Taylor Ackerman

Period 2

10-28-18

Chapter 8 Physiology of Marine Primary Producers Notes

8.1 The Foundation of Marine Life

 All food webs/chains require a source of energy
o Two main sources: light from the sun and Hydrogen Sulfide from deep-sea
hydrothermal vents
 Food webs begin with organisms trapping and converting energy stored in organic
chemicals (carbohydrates)
 Autotrophic nutrition: ability to inorganic molecules and use energy to create organic
molecules
 Roles of Primary Producers:
o Fix carbon, provide habitats for organisms, and shape environment by fixing
substrates ad providing shelter and nursery grounds for other species
 Photosynthesis produces oxygen gas  respiration
 Without an ecosystem  no food chain  little atmospheric oxygen  loss of habitat

8.2 The Basics of Productivity

 Most primary productivity is a result of photosynthesis
o Green plants, photosynthetic protoctists such as diatoms and dinoflagellates,
and photosynthetic bacteria (cyanobacteria),, gain energy from sunlight
o Organisms that convert light energy into chemical energy in the form of organic
chemicals
 Photosynthesis:
o Light energy to be trapped by pigments such as chlorophyll
 Producer produces glucose and oxygen (byproduct) from carbon dioxide
and water
 Chemical process occurs in many steps and is controlled by a large
number of enzymes
 6CO2 + 6H2O  C6H12O6 + 6O2
 CO2 + H2O  glucose + O2
 Cells of the producers contain chloroplasts, the organelles that carry out photosynthesis
o Structures provide clues about origin, which involves endosymbiosis
 o Chloroplasts contain their own DNA and ribosomes; show structural similarities
between groups of photosynthetic bacteria (cyanobacteria)
o Cyanobacteria were engulfed by cells but not broken down and were able to live
in cells
o Lost independence and became chloroplasts
 Chloroplasts
o Covered with two membranes
 One is probably a legacy of the original bacterial ancestor and the other a
legacy of the ancestral host cell
 Thylakoids- extensive network of membranes inside
o Have stacked areas called grana- contain photosynthetic pigments
o Light energy is trapped in membranes- large surface area exposed
o Stroma- fluid surrounding thylakoid
 Contains many chemicals and enzymes and is where glucose and other
sugars are synthesized
o Stroma contains ribosomes, DNA, and other substances (insoluble starch, lipid)
 Thylakoids contain a range of different pigments that absorb light
 Primary pigment in photosynthesis is chlorophyll a
 Accessory pigments (chlorophyll b, carotenoids, xanthophylls)
 Paper chromatography (separate and identify different pigments)
o Pigments are extracted from producers and dissolved in a solvent
o Extract placed on a chromatography strip, wick in solvent
o Solvent moves up paper, pigments dissolve, carried up paper
o Pigments (more soluble) travel faster and run farther
Absorption and Action Spectra
 Different pigments found in producers absorb light wavelengths of slightly different
colors
 Absorption spectrum of pigment shows the amount light of each wavelength that a
particular pigment absorbs
o Peak of absorption of both chlorophylls (blue and red ends)
o Plants are green in color absorb light in red and blue
 Action spectrum: shows actual effect of different light wavelengths on rate of
photosynthesis
o Obtained by measuring rate of photosynthesis of a producer at different light
intensities
 Pigments present in different species of primary producers are linked to the depth of
water
Light Penetration in Water: Wavelength and Turbidity
 Two main factors that affect how deep in the water light can penetrate
o Wavelength, color of light
o Amount of particulate material- turbidity- in water
 Blue light reaches deepest part of the ocean (max. depth 200m)
 Red light least, absorbed by surface water (10m)
o Species below 10m receive green and blue
o Chlorophylls a and b, and carotene absorb little green light- problem
o Red, brown algae are adapted to hue in these depths, possessing accessory
pigments (xanthophyll and phycobilins)
o Phycobilins are bound to proteins, forming protein-pigment complexes
(phycobiliproteins)
 Two main types: Phycoerythrin and Phycocyanin
o Accessory pigments enable red/brown algae to absorb light from the
yellow/green areas
o Increases rate of photosynthesis in depths with no red light
o Red and brown algae with these pigments compete and survive better at these
depths that green algae (lack these pigments)

Turbidity
 Large amounts of sediment, particles , living organisms (phytoplankton) reduce light
penetration
 Cloudiness/clarity of water (turbidity)
 Estuarine and coastal water has greater turbidity
o Less light penetrating lower depths
o Light penetration measured by using a Secchi dish attached to a rope
o Disk lowered into water until no longer visible- length of rope recorded
o Disc raised and length of rope measured once visible
o Average distance
Productivity and Depth of Water
 Three distinct zones in waters that relate to the depth of light penetration and
productivity
o Euphotic Zone: upper layer of water- high light penetration
 Extend to 200m in clear water/ 5m in turbid water
 Producers photosynthesize well/effectively
o Disphotic Zone: below euphotic zone, “twilight zone”
 No producers here
  Some blue light but at a low intensity; ranges from 15m in highly turbid
water to 1000m in clear water

o Aphotic Zone: below disphotic zone, less than one percent surface light reaches
 No producers use photosynthesis for primary producers
 Respiration- C6H12O6 + 6O2  6CO2 + 6H2O
 Photosynthesis builds up glucose, which has energy from the sunlight locked in
o Glucose converted into other compounds (starch, proteins), used for storage,
growth
 Respiration releases energy in glucose by oxidation
 Gross primary productivity: amount of light/chemical energy fixed by producers in a
given length of time in a given area (GPP)
o Not all available for growth; plant has to use some of the glucose in respiration
(R) to release energy for active processes
 Net Primary Productivity (NPP): amount of energy that is left over after respiration to be
made into new plant biomass
o NPP= GPP – (R)
 If a producer is to grow, photosynthesis (P) rates must exceed (R)
o In euphotic zone, light intensity is sufficient to enable (P) rates to be greater than
(R) rates  NPP has positive value
o In disphotic zone, (P) rates are lower, NPP value is negative
 Producers unable to grow
o If rates of (P) and (R) are equal, the producer is said to be at a compensation
point; there is no net production of glucose
o During summer, there may be days when (P) rates exceed (R), but overall, (R) is
higher

8.3 Factors Affecting the Rate of Photosynthesis and Law of Limiting Factors
 External factors that affect photosynthesis rates:
o Light intensity, light wavelength, temperature, CO2 concentration
 These all are abiotic factors (affect distribution of marine producers)
 To maximize photosynthesis, plants must be exposed to:
o Sufficient light intensity, appropriate wavelengths, warm temperatures, and
sufficient CO2 and H2O
 Limiting factors: the factors that are in the least supply restrict photosynthesis rates
Light Intensity
 Provides energy
  More light energy available  more energy to make glucose
 Light energy absorbed by chlorophyll  used to combine CO2 with H2O to make sugars
 Higher light intensity  faster rate of photosynthesis
o Measured by increasing rate of O2 levels
Light Wavelength
 Depends on pigments present in producers
 Most can’t absorb green pigments
 Many contain accessory pigments (phycoerythin, phycocyanin, xanthophyll)  absorb
additional light wavelengths

Temperature
 CO2 and H2O molecules combined by actions of enzymes
 Move constantly and in random directions  react when collide
 As temperature increases, kinetic energy (movement) increases, move faster  collide
more  photosynthesis increases
 Temperature too high, enzymes denature  reaction slows to almost zero
 Denaturation: loss of shape of enzymes, resulting in a loss of activity, usually the result
of heating to a high temperature

CO2 and H2O Concentrations

 Essential raw materials
 If in short supply, photosynthesis rates decrease
 If concentration increase  collide more with enzymes in photosynthesis 
photosynthesis rate increases
o H2O not limiting factor- rarely in short supply
 Measure effects of factors on photosynthesis by measuring rate of productivity of
oxygen by aquatic plants (Cabomba)

8.4 Adaptations of Different Primary Producers

 Primary producers in world’s seas and oceans come from taxonomic groups (plants,
protoctists, and prokaryotes)
 Different water has different producers- specialized for specific habitats
 Main factor that affects producers- access to light  evolved adaptations to maximize
 Three different areas with different types of producers
o Open ocean, shallow waters near coastline, and intertidal zones/littoral zones-
land meets sea (all of these require different specialization)
 Open Ocean: poses problems for most producers
o Photosynthesis can only occur down to a depth of 200 m (not on deep sea beds)
o Producers unable to attach to a substrate, restricted to photic zone where light
penetration is sufficient and CO2 dissolution from air is high
o Producers in open ocean must survive in shifting water currents
 Several producers found:
 Phytoplankton:
o Most are free-floating in surface water (light intensity is
highest)
o No need for substrate- carried with ocean currents
o Several groups of phytoplankton exist (different
adaptations and niches)
 Diatoms: unicellular phytoplankton found in
oceanic surface water
 100+ different genera; all have intricate
silica cell walls (beautiful designs)
 Reproduce rapidly in optimal conditions
(blooms in Spring)
 Light intensity and temperature increase
and upwelling of mineral ions in surface
water occurs
 Blooms appear and disappear because of
consumption by planktonic crustaceans/krill
and depletion of mineral ions
 Important in removing CO2 from
atmosphere and base of food webs
 Dinoflagellates: unicellular protoctists without silica
cell wall
 Live in upper surface water in oceans,
undergo rapid reproduction and produce
algal blooms in optimal conditions
 Blooms of some species produce toxins 
poison fish and accumulate in shellfish
(harmful algal blooms- HABs)
 Eating contaminated shellfish  poisoning
 HABs include red tides  areas of ocean
turn red
  Pollution caused by fertilizer run-off from
fields is source of many blooms
 Farming more intense  increase in HABs
 Some bioluminescent- seen at night/on
coast
o Defense mechanism
 Attracts large predators into
area  consume
dinoflagellate’s predators
 Cyanobacteria: photosynthetic bacteria (one of
earth’s earliest known life forms)
 Found almost everywhere- one of most
successful bacteria
 When they evolved  increase in O2 levels
of planet’s atmosphere  aerobic life
evolved
 Filamentous organisms- found in surface
waters
 Undergo rapid reproduction in optimal
conditions  produce blooms
 Some produce harmful cyanotoxins
(BMAA), an altered amino acid (possible
cause of neurological diseases)- Alzheimer’s
 Blooms associated with high pollution levels
(fertilizers, organic waste)
 Sargassum
o Genus of brown macroalgae (seaweed)
o Species distributed throughout temperate and tropical
oceans
o Generally inhabit shallow water and coral reefs
o Genus known for planktonic (free-floating species)
o Species that usually attach to substrates can survive free-
floating in rough weather
o S. natans and S. fluitans free-float entire cycle
 Thought that S. natans grows during Spring in NW
Gulf of Mexico and transported in Atlantic by
strong currents  occurs in drifts
  Florida Keys and smaller islands are well-known for
high levels of Sargassum- covers shores
o Those found in ocean form long floating mats
o Have no roots, composed of tough, flexible fibers that
resist wave pounding
o Have air bladders, (pneumatocysts) help them stay afloat
o Provide a food source and serve as a shelter for rich
diversity of marine life, including turtles, puffer fish,
crustaceans, camouflaged S. fish
 Shallow Water: in clear coasts, light penetrates the seabed so producers are able to
attach to substrates and photosynthesize
o Fixed to seabed to prevent being washed away by waves/currents
o Several species possess adaptations to survive:
 Zooxanthellae: are dinoflagellate protoctistans found growing inside
other marine organisms (coral polyps, giant clams, jellyfish, sea
anemones)
 Enter host cells by process (endocytosis)- transferred from
parents during reproduction and remain there in a mutualistic
relationship
 Photosynthesize and release glucose and amino acids into coral
cells and coral provides CO2 and minerals
 Many hosts live where there is no R light  zooxanthellae contain
accessory pigments (perididin, diadinoxanthin, chlorophylls)
 Able to max. absorption of add. Light w.
 Z. may be found as free-living dino. taken up by coral polyps
 Coral life: coral stressed  Z expelled (coral bleaching) caused by
global warming; pollution
 After bleaching, coral recognized by different two species
o Coral can be colonized by different two species (changing
coral)
 Seagrass different than seaweed
 Green, flowering plants that grow on seabed in shallows- look like
underwater meadows
 60 different species- restricted to photic zone
 Photosynthesize like terrestrial flowers
 Play important roles in coastal areas- act as O2 producers and P.P.
for food webs
 Food source for turtles/manatees
 Habitat for fish/crustaceans
  Many adaptations:
o Well-developed root system
o Anchors seagrass into seabed
o Cells able to exist in salt water without losing water by
osmosis
o Leaf cells able to obtain mineral ions directly from water
o Reproduce sexually and a-sexually
 Thalassia testudinum- well known species (turtle grass)
 Kelp Forests- giant brown macroalgae that grow as underwater forests
o Require nutrient-rich water and temperature between 8-16 degrees Celsius
o Conditions optimal  high growth rate
o Base of food webs  increase biodiversity
o Stabilize and create habitats and shelters
o Some species have pneumatocysts- gas-filled bladders that provide buoyancy for
species of seaweed- act as floatation devices
o Contain accessory pigments because they live at depths where exposure to red
light decreases
 Intertidal Zones: (littoral zones) area of coastline that is underwater at high tide but
exposed at low tide
o Producers here overcome difficulties:
 Exposure to air creates problem of desiccation and risk of freezing
 Submersion in H2O reduces light exposure
 Tidal movements  erosion and risk of being washed away
o Vast diversity of green, brown, and red algae found here
o Rocky shores have more algae than sandy shores
o Majority are brown algae- Xanthrophyll- helps them survive with little red light
o Red algae found decreases  absorb green light
o Few green algae, found increase in parts of shore
o Fucus spiralis- brown algae in middle of intertidal zone
o Chondracanthus exasperates- red algae that grows low down on beach- most
time submerged up to 20m in depth
o Ulva lactuca- green algae found throughout shoreline