpy; xw;Wld; tuy; - fy;
neby; jdpj;J tuy; - fh
neby; xw;Wld; tuy; - fhy;
2) epiuair:-
 Fwpy; ,ize;Jk; Fwpy; ,ize;J xw;Wk;>
 Fwpy; neby; ,ize;Jk; Fwpy; neby; ,ize;J xw;W
v.fh:-
Fwpy; ,ize;J tuy; - gl
Fwpy; ,ize;J xw;Wld; tuy; - glk;
Fwpy; neby; ,ize;J tuy; - glh
Fwpy; neby; ,ize;J xw;Wld; tuy; - glhk;.

3) rPH:-

 mirfs; jdpj;Jk; ,ize;Jk; $b mbf;F cWg;ghf miktJ rPH vdg;gLk;.

 rPH ehd;F tifg;gLk;.
 mit xuirr;rPH> <uirr;rPH> %tifr;rPH> ehtifr;rPH.
1) Xuirr;rPH:-
 ntz;ghtpd; <w;wpy; Neuir> epiuairAs; VNjDk; xd;W jdpj;J epd;W rPuha;
mikAk;.
 mtw;iw ‘Xuirr;rPH’ vd;gH.
 mit 1) ehs; (NeH)> 2) kyH (epiu)> 3) fhR (NeHG)> gpwg;G (epiuG) vd
ehy;tif tha;ghLfSs; xd;iwg; ngWk;.
v.fh:-
1) nrtpapw; RitAzuh thAzHtpd; khHf;fs;

47
 mtpapDk; thopDk; (vd;).
vd; - Neh; (ehs;).
2) nrtpf;Fz tpy;yhj Ngho;J rpwpJ
tapw;Wf;Fk; <ag; gLk;.
gLk; - epiu (kyH).
3) ehnld;g ehlh tsj;jd ehly;y
ehl tse;jU ehL.
ehL – NeHG (fhR).
4) mfu Kfu vOj;njy;yhk; Mjp
gftd; Kjw;Nw cyF.
cyF – epiuG (gpwg;G).

2) <uirr;rPH (4):-

 ,U mirfs; NrHe;J xU rPH MtJ <uirr;rPH.

 <uirr;rPH nkhj;jk; ehd;F MFk;.
 mit Nehpy; KbtJ ,uz;Lk;> epiuapy; KbtJ ,uz;Lk; MFk;.

rPH tha;ghL
NeH + NeH = Njkh
epiu + NeH = Gspkh - khr;rPH - 2
NeH + epiu = $tpsk;
epiu + epiu = fUtpsk; - tpsr;rPh; - 2

 <uirr;rPH; ehd;Fk; Mrphpag;ghtpw;F chpait.

 ,it ,aw;rPH vdTk;> Mrphpa chpr;rPH; vdTk; toq;fg;gLk;.

3) %tirr;rPH (8):-

 %d;W mirfs; NrHe;J xU rPH MtJ %tirr;rPH.

 Neuirapy; KbtJ ehd;Fk;> epiu mirapy; KbtJ ehd;Fkhf %tirr; rPH vl;L MFk;.
fha;r;rPH – 4:-
NeH NeH NeH - Njkhq;fha;
epiu NeH NeH - Gspkhq;fha;
NeH epiu NeH - $tpsq;fha;
epiu epiu NeH - fUtpsq;fha;
,it ntz;ghtpw;F chpad Mjypd; ‘ntz;gh chpr;rPH’ vdTk; $WtH.
fdpr;rPH – 4:-
NeH NeH epiu - Njkhq;fdp
epiu NeH epiu - Gspkhq;fdp
NeH epiu epiu - $tpsq;fdp
epiu epiu epiu - fUtpsq;fdp
,it tQ;rpg;ghtpw;F chpajhy; ‘tQ;rpAhpr;rPH’ vd $WtH.

4) ehtirr;rPH (16):-

48
  %tifr;rPH vl;Lld; Neuir> epiuairfisj; jdpj;jdpahfr; NrHj;jhy; ehyirr;rPH; gjpdhW
fpilf;Fk;.
 ,jid ‘nghJr;rPH’ vd $WtH.

4) jis:-

 epd;w rPhpd; <w;wirAk; tUk; rPhpd; KjyirAk; ‘jis’ vdg;gLk;.

 jis xd;wpAk; tUk;> xd;whkYk; tUk;.
xd;wp tUjyhtJ :- NeH Kd; NeUk;> epiu Kd; epiuAk;
xd;whky; tUjyhtJ :- NeH Kd; epiuAk;> epiu Kd; NeUk; tUjy;.

v.fh:-
jis – xd;wp tUjy;:-
fz; Æ zh kd; Æ dh
Neh; Æ NeH NeH Æ NeH - NeH mirfs; xd;wp te;jd.
caH Æ tw caHÆ eyk;
epiu Æ epiu epiuÆ epiu - epiu mirfs; xd;wp te;jd.

jis – xd;whky; tUjy;:-

mf Æ u Kj Æ y
epiu NeH epiu NeH
kyH Æ kpir V Æ fpdhd;
epiu epiu NeH epiu - ,it xd;whky; te;jd.

jis VO tifg;gLk;.

1) Nenuhd;whrphpaj;jis:-
 kh Kd; NeH tUtJ Nenuhd;whrphpaj;jis.
ghhp Æhp gh Æ hp (kh Kd; NeH)
NeH NeH NeH NeH NeH – NeH NrHe;J tUtjhy;
Njkh Njkh ‘Nenuhd;whrphpaj; jis’

2) epiunahd;whrphpaj;jis:-
 tpsk;Kd; epiu tUtJ epiunahd;whrphpaj;jis
v.fh:-
gyHÆ Gfo; fgp ÆyH epiu - epiu NrHe;J
epiu epiu epiu NeH (tps Kd; epiu) tUtjhy;
fUtpsk; Gspkh \epiunahd;whrphpajis’

3) ,aw;rPH ntz;lis:-
 kh Kd; epiuAk;> tps Kd; NeUk; tUtJ ,aw;rPH ntz;lis
v.fh:-
mf Æ u Kj Æ y
49
 epiu NeH epiu NeH khKd; epiu ,aw;rPH ntz;lis
Gspkh Gspkh
epy Ætiu ePs; Æ Gfo;
epiu epiu NeH epiu tpsKd; NeH
fUtpsk; $tpsk;

4) ntz;rPH ntz;lis:-
 fha; Kd; NeH tUtJ ntz;rPH ntz;lis
v.fh:-
ah Æ jh Æ Dk; eh Æ lh Æ khy;
NeH NeH NeH NeH NeH NeH fha; Kd; NeH ntz;rPH ntz;lis
Njkhq;fha; Njkhq;fha;

 ntz;ghtpw;F chpa jisfs; ,aw;rPH ntz;lisAk; ntz;rPH ntz;lisAk;

ntz;ghtpy; ,t;tpU jisfs; jtpug; gpw jisfs; thuh.

5) fypj;jis:-
 fha; Kd; epiu tUtJ fypj;jis
v.fh:-
jh Æ kiug; Æ G+ Fsj; Æ jpdp Æ Ny
NeH epiu NeH epiu epiu NeH fha; Kd; epiu
$tpsq;fha; fUtpsq;fha;

6) xd;wpa tQ;rpj;jis:-

 fdp Kd; epiu tUtJ xd;wpa tQ;rpj;jis

v.fh:-
nre; Æ jh Ækiu Fsj; Æ jpdp Æ Ny
NeH NeH epiu epiu epiu NeH fha; Kd; epiu
Njkhq;fdp fUtpsq;fha;

7) xd;whj tQ;rpj;jis:-

 fdp Kd; NeH tUtJ xd;whj tQ;rpj;jis.

v.fh:-
th Æ dpy; Æ tsH jpq; Æ fsd; Æ d
NeH NeH epiu NeH epiu NeH fdp Kd; NeH
Njkhq;fdp

mb> njhil
mb:-
50
  rPHfs; gy mLj;J elg;gJ mb vdg;gLk;.
 mb Ie;J tifg;gLk;.
 mit Fwsb> rpe;jb> mstb> nebyb kw;Wk; fopnebyb.
1) Fwsb:-
 mbNjhWk; ,U rPHfisg; ngw;W tUtJ ‘Fwsb’ vdg;gLk;.
v.fh:-
Kf;jp Ntz;LNky;
gf;jp Ntz;Lkhy;

2) rpe;jb:-
 mbNjhWk; Kr;rPh;fisg; ngw;W tUtJ ‘rpe;jb’ vdg;gLk;.

v.fh:-
gOjp yhj gapHj;njhopy;
gOjp yhJ gapw;wNt
3) mstb:-

 mbNjhWk; ehd;F rPHfisg; ngw;W tUtJ mstb my;yJ Neub vdg;gLk;.

v.fh:-
jha;nkhop jhapDk; jftpw; Nghw;Wtd;
Ma;nkhop ahsHjk; md;Gf;F Vw;wtd;.

4) nebyb:-

 mbNjhWk; Ie;J rPHfisg; ngw;W tUtJ nebyb vdg;gLk;.

v.fh:-
MLk; filkzp ehmir ahky; mfpynkq;Fk;
ePLk; Filiaj; jhpj;j gpuhdpe;j ePs;jpyj;jpy;

5) fopnebyb:-

 mbNjhWk; MW my;yJ mjw;F Nkw;gl;l gy rPHfisg; ngw;W tUtjid ‘fopnebyb’ vdf;

$WtH.
v.fh:-
tho;tpdpy; nrk;ik Ntz;Lk;
tha;ikNa Ngry; Ntz;Lk;
ghopr;nray; tpyf;fy; Ntz;Lk;
gz;gpidf; fhj;jy; Ntz;Lk;.
 ,g;ghly; mbNjhWk; MW rPHfs; ngw;W tUtjdhy; ,jidf; fopnebyb vd;gH.
 ghlypYs;s rPHfis vz;zp> ,jid ‘mWrPHf;fopnebyb’ vd;gH.
 ,NjNghy; VOrPHfs; ,Ue;jhy; ‘VOrPHf;fopnebyb’ vd;Wk;>
 vl;Lr;rPHfs; ,Ue;jhy; \vz;rPHf;fopnebyb’ vd;Wk; $WtH.

njhil

51
 kyHfisj; njhLg;gJNghyNt rPHfspYk; mbfspYk; Nkhid Kjypad mikaj; njhLg;gJ
‘njhil’ MFk;.
 (njhil – njhLf;fg;gLtJ> njhil – khiy)
 ghtpd; Xirapd;gj;jpw;Fk; rpwg;gpw;Fk; ,j;njhil Ntz;LtjhFk;.
 ‘njhilaw;w ghl;L eilaw;Wg; NghFk;’ vd;gJ gonkhop.
 njhil vz; tifg;gLk;. mitahtd:-
1) Nkhidj;njhil 5) msngilj;njhil
2) vJifj;njhil 6) ,ul;ilj;njhil
3) Kuz;njhil 7) me;jhjpj;njhil
4) ,iaGj;njhil 8) nre;njhil

1) Nkhidj;njhil:-
 nra;Aspy; mbNjhWk; Kjy; vOj;J xd;wptuj; njhLg;gJ mbNkhidj; njhil
vdg;gLk;.
vz;zpj; Jzpf fUkk; Jzpe;jgpd;
vz;Ztk; vd;g jpOf;F
 ,f;Fwl;ghtpy; Kjy; mbapd; Kjw;rPhpYs;s Kjy; vOj;Jk; (v)>
 ,uz;lhk; mbapd; Kjw;rPhpYs;s Kjy; vOj;Jk; (v) xd;wp te;Js;sjdhy;> ,J
‘Nkhidj;njhil’ MFk;.

2) vJifj; njhil:-
 mbNjhWk; KjnyOj;J msnthj;J (Xirapy;) epw;f> ,uz;lhk; vOj;J xd;wptuj;
njhLg;gJ ‘mbnaJifj; njhil’ vdg;gLk;.
 mfu Kjy vOj;njy;yhk; Mjp
gftd; Kjw;Nw cyF.
 ,f;Fwl;ghtpy; Kjy; mbapYk; ,uz;lhk; mbapYk; ‘f’ vDk; ,uz;lhk; vOj;J
xd;wp te;Js;sJ.
 vdNt ,J ‘mbnaJifj; njhil’ vdg;gLk;.

3) Kuz; njhil:-
 mbNjhWk; Kjw;rPH Kuz;glj; njhLg;gJ mbKuz;njhil vdg;gLk;.
 ,d;gk; tpioahd; ,Lk;ig ,ay;ngd;ghd;
Jd;gk; cWjy; ,yd;
 ,g;ghly; Kjybapy; ,d;gk; vd;Wk;> ,uz;lhk; mbapy; Jd;gk; vd;Wk; Kuz;gl
nrhw;fs; te;Js;sJ.
 vdNt ,J ‘mbKuz; njhil’ vdg;gLk;.

4) ,iaGj; njhil:-
 mbNjhWk; ,Wjpr;rPH xd;wptuj; njhLg;gJ ‘mb,iaGj; njhil’ vdg;gLk;.
 nfhz;ly; NfhGuk; mz;ilapy; $Lk;
nfhbfs; thdk; gbju %Lk;
fz;l Nguz;lj; jz;liy ehLk;
fdf Kd;wpy; mdk;tpis ahLk;

52
  ,g;ghlypy; mbNjhWk; ,WjprPH xd;wp te;Js;sjhy; ‘mb ,iaGj; njhil’ MFk;.

5) msngilj; njhil:-
 mbNjhWk; Kjy; rPH msngLj;J tUtJ mbasngilj; njhil MFk;.
 v.fh:-
nfLg;gJ}ck; nfl;lhHf;Fr; rhHtha;kw; wq;Nf
vLg;gJ}ck; vy;yhk; kio
 ,g;ghlypy; nfLg;gJ}ck;> vLg;gJ}ck; vd ,uz;lbfspy; msngLj;J te;Js;sikahy;
‘mbmsngilj; njhil’ vdg;gLk;.

njhil tpfw;gq;fs;:-
 ehd;F rPHfSila Xubapy; ,iz> nghopg;G> x&c> $io> Nkw;fJtha;> fPo;f;fJtha;>
Kw;W Mfpatw;Ws; VNjDk; xd;iwf; nfhz;L njhLg;gJ ‘njhil tpfw;gk;’ vdg;gLk;.
 ,t;NtOk; Nkhid> vJif> ,iaG> Kuz;> msngil Mfpa Ie;Jk; nghUe;j njhiltpfw;gk; 35
tifg;gLk;.

1) Nkhid:-
m) ,iz Nkhid (1>2):-
 ehyb nfhz;l rPUs; KjypU rPHfspy; KjnyOj;J xd;wptuj; njhLg;gJ
‘,izNkhid’ MFk;.
,d;nrhy; ,dpjPd;wy; fhd;ghd; vtd;nfhNyh
td;nrhy; toq;FtJ.

M) nghopg;G Nkhid (1>3):-

XH mbapd; Kjy;rPhpYk; %d;whk;rPhpYk; KjnyOj;J xd;wp tUtJ nghopg;G
Nkhid MFk;.
Jwe;jhH ngUik Jizf;$wpd; itaj;

,) x&c Nkhid (1>4):-

XH mbapd; Kjw;rPhpYk; ehyhk; rPhpYk; KjnyOj;J xd;wptuj; njhLg;gJ> x&c
Nkhid.
epiwnkhop khe;jH ngUik epyj;J
kiwnkhop fhl;b tpLk;.

<) $io Nkhid (1>2>3):-

XH mbapd; Kjy;> ,uz;L> %d;whk; rPh;fspy; KjnyOj;J xd;wp tUtJ $io Nkhid
vdg;gLk;.
v.fh:-
jhdk; jtkpuz;Lk; jq;fh tpaDyfk;
thdk; toq;fh njdpd;.

c) Nkw;fJtha; Nkhid (1>3>4):-

Xh; mbapd; Kjy;> %d;W> ehyhk; rPHfspy; KjnyOj;J xd;wptuj; njhLg;gJ
‘Nkw;fJtha; Nkhid’ MFk;.
tpz;zpd;W ngha;g;gpd; tphpePH tpaDyfj;
Js;epd;W lw;Wk; grp.

53
 C) fPo;f;fJtha; Nkhid (1>2>4):-
Xubapd; Kjy;> ,uz;L> ehyhk; rPHfspy; Kjy; vOj;J xd;wp tuj; njhLg;gJ
‘fPo;f;fJtha; Nkhid’ MFk;.
v.fh:-
,Us;NrH ,UtpidAk; Nruh ,iwtd;

v) Kw;W Nkhid (1>2>3>4):-

XH mbapd; ehY rPHfspYk; KjnyOj;J xd;wptuj; njhLg;gJ ‘Kw;WNkhid’ MFk;.
v.fh:-
fw;f frlwf; fw;git fw;wgpd;

2) vJifj;njhil:-
m) ,iz vJif (1>2):-
KjypU rPHfspd; KjnyOj;J msnthj;J epw;f (Xirastpy;) ,uz;lhk; vOj;J xd;wptuj;
njhLg;gJ ‘,izvJif’ vdg;gLk;.
v.fh:-
Mw;WthH Mw;wy; grpahw;wy; mg;grpia
M) nghopg;G vJif (1>3):-
XH mbapd; Kjy;rPhpYk; %d;whk; rPhpYk; KjnyOj;J msnthj;J epw;f ,uz;lhk;
vOj;J xd;wptuj; njhLg;gJ ‘nghopg;G vJif’ MFk;.
v.fh:-
my;yy; mUshs;thHf; fpy;iy

,) x&c vJif (1>4):-

XH mbapd; Kjw;rPhpYk; ehyhk; rPhpYk; KjnyOj;J msnthj;J epw;f ,uz;lhk;
vOj;J xd;wptUtJ x&c vJif.
v.fh:-
mUspyhHf; ,t;Tyfk; ,y;iy nghUspyhHf;

<) $io vJif (1>2>3):-

XH mbapd; Kjy;> ,uz;L> %d;whk; rPh;fspy; KjnyOj;J msnthw;W epw;f
,uz;lhk; vOj;J xd;wp tUtJ $io vJif vdg;gLk;.
v.fh:-
gw;Wf gw;ww;whd; gw;wpid mg;gw;iwg;

c) Nkw;fJtha; vJif (1>3>4):-

Xh; mbapd; Kjy;> %d;W> ehyhk; rPHfspy; KjnyOj;J msnthj;J epw;f ,uz;lhk;
vOj;J xd;wptuy; ‘Nkw;fJtha; vJif’ MFk;.
v.fh:-
moFf;nfhz;l vy;yhk; mog;Nghk; ,og;gpDk;

C) fPo;f;fJtha; vJif (1>2>4):-

Xubapd; Kjy;> ,uz;L> ehyhk; rPHfspy; Kjy; vOj;J msnthj;J epw;f> ,uz;lhk;
vOj;J xd;wptuj; njhLg;gJ ‘fPo;f;fJtha; vJif’ MFk;.
v.fh:-
,d;gj;Js; ,d;gk; tpioahjhd; Jd;gj;Js;

v) Kw;nwJif (1>2>3>4):-
XH mbapy; ehw;rPHfspYk; KjnyOj;J msnthj;J epw;f> ,uz;lhk; vOj;J
xd;wptuj; njhLg;gJ ‘Kw;nwJif’ MFk;.

54
 v.fh:-
Jg;ghHf;Fj; Jg;gha Jg;ghf;fpj; Jg;ghHf;Fj;

gh tiffs;
 ntz;gh> Mrphpag;gh> fypg;gh> tQ;rpg;gh vdg; ‘gh’ ehy;tifg;gLk;.

ntz;ghtpd; nghJ ,yf;fzk;:-

 <w;wb Kr;rPuha; Vida mbfs; 4 rPiuAk; ngw;wpUf;Fk;.
 Fiwe;jJ 2 mb Kjy;> mjpfkha; gd;dpnuz;L mbtiu tUk;.
 ,aw;rPH (khr;rPH> tpsr;rPH)> ntz;rPH (fha;r;rPH) tUk;> gpw rPHfs; thuh.
 ,aw;rPH ntz;lisAk;> ntz;rPH ntz;lisAk; tUk;> gpw rPHfs; thuh.
 nrg;gNyhir ngw;W tUk;.
 <w;wbapd; <w;Wr;rPH ehs;> kyH> fhR> gpwg;G vDk; tha;g;ghLfSs; xd;W
nfhz;L KbAk;.
 xU tpfw;gkhfNth> gy tpfw;gkhfNth tUk;.

ntz;ghtpd; tiffs;:-
 ntz;ghtpd; tiffs; 6.
 mit Fws; ntz;gh> Nehpir ntz;gh> ,d;dpir ntz;gh> Nehpirr; rpe;jpay; ntz;gh>
,d;dpirr; rpe;jpay; ntz;gh> g/nwhil ntz;gh.

m) Fws; ntz;gh:-
 ntz;ghtpd; nghJ ,yf;fzk; ngw;W ,uz;bfisf; nfhz;ljha;> xU tpfw;gj;jhDk;>
,U tpfw;gj;jhDk; tUtJ Fws; ntz;gh (Fws; - ,uz;lb)
xU tpfw;gj;jhd; te;j Fws; ntz;gh:-
mfu Kjy vOj;njy;yhk; Mjp
gftd; Kjw;Nw cyF.
,U tpfw;gj;jhd; te;j Fws; ntz;gh:-
nghUnsd;Wk; ngha;ah tpsf;fk; ,UsWf;Fk;
vz;zpa Njaj;Jr; nrd;W.

M) Nehpir ntz;gh:-
 ntz;ghtpd; nghJ ,yf;fzk; ngw;W 4 mbfspy; ,uz;lhk; mbapd;
,Wjpr;nrhy; jdpr;nrhy; ngw;W tUtJ ‘Nehpir ntz;gh’ MFk;.
 ,J Kjy; ,uz;lb xU tpfw;gkhAk;> filrp ,uz;lb xU tpfw;gkhAk;> ehd;F
mbfSk; xU tpfw;gkhAk; tUtJ ‘Nehpir ntz;gh’ MFk;.
xU tpfw;gk; mike;j Nehpir ntz;gh:-
ney;Yf; fpiwj;jePH tha;f;fhy; topNahbg;
Gy;Yf;Fk; Mq;Nf nghrpAkhk; - njhy;Yyfpy;
ey;yhH xUtH Cnuy; mtHnghUl;L
vy;yhHf;Fk; nga;Ak; kio.
 ,g;ghlypd; ehd;fbapYk; ,uz;lhkbapd; ,Wjpr;rPhpYk; xNu vJif ngw;W xU
tpfw;gj;jhd; te;j Nehpir ntz;gh MFk;.
,U tpfw;gj;jhd; te;j Nehpir ntz;gh:-
cd;Ds; fyitj;jha; Cf;f kiyitj;jha;
fd;dy; nkhopAd;Ds; fs;itj;jha; - kpd;itj;jha;

55
 kz;zpy; GJik kyHf;Fs; kzk;itj;jha;
jz;zPHj; jkpNoeP jha;

,) ,d;dpir ntz;gh
 ntz;ghtpd; nghJ ,yf;fzk; ngw;W 4 mbapy; ,uz;lhk; mbapd; ,Wjpr;nrhy;
jdpr;nrhy; ,d;wp tUtJ ‘,d;dpir ntz;gh’
 ,uz;lhk; mbapd; ,Wjpr;nrhy; jdpr;nrhy; ngw;W> %d;W tpfw;gj;jhd; tUk;.
 %d;whk; mbapd; ,Wjpapy; jdpr;nrhy; ngw;W ,uz;L tpfw;gj;jhDk; tUtJk;
‘,d;dpir ntz;gh’ MFk;.
itfYk; tuf;fz;L kj;Jzuh
itfYk; itfiy itFnkd; wpd;Ugh
itfYk; itfw;wk; tho;ehs;nky; itNjy;
itfiy itj;Jiw jhH.
 (ehd;F mbfSk; xU tpfw;gkha; mike;Js;sJ)
jhdq; nfhLf;Fj; jifikAk; khdj;jhH
Fw;wq; fbj;j nthOf;fKk; - njw;nwdg;
gy;nghU zPq;fpa rpe;ijAk; ,k;%d;Wk;
ey;tpid ahHf;Fq; fapW.
 ,g;ghlypy; ,uz;lhk; mbapy; jdpr;nrhy; ngw;W ehd;fbapYk; %d;W
tpfw;gq;fs; te;Js;sjhy; ,J ,d;dpir ntz;gh Mapw;W.

<) Nehpirr; rpe;jpay; ntz;gh:-

 ntz;ghtpd; nghJ ,yf;fzk; ngw;W ,uz;lhk; mbapd; ,Wjpapy; jdpr;nrhy;
ngw;W> xU tpfw;gj;jhDk; ,U tpfw;gj;jhDk; ‘%d;wbfshy;’ tUtJ MFk;.
v.fh:-
%d;wbfs; cilajha; xU tpfw;gkha; ,uz;lhk; mbapd; ,Wjpr;nrhy; jdpr;nrhy;
ngw;W te;j Nehpirr; rpe;jpay; ntz;gh MFk;.
mwpe;jhid Vj;jp mwpthq; Fwpj;J
rpwe;jhHf;Fr; nry;t Diug;g – rpwe;jhH
rpwe;jik Muha;e;J nfhz;L

c) ,d;dpirr; rpe;jpay; ntz;gh:-

 ntz;ghtpd; nghJ ,yf;fzk; ngw;W %d;wb nfhz;ljha;j; jdpr; nrhy;ypd;wp xU
tpfw;gj;jhDk; gy tpfw;gj;jhDk; tUtJ ‘,d;dpirr; rpe;jpay; ntz;gh’ MFk;.
v.fh:-
,uz;lhk; mbapy; jdpr;nrhy; ,d;wp> xU tpfw;gj;jhd; te;j ,d;dpirr; rpe;jpay;
ntz;gh.
ghHnkhopfs; mj;jidf;Fk; ghq;fhd ew;whahk;
rPHnfhz;l nre;jkpNo rpe;jidapy; Vw;wpLtha;
ghHKOJQ; rhw;wpLtha; gha;e;J.
v) g/nwhil ntz;gh:-
 ntz;ghtpd; nghJ ,yf;fzk; ngw;W Ie;jb Kjy; gd;dpuz;L mbtiu ngw;W tUtJ
g/nwhil ntz;gh MFk;.
Kf;fdpNa! Kg;ghNy! %thj %j;jkpNo!
nrhf;fdJ khefiur; #o;e;j ngUk;NgNw
,j;jiur; #hpaNd! vq;fs; capuKNj!
vk;nkhopf;Fk; %j;jtNs! vd;Wk; ,Ug;gtNs!
fz;Nz! eP fhyf; fdp!
 ,g;ghly; <w;wb %d;W rPuhAk;> Vida mbfs; ehd;F rPuhAk; te;j g/nwhil
ntz;gh.

56
 Mrphpag;gh
Mrphpag;ghtpd; nghJ ,yf;fzk;:-
 mstbfisg; (ehd;F rPH) ngw;W tUk;.
 ,aw;rPH (khr;rPH> tpsr;rPH) gapd;W tUk;> gpw rPUk; tUk;.
 Mdhy; tQ;rpAhpr;rPHfs; thuh.
 Mrphpaj;jisfs; gapd;W tUk;. gpw jisfs; fye;J tUk;.
 mftNyhir ngw;W tUk;. ,J mftw;gh vd miof;fg;gLk;.
 %d;wbr; rpw;nwy;iyAk;> ghLk; Gytdpd; kdj;jpw;Nfw;gg; gy mbfisg; ngw;W tUk;.
 <w;wbapd; <w;Wr;rPH (I> x> vd;> <> My;) vd KbAk;.
 <w;wbapd; <w;Wr;rPH ‘Vfhuj;jpy;’ KbtJ rpwg;G.
Mrphpag;gh 4 tiffs;:-
m) Nehpir Mrphpag;gh:-
 Mrphpag;ghtpd; nghJ ,yf;fzk; ngw;W> <w;wayb Kr;rPuha; gpw mbfs;
ehw;rPuhAk; tUtJ Nehpir Mrphpag;gh.
v.fh:-
ghhp ghhp vd;W gy Vj;jp
xUtH Gfo;tH nre;jhg; GytH
ghhp xUtD ky;yd;
khhpAk; cz;gpd; LyF Gug;gJNt
 ,g;ghlypy; <w;wayb Kr;rPuhAk; gpw mbfs; ehw;rPuhAk; te;Js;sJ.

M) epiykz;by; Mrphpag;gh:-
 Mrphpag;ghtpd; nghJ ,yf;fzk; ngw;W vy;yh mbAk; ehd;F rPHfsha; tUtJ.
ghzd; #lhd; ghbdp mdpahs;
Mz;ik Njhd;w MltHf; fle;j
ty;Ntw; rhj;jd; kha;e;j gpd;iw
Ky;iyAk; G+e;jpNah xy;iyA+H ehl;Nl.

,) ,izf;Fws; Mrphpag;gh:-
 Mrphpag;ghtpd; nghJ ,yf;fzk; ngw;W Kjyb kw;Wk; <w;wb ehd;F
rPuhfTk; Vida mbfs; ,U rPH (Fwsb) my;yJ %d;W rPH (rpe;jb) fye;J tUtJ
,izf;Fws; Mrphpag;gh MFk;.
v.fh:-
ePhpd; jd;ikAk; jPapd; ntk;ikAk;
rhur; rhHe;J
jPur; jPUk;
rhuy; ehld; Nfz;ik
rhur; rhur; rhHe;J
jPuj; jPuj; jPHnghy; yhNj.
 ,g;ghlypy; KjybAk;> <w;wbAk; mstbahfTk;> ,ilabfs; FwsbahfTk;>
rpe;jbahfTk; te;Js;sJ.

<) mbkwp kz;ly Mrphpag;gh:-

 Mrphpag;ghtpd; nghJ ,yf;fzk; ngw;W> vy;yh mbfSk; ehd;F rPuhfTk;
mike;J> vy;yh mbfisAk; Kd;gpd;dhf khw;wp khw;wpg; gbj;jhYk; XirAk;
nghUSk; khwhJ tUtJ mbkwp kz;by Mrphpag;gh MFk;.
v.fh:-

57
 jha;nkhop tsHj;jy; jkpoHjq; flNd
tha;nkhop Guj;jy; kw;wtH flNd
fha;nkhop jtpHj;jy; fw;wtH flNd
Ma;nkhop ciuj;jy; mwpQHjk; flNd.
 ,g;ghlypy; cs;s mbfis Kd;gpd;dhf khw;wpdhYk; ghlypd; XirAk;> nghUSk;
khwhky; tUfpd;wJ.

fypg;gh
 Fiwe;jJ 3 mbfSk; mjpfgl;rk; vj;jid mbfs; Ntz;LkhdhYk; tUk;.
 vy;yh rPHfSk; ehd;F rPHfsha; ngw;W tUk;.
 ntz;rPH (fha;r;rPH) kl;Lk; tUk;.
 fypj;jis tUk;. gpwjisfSk; gapd;W tUk;.
 Xir: Js;sNyhir ngw;W tUk;.

tQ;rpg;gh:-
 Fiwe;jJ 3 mbfSk; mjpfgl;rk; vj;jid Ntz;LkhdhYk; tUk;.
 ,UrPH> %d;WrPH fye;J tUk;.
 fha;rPH kw;Wk; tQ;rpAhpr;rPH ngw;W tUk;.
 J}q;fNyhir ngw;W tUk;.
 tQ;rpj;jis tUk; gpwjisfSk; tUk;.

nghUs; ,yf;fzk;
 nghUs; vd;gJ xOf;fKiw
 nghUspyf;fzk; mfk;> Gwk; vd ,Utifg;gLk;.

1) mfg;nghUs;:-
 md;Gila jiytd; jiytp gw;wpa xOf;fj;jpidf; $WtJ mfj;jpiz MFk;.
 mfj;jpizfs; VO tifg;gLk;.
 FwpQ;rp> Ky;iy> kUjk;> nea;jy;> ghiy> iff;fpis> ngUe;jpiz vd mfj;jpizfs;
VO tifg;gLk;.
 FwpQ;rp> Ky;iy> kUjk;> nea;jy;> ghiy Mfpaitfs; md;gpd; Ie;jpiz vd;W
toq;fg;ngWk;.
 mfg;nghUSf;Fhpa nghUs;fs; Kjw;nghUs;fs; fUg;nghUs; chpg;nghUs;
vd;gH.

m) Kjw;nghUs;:-
 mfnthOf;fk; epfo;jw;Ff; fhuzkhd epyKk; nghOJk; Kjw;nghUs; vdg;gLk;.
 epyk; Itifg;gLk;.

Itif epyq;fs;:-

1) FwpQ;rp - kiyAk; kiyrhHe;j ,lKk;

2) Ky;iy - fhLk; fhLrhHe;j ,lKk;
3) kUjk; - taYk; tay;rhHe;j ,lKk;
4) nea;jy; - flYk; fly;rhHe;j ,lKk;
5) ghiy - kzYk; kzy;rhHe;j ,lKk;

nghOJ
 nghOJ ngUk; nghOJ> rpWnghOJ vd ,U tifg;gLk;.

58
 ngUk;nghOJ (Xuhz;bd; MW $Wfs;):-
1) ,sNtdpw; fhyk; - rpj;jpiu> itfhrp
2) KJNtdpw; fhyk; - Mdp> Mb
3) fhHfhyk; - Mtzp> Gul;lhrp
4) FspHfhyk; - Ig;grp> fhHj;jpif
5) Kd;gdpf;fhyk; - khHfop> ij
6) gpd;gdpf;fhyk; - khrp> gq;Fdp

rpWnghOJ (xU ehspd; MW $Wfs;):-

1) fhiy - fhiy 6 kzpKjy; 10 kzptiu
2) ez;gfy; - fhiy 10 kzpKjy; 2 kzptiu
3) vw;ghL - gpw;gfy; 2 kzpKjy; 6 kzptiu
4) khiy - khiy 6 kzpKjy; ,uT 10 kzptiu
5) ahkk; - ,uT 10 kzpKjy; ,uT 2 kzptiu
6) itfiw - ,uT 2 kzpKjy; fhiy 6 kzptiu
 vw;ghL – vy; + ghL. vy; - QhapW> ghL – kiwAk; Neuk;.

jpizAk; nghOJk;:-

jpiz ngUk;nghOJ rpWnghOJ

FwpQ;rp FspHfhyk;> Kd;gdpfhyk; ahkk;
Ky;iy fhHfhyk; khiy
kUjk; MWngUk; nghOJfs; itfiw
nea;jy; MWngUk; nghOJfs; vw;ghL
ghiy ,sNtdpy;> KJNtdpy;> gpd;gdp ez;gfy;

M) fUg;nghUs;:-
 me;je;j epyj;jpw;Fhpa nja;tk;> kf;fs;> czT> tpyq;F Kjypa nghUs;fs;
fUg;nghUs; vdg;gLk;.

fUg;ng FwpQ;rp Ky;iy kUjk; nea;jy; ghiy

hUs;
nja;tk; KUfd; jpUkhy; ,e;jpud; tUzd; nfhw;wit

kf;fs; FwtH> MaH> cotH> gujd;> vapdH>

Fwj;jpaH Ma;r;rpaH coj;jpaH guj;jpaH vapw;wpaH
czT kiyney;> jpiz tuF> rhik nre;ney;> kPd; #iwahlyhy;
ntz;nzy; cg;Gf;Fg; tUk; nghUs;
ngw;w
nghUs;
tpyq;F Gyp> fub> Kay;> khd;> vUik> Kjiy> Rwh typapoe;j
rpq;fk; Gyp ePHeha; ahid
G+ FwpQ;rp> Ky;iy> nrq;fO ePH> jhio> nea;jy; Futk;> ghjphp
fhe;js; Njhd;wp jhkiu
kuk; mfpy;> nfhd;iw> fhQ;rp> kUjk; Gd;id> Qhoy; ,Yg;ig> ghiy
Ntq;if fhah
gwit fpsp> kapy; fhl;Lf;Nfhop ehiu> flw;fhfk; Gwh> gUe;J
> kapy; ePHf;Nfhop>

59
 md;dk;
CH rpWFb ghb> NrhP Ng&H> %J}H gl;bdg;ghf;fk; FWk;G

ePH mUtpePH> fhl;lhW kidf;fpzW> kzw;fpzW> tw;wpa Rid>

RidePh; ngha;if ctHf;fop fpzW
giw njhz;lfk; VW Nfhl;giw kzKoh> kPd; Nfhl;giw Jb
ney;yhpfpiz
aho; FwpQ;rpah Ky;iyaho; kUjaho; tpshpaho; ghiyaho;
o;

gz; FwpQ;rpg;g Ky;iyg;gz; kUjg;gz; nry;topg;gz; gQ;rg;gz;

z;

njhopy; NjndLj;jy;> VWjOty;> ney;yhpj;jy;> kPd; gpbj;jy;> topg;gwp>

fpoq;F epiu fis gwpj;jy; cg;G tpisj;jy; epiu ftHjy;
mfo;jy; Nka;j;jy;

,) chpg;nghUs;:-
FwpQ;rp - GzHjYk;> GzHjy; epkpj;jKk;
Ky;iy - ,Uj;jYk;> ,Uj;jy; epkpj;jKk;
kUjk; - ClYk; Cly; epkpj;jKk;
nea;jy; - ,uq;fYk; ,uq;fy; epkpj;jKk;
ghiy - gphpjYk; gphpjy; epkpj;jKk;

2) Gwg;nghUs;
 Gwg;nghUs; vdg;gLtJ> tho;f;iff;F JizGhpAk; fy;tp> nry;tk;> Gfo;> tPuk;>
murpay; Kjypa nghUs;fisg; gw;wpf; $WtJ.
 mfg;nghUs; tho;tpay; vdpy; Gwg;nghUs; cyfpay; MFk;.
 Gwk; gw;wpa newpfisf; $WtJ Gwj;jpiz
 Gwk; ntl;rp Kjyhfg; gd;dpuz;L tifg;gLk;.

1) ntl;rpj;jpiz:-
 gifehl;bd; kPJ NghH njhlq;FKd;> me;ehl;bYs;s MepiufSf;F jPq;F
Neuf;$lhJ vdf; fUJk; kd;dd;> jd; tPuHfis mDg;gp mtw;iwf; ftHe;J
tur;nra;tJ ntl;rpj;jpiz MFk;.
 mt;tPuHfs; ntl;rpg;G+itr; #br; nry;thHfs;.
 ntl;rpj;jpizf;Fhpa epyk; : FwpQ;rp.

2) fue;ijj; jpiz:-
 ntl;rp tPuHfshy; ftHe;J nry;yg;gl;l jk; Mepiufisf; fue;ijg; G+itr; #br;nrd;W
kPl;gJ fue;ijj; jpiz MFk;.

3) tQ;rpj;jpiz:-
 kz;zhir fhuzkhfg; giftH ehl;ilf; ifg;gw;wf; fUjp tQ;rpg;G+itr; #bg; NghUf;Fr;
nry;tJ tQ;rpj;jpiz MFk;.
 ,j;jpizf;Fhpa epyk; : Ky;iy.

4) fhQ;rpj;jpiz:-

60
  jk; ehl;ilf; ifg;gw;w te;j khw;wurNdhL fhQ;rpg;G+itr; #b vjpHj;Jg;
Nghhply; fhQ;rpj;jpiz
 ,j;jpizf;Fhpa epyk; - ngUe;jpiz.

5) nehr;rpj;jpiz:-
 gifaurdhy; Kw;Wifaplg;gl;l jk; kjpiyf; fhj;jy; Ntz;b> cs;spUe;Nj ntspNa
,Uf;Fk; gifaurNdhL nehr;rpg;G+itr; #bg; Nghhpl;L mk;kjpiyf; fhg;gJ
nehr;rpj;jpiz MFk;.

6) copiQj;jpiz:-
 copiQj;jpiz #ba jd; tPuHfSld; khw;wurd; Nfhl;ilf;Fs; GFe;J kjpiyr; Rw;wp
tisj;jy; copiQj;jpiz MFk;.
 jpizf;Fhpa epyk; - kUjk;.

7) Jk;igj;jpiz:-
 gifNte;jH ,UtUk; ntw;wp xd;iwNa Fwpf;Nfhshff; nfhz;L> jk; tPuHfSld;
NghhpLtJ Jk;igj;jpiz
 ,t;tPuHfs; Jk;igg;G+itr; #bg; NghhpLthH.
 jpizf;Fhpa epyk; - nea;jy;.

8) thifj;jpiz:-
 ntw;wpngw;w kd;dd; thif G+r;#b kfpo;tJ thifj;jpiz MFk;.
 jpizf;Fhpa epyk; - ghiy.

9) ghlhz; jpiz:-
 ghLjw;Fj; jFjpAila XH Mz;kfdpd; fy;tp> tPuk;> nry;tk;> Gfo;> fUiz
Kjypatw;iwg; Nghw;wp ghLtJ ghlhz; jpiz MFk;.
 (ghlhz; jpiz = ghL + Mz; + jpiz)

10) nghJtpay; jpiz:-

 ntl;rp Kjy; ghlhz;tiu cs;s Gwj;jpizfspd; nghJthdtw;iwAk; mtw;Ws;
$wg;glhjtw;iwAk; $WtJ nghJtpay; jpiz MFk;.

11) iff;fpisj; jpiz:-

 iff;fpis vd;gJ xUjiyf; fhkk;.
 ,/J Mz;ghy;$w;W> ngz;ghy; $w;W vd ,U tifg;gLk;.

12) ngUe;jpiz:-
 ngUe;jpiz vd;gJ nghUe;jhf;fhkk;.
 ,J Mz;ghw; $w;W> ngz;ghw; $w;W vd ,Utifg;gLk;.

mzp
 mzp vd;why; moF vd;gJ nghUs;.
 GytHfs; nra;Ais moFgLj;Jtjid ‘mzp’ vd;Nw toq;fpdH.
 ,t;thwhd mzpfs; ,ay;G etpw;rp> caHT etpw;rp Kjypad.

1) ,ay;G etpw;rpazp:-
 xU nghUspd; ,ay;ig cs;sJ cs;sthW $WtJ ,ay;G etpw;rpazp MFk;.
61
 v.fh:- Njd; ,dpg;ghdJ
 ,jpy; Njdpd; jd;ik cs;sthNw moFglr; nrhy;yg;gLtJ ,ay;G etpw;rpazp MFk;.

2) caHT etpw;rpazp:-
 xU nghUspd; jd;ikia kpifg;gLj;jpf; $WtJ caHT etpw;rpazp MFk;.
v.fh:- tpz;izj;njhLk; kiy
 ,t;thW caukhd kiyia tpz;izj;njhLk; kiy vd tHzpj;jy;

3) ,y;nghUs; ctik mzp:-

 cyfpy; ,y;yhj nghUis xd;wDf;F ctikahf;fpf; $WtJ ‘,y;nghUs; ctik mzp’
MFk;.
v.fh:-
 md;gfj; jpy;yh capHtho;f;if td;ghw;fz;
tw;wy; kue;jspj; jw;W
ghlw;nghUs;:-
 cs;sj;jpy; md;gpy;yhj xUtd; FLk;g tho;f;if elj;JtJ vd;gJ> ghiy epyj;jpy;>
gl;lkuk; jspHtpl;L tsHtJ Nghd;wJ.
mzp:-
 ,t;thW md;gpy;yhjtd; tho;f;if ghiy epyj;jpy; gl;lkuk; jspHtpl;L tsHtjw;F
xg;ghdJ vd ,y;yhj nghUis ctkpj;J $WfpwhH.
 Gytd; cyfpy; ,ay;ghf ,y;yhj nghUis ,t;thW ctikahf;fpf; $WtJ ‘,y;nghUs; ctik
mzp’ MFk;.

4) Ntw;Wg;nghUs; itg;gzp:-
 GytH jhk; fUjpa nghUis epiyehl;l cyfk; mwpe;j NtnwhU nghUisr;
rhd;Wfhl;bf; $Wk;NghJ> nghJg;nghUshy; rpwg;Gg;nghUisAk;>
rpwg;Gg;nghUshy; nghJg;nghUisAk; tpsf;Ftjid ‘Ntw;Wg;nghUs; itg;gzp’
vd;gH.
v.fh:-
ciuKbT fhzhd; ,isNahd; vd;w
eiuKJ kf;fs; ctg;g – eiuKbj;Jr;
nrhy;yhy; Kiwnra;jhd; Nrhod; Fytpr;ir
fy;yhky; ghfk; gLk;.

nghUs;:-
rpwg;Gg;nghUs;:-
 fhpfhyd; ,sikapy; eiuKbj;J te;J> tof;fpy; ePjp toq;fpdhd; vd;gJ
rpwg;Gg;nghUs;.
nghJg;nghUs;:-
 toptopahf ePjp jtwhky; Ml;rp Ghpe;JtUk; NrhoHFyj;jpy; Njhd;wpaikahy;
,ay;ghfNt fhpfhyDk; rpwe;j ePjp toq;fpdhd; vd;gJ nghJg;nghUs;.
mzp:-
 ,t;thW rpwg;Gg;nghUshy; nghJg; ngaH tpsf;fg;gl;Ls;sjdhy; ,g;ghlypy;
Ntw;Wg;nghUs; itg;gzp mike;Js;sJ.

5) VfNjr cUtf mzp:-

62
  ftpQH jhk; vLj;Jf;nfhz;l gy nghUs;fis cUtfg;gLj;jpf; $Wk;NghJ xd;wid
kl;Lk; cUtfg;gLj;jp mNjhL njhlHGila kw;nwhd;iw cUtfg;gLj;jhky; tpLtJ
‘VfNjr cUtf mzp’ MFk;/
v.fh:-
gpwtpg; ngUq;fly; ePe;JtH ePe;jhH
,iwtd; mbNruh jhH.
 ,f;Fwspy; gpwtpiaf; flyhf cUtfg;gLj;jptpl;L> mjidf; flf;f cjTk; ,iwtdbiaj;
njg;gkhf cUtfg;gLj;jhikahy; ,/J VfNjr cUtf mzp MFk;.

6) epuy;epiw mzp:-
 nrhy;iyAk; nghUisAk; thpirahf (epuyhf) epWj;jp> NeNu nghUs; nfhs;tJ
epuy;epiw mzp MFk;.
v.fh:-
md;Gk; mwDk; cilj;jhapd; ,y;tho;f;if
gz;Gk; gaDk; mJ.
nghUs;:-
 ,y;tho;f;ifapd; gz;G vdg;gLtJ md;G fhl;LtJ> ,y;tho;f;ifapd; gad; vd;gJ
mwk; nra;jy; vd;gjhFk;.
mzp:-
 ,f;Fwspy; md;Gk; mwDk; Kjybapy; mike;Js;sJ.
 mLj;j mbapy; mr;nrhw;fNshL Kiwahfg; nghUe;Jk; thpirg;gb gz;G> gad;
vDk; nrhw;fs; mike;Js;sJ.
 vdNt ,J epuy;epiw mzp MFk;.

7) Ntw;Wikazp:-
 nra;Aspy; ,UnghUs;fSf;F ,ilNa cs;s xg;Gikiaf; $wpa gpd;dH> mtw;iw
NtWgLj;jpf; fhl;LtJ Ntw;Wik mzp MFk;.
v.fh:-
jPapdhy; Rl;lGz; cs;shWk; MwhNj
ehtpdhy; Rl;l tL.
 jPapdhy; RLtJk;> ehtpdhy; jPa nrhw;fisf; nfhz;L RLtJk; vd;gJ xw;Wik.
 jPapdhy; Rl;lJ MWk;> ehtpdhy; nrhd;dJ MwhJ vd;gJ Ntw;WikahFk;.
 vdNt ,g;ghlypy; ‘Ntw;Wikazp’ mike;Js;sJ.

8) ctikazp:-
 ctik> ctNkak; ,t;tpuz;ilAk; ,izf;Fk; ctk cUG ntspg;gLkhW tug;ghLtJ
ctikazp MFk;.
v.fh:-
CUzp ePHepiwe; jw;Nw cyfthk;
Nguwp thsd; jpU.
nghUs;:-
 CH eLNt cs;s ePHepiwe;j Fsk; epuk;gpdhw; Nghd;wNj cyf capHfis
vy;yhk; tpUk;gp cjtpnra;Ak; NguwpT cilahdplk; NrHe;j nry;tk;.
 ,jpy; CUzp ePHepiwjy; vd;gJ ctik.
 cyfthk; Nguwpthsd; jpU vd;gJ ctNkak;.

9) vLj;Jf;fhl;L ctik mzp:-

 ctik> ctNkak; ,uz;Lk; jdpj;jdpahf vLj;Jf;fhl;b ,ilapy; ctkcUG kiwAkhW
mike;J tUtJ vLj;Jf;fhl;L ctik mzp MFk;.

63
 v.fh:-
Gwe;J}a;ik ePuh dikAk; mfj;J}a;ik
tha;ikahw; fhzg; gLk;.
nghUs;:-
 xUtdJ cly; J}a;ik ePhpy; Fspg;gjhy; Gyg;gLk;.
 cs;sj;jpd; J}a;ik cz;ikiag; NgRtjhy; Gyg;gLk;.
mzpeak;:-
 ctik - clk;gpd; J}a;ik ePuhy; mikAk; vd;gJ>
 ctNkak; - cs;sj;jpd; J}a;ik cz;ik NgRtjhy; cz;lhFk; vd;gJ
 ctk cUG ,y;iy.
 vdNt ,J vLj;Jf;fhl;L ctik mzp.

10) cUtf mzp:-

 ctkhdk; NtW> ctNkak; NtW vdj; Njhd;whj tifapy;> ctkhdj;jpd; ,ay;Gfis
ctNkaj;jpd; Nky; Vw;wpf; $WtJ cUtf mzp MFk;.
v.fh:-
,d;nrhy; tpisepydh <jNy tpj;jhf
td;nrhy; fisfl;L tha;ik vUtl;b
md;GePH gha;r;rp mwf;fjpH <dNthH
igq;$o; rpWfhiyr; nra;.
 ,g;ghlypy; ,d;nrhy; - tpisepyk;> <jy; - tpij> td;nrhy; - fis> tha;ik -
cuk;(vU)> md;G - ePH> mwk; - fjpH vd cUtfpf;fg; ngw;Ws;sjhy; ,g;ghly;
cUtf mzp MFk;.
kjpKfk; - kjp Nghd;w Kfk; - ctik
Kfkjp - Kfk; Mfpa kjp - cUtfk;

11) gpwpJnkhopjy; mzp:-

 Gytd;> jhd; fUjpa nghUis Neubahfr; nrhy;yhky; mjNdhL njhlHG
ciladtw;iwr; nrhy;yp tpsq;f itg;gJ gpwpJnkhopjy; mzp.
v.fh:-
gPypnga; rhfhLk; mr;rpWk; mg;gz;lk;
rhy kpFj;Jg; ngapd;.
nghUs;:-
 kapypwF kpfTk; nkd;ikahdjhf ,Ug;gpDk;> mjid msTf;F mjpfkhf
Vw;wpdhy; tz;bapd; typa mr;Rk; Khpe;JtpLk; vd;gJ ,f;Fwspd;
nghUshFk;.
 giftHfs; vspatHfs; MapDk; kpFjpahf;fpf; nfhs;sy; $lhJ vd;w fUj;ijg; ngw
itf;fpwhH.

mzpeak;:-
 ,jd; %yk; typik Fiwe;j murH gyH $bg; Nghhpl;lhy; ‘ngUk;gilAila
NguurUk;> vspjpy; nts;sg;gLtH’ vDk; fUj;ij cl;nghUs; Njhd;w
tpsf;fpAs;shH. vdNt ,g;ghlypy; gpwpJnkhopjyzp mike;Js;sJ.

12) jw;Fwpg;Ngw;w mzp:-

 ,ay;ghf epfOk; epfo;r;rpapd; kPJ ftpQH jk; Fwpg;gpid Vw;wpf; $WtJ
jw;Fwpg;Ngw;w mzp.
(jd; + Fwpg;G + Vw;wk; + mzp)
ijay; JaHf;Fj; jhpahJ jk;rpwfhk;
ifahy; tapwiyj;Jf; fhhpUs;tha; - nta;Nahid
64
 thTghpj; NjNuwp thntd; eiog;gd Nghy;
$tpdNt Nfhopf; Fyk;.
nghUs;:-
 tpbaw;fhiyapy; Nfhopfs; $Tjy; ,ay;ghd epfo;r;rp. Mdhy; ftpQh; fhl;by;
es;sputpy; fztidg; gphpe;J tUj;jKw;w jkae;jpapd; Jaiug; Nghf;f> ,Uis
ePf;Ftjw;F NjNuwp tpiue;J tUkhW Qhapw;iwf; Nfhopf;$l;lq;fs; $tp
miog;gjhfj; jd; Fwpg;ig Vw;wpf; $wpAs;shH.
 vdNt ,J jw;Fwpg;Ngw;w mzp vdg;gLk;.

13) tQ;rg;Gfo;r;rp mzp:-

 Gfo;tJ Nghyg; gopg;gJk;> gopg;gJNghyg; Gfo;tJk; tQ;rg;Gfo;r;rp mzp
MFk;.
v.fh:-
NjtH midaH fatH mtUe;jhk;
Nktd nra;njhOf yhd;.
 ,g;ghlypy; jPatHfisj; NjtHfSf;F ,izahfg; Gfo;e;J $WtJ Nghy $wp> jPatHfs;
jk; kdk;Nghd Nghf;fpy; jPa nray;fisr; nra;J mopthHfs; vdg; gopj;Jf;
$wg;gl;Ls;sJ.
gopg;gJ Nghy Gfo;jy;:-
fy;yhy; mbj;jjw;Nfh fhyhy; cijj;jjw;Nfh
tpy;yhy; mbj;jjw;Nfh ntl;rpdPH – nrhy;tPuhy;
kQ;Rjidr; #Ok; kjpyhidf; fhthNu
eQ;Rjidj; jpd;wnjd; Kd;.
 ,g;ghlypy; jpUg;ghlw;fliyf; fle;jNghJ cz;lhfpa eQ;rpid rptngUkhd; cz;L
NjtHfisf; fhj;jhH vd;gJ Guhzf; fij.
 ,ijf; fhsNkfg; GytH rpwpJ khw;wp> xUtd; fy;yhy; mbj;jjw;fhfTk;>
,d;ndhUtd; fhyhy; cijj;jjw;fhfTk; NtnwhUtd; tpy;yhy; mbj;jjw;fhfTk;
ntl;fkile;J capHtho tpUk;ghky; eQ;ir cz;lhH vdg; gopg;gJ Nghy;
rptngUkhidg; Gfo;e;Js;shH.
 vdNt ,J tQ;rg;Gfo;r;rp mzp MFk;.

14) gpd;tUepiyazp:-
 nra;Aspy; Kd;dH te;j nrhy;Nyh> nghUNsh> nrhy;Yk; nghUNsh kPz;Lk;
kPz;Lk; te;J moF NrHf;Fk;.
 mit:-
1) nrhy; gpd;tUepiyazp
2) nghUs; gpd;tUepiyazp
3) nrhw;nghUs; gpd;tUepiyazp
1) nrhy; gpd;tUepiyazp:-
 nra;Aspy; Kd;dH te;j nrhy;> kPz;Lk; kPz;Lk; te;J ntt;NtW nghUisj;
jUtJ nrhy;gpd;tUepiyazp.

v.fh:-
Jg;ghHf;Fj; Jg;gha Jg;ghf;fpj; Jg;ghHf;Fj;
Jg;gha J}ck; kio.
 ,f;Fwl;ghtpy; Jg;G vd;Dk; nrhy; cz;gtH> czT> cz;Zk;nghUs; vdg;
gy;NtW nghUs;fspy; te;Js;sJ. vdNt ,J nrhy;gpd;tUepiyazp MFk;.
2) nghUs; gpd;tUepiyazp:-

65
  nra;Aspy; xNu nghUs; jUk; gy nrhw;fs; tUtJ nghUs;
gpd;tUepiyazp.
v.fh:-
mtpo;e;jd Njhd;wp myHe;jd fhah
nefpo;e;jd NeHKif Ky;iy – kfpo;e;jpjo;
tpz;ld nfhd;iw tphpe;j fUtpis
nfhz;ld fhe;js; Fiy.
 ,g;ghlypy; kyHjy; vDk; xU nghUspy; mtpo;jy;> myHjy;> nefpo;jy;>
tps;sy;> tphpjy; Mfpa nrhw;fs; te;Js;sJ.
 vdNt ,J nghUs;gpd;tUepiyazp MFk;.
3) nrhw;nghUs; gpd;tUepiyazp:-
 nra;Aspy; Kd;dH te;j nrhy;> kPz;Lk; kPz;Lk; te;J xNu nghUisj;
jUtJ nrhw;nghUs; gpd;tUepiyazp.
jPait jPa ge;jyhy; jPait
jPapDk; mQ;rg; gLk;.
 ,g;ghlypy; jPa vDk; nrhy; jPik vd;Dk; xNu nghUspy; gyKiw
te;Js;sJ.
 vdNt ,J nrhw;nghUs; gpd;tUepiyazp MFk;.

15) ,ul;Lw nkhopjy; mzp:-

 xU nrhy; ,UnghUs;gl mike;J tUjy; ,ul;Lwnkhopjy; vdg;gLk;.
 ,jidr; rpNyil vd;Wk; toq;FtH.
 ,J nrhw;nghopr;rpNyil> gphpnkhopr;rpNyil vd ,Utifg;gLk;.

1) nrk;nkhopr;rpNyil:-
 xU nra;Aspy; xU nrhy; gphpTglhky; epd;W xd;Wf;F Nkw;gl;l nghUisj;
jUtJ nrk;nkhopr;rpNyil.

v.fh:-
Mbf; fplj;jilAk; MLk;Ngh NjapiuAk;
%bj; jpwf;fpd; Kfq;fhl;Lk; - Xbkz;il
gw;wpd; gukpuDk; ghhpy;gpz; zhf;FKd;lhk;
cw;wpLghk; ngs;nsdNt ,J.
 ,g;ghlypy; ghk;G> vs; Mfpa ,uz;bw;F rpNyil $wg;gl;Ls;sJ.
 Mbf;Fle;jilAk; MLk; Ngh NjapiuAk; vDk; Kjyb> glnkLj;J Mbagpd;
Flj;Js; nrd;wilAk;> glnkLj;jhLk; NghJ ,iur;rypLk; vdg; ghk;gpw;Fk;>
 nrf;fhbagpd; vLj;j vz;nziaf; Flj;jpy; Cw;Wth;.
nrf;fhLk;NghJ ,iur;ry; cz;lhFk; vd vs;spw;Fk;
rpNyilahf te;Js;sJ.
 ,g;ghlypy; nrhw;fs; gphptpy;yhky; ,UnghUs;fs; je;jd. vdNt ,J
nrk;nkhopr; rpNyil MFk;.

2) gphpnkhopr;rpNyil:-
 xU nrhy; jdpj;J epd;W xU nghUisAk;> mJNt gphpe;J epd;W NtnwhU
nghUisAk; jUkhW mikj;Jg; ghLtJ> ‘gphpnkhopr; rpNyil’ MFk;.
v.fh:-
nra;As; fpilkwpf;Fk; NrHgyif apl;LKl;Lk;
Iakw Nkw;wh njhlHf;FNk – Ja;aepiy

66
 NjLk; Gfo;NrH jpUkiyuh ad;tiuapy;
MLk; fjTepf uhk;.
nghUs;:-
 nra; - tay;> tPL; gyif – gyif> gyiffs;; jhs; - Kaw;rp> njho;g;ghs;;;
Ja;a – jq;f> mofhd.
 ,g;ghlypy; MLk; fjTk; xd;Wf;nfhd;W rkk;; vq;qdnkdpy;

1) ML:-
nra;As; fpilkwpf;Fk; - taypy; fpilahf kwpf;fg;gLk;.
NrH gy if apl;L Kl;Lk; - nghUe;jpa gy iffisf;
nfhk;gpdhy; KLk;.
Iakw Nky; jhs; mlHf;Fk; - Iakpd;wp Kaw;rpNahL
NghuhLk;.
Ja;a epiy NjLk; - jq;Fjw;Fj; J}a;ikahd ,lk;
NjLk;.

2) fjT:-
nra; cl;fpil kwpf;Fk; - tPl;bd; cs;splj;ijj; jLj;J %b
,Uf;Fk;.
NrH gyif ,l;L Kl;Lk; - gyiffisf; nfhz;L
nra;ag;gl;bUf;Fk;.
Iakw Nkw;whs; mlHf;Fk; - jpz;zkhf %lg;gLtNjhld;wpj;
jho;g;ghspl;Lk; ,Uf;Fk;.
Ja;a epiy NjLk; - mofhd Ntiyg;ghL (epiy)
cilajha; ,Uf;Fk;.
 vdNt ,J gphpnkhopr; rpNyil MFk;.

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67