materials

Article
Design Optimization and Structural Performance
Evaluation of Plate Girder Bridge Constructed Using
a Turn-Over Process
Gi-Ha Eom, Sung Jae Kim, Tae-Hee Lee and Jang-Ho Jay Kim *
School of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Yonsei University, Seoul 03722, Korea;
gheom@hanmail.net (G.-H.E.); spc4000@naver.com (S.J.K.); saintlth@yonsei.ac.kr (T.-H.L.)
* Correspondence: jjhkim@yonsei.ac.kr; Tel.: +82-2-2123-5802

Academic Editor: Jorge de Brito

Received: 4 January 2017; Accepted: 6 March 2017; Published: 13 March 2017

Abstract: A recent trend in bridge construction has been the optimization of the cost-to-performance
ratio. The most effective way to optimize the cost-to-performance ratio is to maximize the efficiency of
the superstructure. Currently, many bridge engineers and designers favor two- or three- girder plate
superstructures, due to their cost advantages. However, research on the performance enhancements
of the I-type girder in two- or three- girder plate bridges is lacking. One of the most important
performance improvement technologies for the I-type girder is the “preflex” method. In the preflex
method, the specimen is inverted during the construction process to apply prestressed cambering
to the specimen by using self-weight. However, a problem with the preflex construction method is
difficulty with inverting the girder/plate system during the concrete curing process. Therefore, a new
inverting system called Turn-Over (TO) wheel was proposed. Using TO wheels, wider variations to
the I-type girder design can be achieved. Using this TO construction method, various cross sectional
designs of girder plate systems can be considered due to its easiness in inverting the girder/plate
system. In this study, the location of concrete confinement sections between the steel I-beams and
concrete plates was varied in an I-girder cross-sectional design. Design parameters included effective
height, flange thickness, flange width, confining concrete section width, etc. From this study, the
optimum cross-sectional design of the I-girder/concrete plate system was achieved. Then, a single
20 m TO girder/plate system and two 20 m TO girder bridges were constructed and tested to evaluate
their performance. From the test, failure behavior, load carrying capacity, crack pattern, etc., are
obtained. The results are discussed in detail in this paper.

Keywords: two- or three- girder plate bridge; precasted girder; turn over construction; preflex method

1. Introduction
As urbanization accelerates and city populations rapidly increase, transportation of people
and merchandise must become more efficient. Bridge construction plays a vital role in the urban
transportation system, in order to improve transport systems and infrastructure. Recently, as bridge
construction technologies advance, construction efficiency, sustainable maintenance, and construction
cost optimization are becoming important issues in bridge construction. In order to resolve these
issues, many studies have been conducted to optimize the cost-to-performance ratio. Among those
concerning bridge technologies, the superstructure of a bridge was identified as a critical aspect in
maximizing bridge efficiency [1–3].
Generally, the bridge superstructure can be divided into two categories. One type is a closed
system and the other is an open system, such as a box-type girder or plate-type girder system,
respectively. The box-type girder system is advantageous in torsion and durability, but it is

Materials 2017, 10, 283; doi:10.3390/ma10030283 www.mdpi.com/journal/materials

Materials 2017, 10, 283 2 of 14

disadvantageous in terms of construction costs. The plate-type girder system is disadvantageous in

Materials 2017, 10, 283 2 of 14
terms of durability and constructability, but it is advantageous in relative construction and maintenance
coststerms
compared to the other
of durability girder systems.but
and constructability, Currently, since the most
it is advantageous important
in relative issue inand
construction bridge
construction
maintenance is cost-to-performance
costs compared to theefficiency, many
other girder bridgeCurrently,
systems. engineerssince
and the
designers favor a plate-type
most important issue
girder
in system, due to theiscost
bridge construction advantages [4–6].
cost-to-performance A plate
efficiency, manygirder bridge
bridge is a and
engineers bridge constructed
designers favor by
a plate-type girder system, due to the cost advantages [4–6]. A plate girder bridge is
placing a concrete plate on steel or concrete I-type girders. Therefore, a plate girder bridge is usually aa bridge
constructed
precast-type thatbycan
placing
saveaconstruction
concrete platetime,
on steel
andorworks
concrete
byI-type girders. Therefore,
transporting a plate
and placing thegirder
precasted
girders on top of the pre-constructed bridge piers on-site. There are two types of plate girderand
bridge is usually a precast-type that can save construction time, and works by transporting bridges.
placing the precasted girders on top of the pre-constructed bridge piers on-site. There are two types
One type is the multiple girder plate bridge, and the other is the two- or three- girder plate bridge as
of plate girder bridges. One type is the multiple girder plate bridge, and the other is the two- or three-
shown in Figure 1.
girder plate bridge as shown in Figure 1.

Figure 1. Number of I-girders in plate girder bridges.

Figure 1. Number of I-girders in plate girder bridges.
Previously in Korea, multiple girder plate bridges were constructed more frequently, because
Previously
Korean bridge in Korea, multiple
engineers girder plate
and designers did notbridges
have were constructed
sufficient knowledge more andfrequently,
experiencebecause
in
designing two- or three- girder plate bridges. Also, compared to multiple
Korean bridge engineers and designers did not have sufficient knowledge and experience in designinggirder plate bridges, two-
two- or
or three-
three-girder
girder plate bridges
plate tended
bridges. to be
Also, less safe [7,8].
compared However,
to multiple due to
girder recent
plate advancements
bridges, two- orinthree-
girder plate bridges tended to be less safe [7,8]. However, due to recent advancementsgirder
bridge technologies, construction materials, and precast construction methods, two- or three- in bridge
bridges are becoming more popular. More specifically, two- or three- girder plate bridges have a
technologies, construction materials, and precast construction methods, two- or three- girder bridges
much simpler structural behavior, better cost-to-performance ratio, and easier structure maintenance,
are becoming more popular. More specifically, two- or three- girder plate bridges have a much
due to a reduction in the number of girders [8].
simpler structural behavior,
In technologically better cost-to-performance
developed countries, such as France, ratio, and easier
Germany, structureJapan,
Switzerland, maintenance,
and Korea, due to
a reduction in the number of girders [8].
bridge engineers and researchers attempted to maximize the constructability, safety, serviceability,
In
andtechnologically
durability of two- developed countries,
or three- girder platesuch
bridges.as France, Germany,
Jeon et al. conductedSwitzerland,
research on Japan, and
life cycle Korea,
cost
bridge engineers
(LCC) and researchers
optimization in the designattempted
of main girdersto maximize
to improve the constructability,
constructability safety, serviceability,
and durability of two-
or three- girder
and durability plateorbridges
of two- three-[9]. Also,plate
girder Yun et al., Lin et
bridges. al., and
Jeon Park
et al. et al. triedresearch
conducted to improve onsafety and cost
life cycle
(LCC)durability of two-inorthe
optimization three- girder
design ofplate
mainbridges
girdersbyto focusing
improve on its redundancy [10–13].
constructability In addition,of
and durability high
two- or
performance and high strength steel member developments for two- or three-
three- girder plate bridges [9]. Also, Yun et al., Lin et al., and Park et al. tried to improve safety andgirder plate bridges
have been performed by Coelho et al., Ricles et al., and Yong et al. [14–16]. Even though many
durability of two- or three- girder plate bridges by focusing on its redundancy [10–13]. In addition,
different types of research have been conducted on two- or three- girder plate bridges, the literature
high performance and high strength steel member developments for two- or three- girder plate bridges
review shows that studies on enhancements of the I-type girder improvement is lacking. However, a
have breakthrough
been performed by Coelho
in performance forettheal., Ricles
I-type et al.,
girder wasand Yongby
proposed etLipski
al. [14–16]. Even
[17], called thethough
“preflex”many
different types of research have been conducted on two- or three- girder plate
method. In the preflex method, pre-deflection is applied to the steel I-type girder using the dead bridges, the literature
load
review shows
of the that plates
concrete studiesby on enhancements
inverting of thesystem
the girder/plate I-typeduring
girderthe
improvement is lacking.
precast construction However,
process as
a breakthrough in performance for the I-type girder was proposed by Lipski [17], called the “preflex”
Materials 2017, 10, 283 3 of 14

Materials 2017, 10, 283 3 of 14

Materials 2017,
method. In the10, 283
preflex method, pre-deflection is applied to the steel I-type girder using the dead3load of 14

of the concrete
shown in Figure plates
2. Theby preflex
inverting the girder/plate
method is equivalent system
to the during the precast
prestressing construction
method in concrete process as
girders
shown in Figure 2. The preflex method is equivalent to the prestressing method in concrete girders
shown
where the in Figure
initial 2. The preflex
cambering methodisisapplied
deflection equivalentto theto girder
the prestressing
to increasemethod
the load incarrying
concretecapacity
girders
where the initial cambering deflection is applied to the girder to increase the load carrying capacity
where the initial
and plastic cambering
deflection deflectionUsing
serviceability. is applied to the girder
the preflex method to increase the load carrying
during construction, capacity
the I-type and
girders
and plastic deflection serviceability. Using the preflex method during construction, the I-type girders
plastic deflection serviceability. Using the preflex method during construction,
and two- or three- girder bridge systems became much safer and more stable, almost equivalent to the I-type girders and
and two- or three- girder bridge systems became much safer and more stable, almost equivalent to
two- or three-
multiple girder girder bridgeHowever,
systems. systems became muchtosafer
variations the and
I-typemore stable,constructed
girders almost equivalent
using to themultiple
preflex
multiple girder systems. However, variations to the I-type girders constructed using the preflex
girder
method systems. However,
were limited duevariations to the I-type
to the difficulty girders constructed
in inverting the girder/plateusingsystem
the preflex
during method were
the curing
method were limited due to the difficulty in inverting the girder/plate system during the curing
limited
process.due to the difficulty
Therefore, in inverting
in this study, the girder/plate
a new inverting systemsystem during the (TO)
called Turn-Over curing process.
wheel Therefore,
is proposed to
process. Therefore, in this study, a new inverting system called Turn-Over (TO) wheel is proposed to
in this study,
make the preflex a newgirder
inverting system called
construction Turn-Over
simpler (TO) wheel
and quicker. In the is proposed
TO system, to make
two endsthe preflex
of the
make the preflex girder construction simpler and quicker. In the TO system, two ends of the
girder construction
girder/plate systemsimpler
are initiallyand quicker.
placed into In the
theTOTOsystem,
wheels.two Then,endswhenof the
thegirder/plate
concrete plate system are
hardens
girder/plate system are initially placed into the TO wheels. Then, when the concrete plate hardens
initially placed
sufficiently, theinto the TO
wheels arewheels.
turned Then,
to invertwhenthethe concrete
system plate hardens
as shown in Figuresufficiently,
2 (step 3). the
It iswheels are
important
sufficiently, the wheels are turned to invert the system as shown in Figure 2 (step 3). It is important
turned
to notetothat invert thetheTOsystem
method as is
shown in Figure
equivalent 2 (step
to the 3). Itmethod,
preflex is important
except to note that inverting
that the the TO method
of the
to note that the TO method is equivalent to the preflex method, except that the inverting of the
is equivalentspecimen
girder/plate to the preflex method,
is easier in theexcept that thethrough
TO method inverting theofuse
theof girder/plate
the TO wheels. specimenUsingisthe
easier
TO
girder/plate specimen is easier in the TO method through the use of the TO wheels. Using the TO
in the TO
system, method
more through
variations to thetheI-type
use ofgirder
the TO wheels.
design can beUsing the TO
achieved due system, more variations
to the simplicity to the
of the precast
system, more variations to the I-type girder design can be achieved due to the simplicity of the precast
I-type girder design
construction. can bethe
In this study achieved dueperformance
structural to the simplicity of the precast
and failure behavior construction. In this study
of various cross-sectional
construction. In this study the structural performance and failure behavior of various cross-sectional
the structural
designs of I-type performance and failureusing
girders constructed behavior
the TOof various
system are cross-sectional designs of I-type
evaluated. Specifically, girders
the confining
designs of I-type girders constructed using the TO system are evaluated. Specifically, the confining
constructed
concrete section usingbetween
the TO the systemupper areflange
evaluated.
of theSpecifically,
I-type steel.the Theconfining
concrete concrete sectionatbetween
plate is placed the top,
concrete section between the upper flange of the I-type steel. The concrete plate is placed at the top,
the upperand
middle, flange of thesection
bottom I-type of steel.
the The
upper concrete
flangeplate
of theis placed at thetotop,
I-type steel middle, the
determine andbestbottom section
location of
middle, and bottom section of the upper flange of the I-type steel to determine the best location of
of
thethe upper flange
girder/plate of the as
interface, I-type
shown steel
in to determine
Figure 3. Then, the best location
a single 20 m TO ofgirder
the girder/plate
and two 20 interface,
m TO girder as
the girder/plate interface, as shown in Figure 3. Then, a single 20 m TO girder and two 20 m TO girder
shown
bridge in are Figure
tested.3. Then, a single
The details of20 mTO
the TO system
girder and twodesigns,
girder 20 m TO test
girder bridge areand
specimens, tested.
test The details
results are
bridge are tested. The details of the TO system girder designs, test specimens, and test results are
of the TO system
discussed in this girder
paper. designs, test specimens, and test results are discussed in this paper.
discussed in this paper.
Step 1 Step 2 Step 3 Step 4
Step 1 Step 2 Step 3 Step 4
Steel Girder Confining Concrete Turn Over Concrete Plate
Steel Girder Confining Concrete Turn Over Concrete Plate

Figure 2.
Figure 2. Construction
Construction procedure
procedure of
of steel
steel composite
composite girder
girder applied
applied by
by Turn-Over
Turn-Overprocess
process(TO).
(TO).
Figure 2. Construction procedure of steel composite girder applied by Turn-Over process (TO).

Figure 3. Location of the confining concrete section in the cross section.

Figure 3. Location of the confining concrete section in the cross section.
Figure 3. Location of the confining concrete section in the cross section.
2. Turn-Over Construction Method
2. Turn-Over Construction Method
2. Turn-Over Construction Method
2.1. Basic Theory
2.1. Basic
2.1. Basic Theory
Theory
The Turn-Over (TO) method is used to reduce steel section size in a steel I-beam by applying
The Turn-Over
The Turn-Over(TO)(TO)method
method is used
is used to reduce
to reduce steel section size in a I-beam
steel I-beam by applying
initial deflection using distributed self-weight ofsteel
the section sizeconcrete
confining in a steel by applying
section and concreteinitial
plate
initial deflection
deflection using distributed self-weight of the confining concrete section and concrete onplate
cast on theusing distributed
top flange self-weight
section. of the of
The application confining concrete
the concrete section
self-weight and concrete
cambering plate
achievescast the
reduction
cast on the top flange section. The application of the concrete self-weight cambering achieves reduction
of stress in the member during its service life without any additional treatment, such as thermal
of stress in the member during its service life without any additional treatment, such as thermal
prestressing, tendon prestressing, etc. [18–25].
prestressing, tendon prestressing, etc. [18–25].
 Materials 2017, 10, 283 4 of 14

The TO method is comprised of four main steps, shown in Figure 2. Step 1 is the overhanging of
an asymmetric
Materials 2017, 10, 283I-section steel member on a frame to start the manufacturing process. In this4 of step,
14
the initial bottom section, which will ultimately be turned over as a top section of the girder. Step 2
is casting of the confining concrete section at the bottom flange of the overhanging I-section member.
top
Onceflange
the section.
confining The application
concrete of the concrete
sufficiently hardens,self-weight
the distributed cambering
self-weightachievesappliesreduction of stress
a deflection on
inthe
theI-section
membersteel during its service life without any additional treatment,
member. In step 3, the whole member is turned upside down, where the bottom such as thermal prestressing,
tendon
sectionprestressing,
goes to the top etc. and
[18–25].
the top section comes down to the bottom. The process is facilitated by
using the turning wheel insteadof of
The TO method is comprised four main steps,
manually shownover
turning in Figure 2. Step 1 is
the member, the overhanging
which reduces the
ofconstruction
an asymmetric time and effort. Once the member has been turned over, in step 4 a concreteIn
I-section steel member on a frame to start the manufacturing process. this is
plate step,
cast
the
on top of the confining concrete section to complete the process. The cambering deflection appliedisto
initial bottom section, which will ultimately be turned over as a top section of the girder. Step 2
casting
the steel of I-beam
the confining from the concrete sectionofatthe
self-weights the confining
bottom flange concreteof the overhanging
section is returned I-section
back member.
to “zero”
Once the confining
deflection when the concrete
dead load sufficiently hardens,
of the bridge the distributed
is applied. In stepself-weight
4, the best applies
composite a deflection on the
action between
I-section steel member. In step 3, the whole member is turned upside
the concrete plate and the confining concrete section is selected by determining the optimal location down, where the bottom section
goes
of theto confining
the top and the topsection
concrete sectionwith comes downtotothe
respect thetopbottom.
flangeThe of theprocess is facilitated by using the
I-section.
turning The wheel instead of
comparison of manually
strain profilesturning alongoverthethe member,
cross section which
of thereduces
ordinary theplate
construction
girder and timetheand
TO
effort. Once the member has been turned over, in step 4 a concrete
girder is shown in Figure 4. In the ordinary steel girder, the addition of stresses from the self-weight plate is cast on top of the confining
concrete section(Figure
of the girder to complete4a) and thethe process.
concrete Theplate
cambering (Figuredeflection
4b) would applied
resulttointhe steel I-beam
summed tensile from
and
the self-weights of the confining concrete section is returned back
compressive stresses at the bottom and top of the cross section, respectively, as shown in Figure 4c. to “zero” deflection when the dead
load
Figureof the
4d–f bridge
showsis the applied.
stressIn step 4,occurring
profiles the best composite
in the TO actiongirder between
before castingthe concrete
of a plate.plateAs and the
shown
confining
in Figure concrete
4a,d, stresses section is selected
in the by determining
cross section between the theordinary
optimaland location
the TO of steel
the confining
girders are concrete
similar
section with respect to the top flange of the I-section.
in magnitude, but compression and tensile stresses are in opposite directions. Therefore, in the TO
Thethe
girder, comparison
bottom and of strain profilesare
top sections alongunderthecompressive
cross section and of the ordinary
tensile platerespectively,
stresses, girder and the dueTOto
girder is shown in characteristic
the upside-down Figure 4. In the of ordinary
the girdersteel at the girder,
initialthe addition of stresses
manufacturing process. from
When thethe
self-weight
confining
ofconcrete
the girder (Figure 4a) and the concrete plate (Figure 4b) would
section is placed at the top flange of the TO girder, additional tensile and compressive result in summed tensile and
compressive
stresses are appliedstresses to at top
the bottom
and bottom and top of theof cross
the cross section,
section, respectively,
respectively. as shown
As the TO girder in Figure 4c.
is turned
Figure 4d–f shows the stress profiles occurring in the TO
over using the turning wheel, top and bottom section stresses are also turned over and changegirder before casting of a plate. As shown
indirection,
Figure 4a,d, stresses
as shown inin the cross
Figure section
4f. When thebetween
plate isthe castordinary
above the and the TO steel
confined concretegirders are similar
section and the
intop
magnitude,
flange section but compression
of the TO girder, andadditional
tensile stresses are in opposite
compressive and tensile directions.
stresses Therefore,
are appliedintothe theTOtop
girder, the bottom and top sections are under compressive and
and bottom flanges, respectively, as shown in Figure 4g. When all of these stresses are added together,tensile stresses, respectively, due to
the upside-down characteristic of the girder at the initial
the TO girder has the total tensile and compressive stresses at the bottom and top sections,manufacturing process. When the confining
concrete section
respectively is placed
shown at the top
in Figure 4h.flange
It is of the TO girder,
important to note additional
that thetensile
magnitudeand compressive
of the tensile stresses
and
are applied to top and bottom of the cross section, respectively.
compressive stress is much less than that of the ordinary steel girder, which is the reason for the As the TO girder is turned over using
steel
the turning wheel,
reduction in the top TO and bottom
girder. Also, section
because stresses
of the are upward
also turned over and
shifting of thechangeneutraldirection,
axis dueas shown
to the
inconfining
Figure 4f. When the plate is cast above the confined concrete section
concrete and flange sections of the girder, the optimal cross section or the minimal steel design and the top flange section of
the TO girder, additional compressive and tensile stresses
can be achieved for the TO girder. Design equations used in Figure 4 are shown in Table 1. are applied to the top and bottom flanges,
respectively, as shown in
The comparison of Figure
the amount 4g. When all of
of steel these stresses
required are addedsteel
for an ordinary together,
girderthe and TOthe girder has theis
TO girder
total
tabulated in Table 2. As shown in Table 2, the steel required for the confined section located at 4h.
tensile and compressive stresses at the bottom and top sections, respectively shown in Figure the
Itbottom
is important
flangetoofnote the that the magnitude
TO girder of the tensile
with a confining and compressive
concrete section widthstress and is muchofless
height 400thanmmthatand
of1000
the mm,
ordinary steel girder,
respectively, showswhich no is the reasondifference
significant for the steel reduction
compared to in
that theofTOan girder.
ordinary Also,
steelbecause
girder.
ofHowever,
the upward shifting of the neutral axis due to the confining concrete
with respect to the top flange, the required steel for the TO girder is reduced by 85.94% and flange sections of the
girder,
compared the optimal
to that of cross section orsteel
an ordinary the minimal
girder. The steel design can
reduction be achieved
in steel in the TO forgirder
the TO girder.
results in Design
savings
equations used in Figure 4 are shown in Table 1.
of material costs and construction time from the precasted construction using the TO method.

Figure4.4.Cont.
Figure Cont.
Materials 2017, 10, 283 5 of 14
Materials 2017,Materials
10, 283 2017, 10, 283 5 of 14 5 of 14
Materials
Materials 2017, 10, 283 55 of 14
Materials 2017,
2017, 10,
10, 283
283 5 of
of 14
14

Figure 4. Strain profiles along the cross section height of the ordinary plate girder and TO girder.
Figure
Figure 4.
4. Strain
Strain profiles
profiles along
along the
the cross
cross section
section height
height ofof the
the ordinary plate girder
ordinary plate girder and
and TOTO girder.
girder.
Figure
Figure 4.
Figure 4. Strain
4. Strain profiles
Strain profiles along
profiles along the
along the cross
the cross section
cross section height
section height of
height of the
of the ordinary
the ordinary plate
ordinary plate girder
plate girder and
girder and TO
and TO girder.
TO girder.
girder.
Table 1. Stresses induced in the I-beam from Turn-Over (TO) method.
Table 1. Stresses
Table 1. Stresses induced
induced in the I-beam
in induced
the I-beam from Turn-Over
from Turn-Over (TO) method.
(TO) method. method.
Step-Title
Table
Table
Table 1.
1. Stresses
1. Stresses
Stresses
Manufacturing induced in
induced
Step in the
in the I-beam
the I-beam
I-beam
Top
from
from
from
Flange
Turn-Over
Turn-Over (TO)
Turn-Over
Stress (TO)
(TO) method.
method.
Bottom Flange Stress
Step-Title Manufacturing Step Top Flange Stress Bottom Flange Stress
Step-Title
Step-Title
Step-Title Manufacturing
Manufacturing Step
Step TopTop Flange
Flange Stress
Stress Bottom
Bottom Flange Flange Stress
Step-Title Manufacturing
Manufacturing Step
Step Top
Top Flange
Flange Stress
Stress BottomStress
Bottom Flange
Flange Stress
Stress
Steel I-beam
Steel I-beam self-weight
Steel
Steel I-beam
self-weight Steel I-beam
I-beam Msteel Msteel
Steel I-beamself-weight
self-weight
self-weight
f steeltop = Ssteeltop f steelbottom = Ssteelbottom
self-weight
Confined
Confined concrete
Confined
Confined
Confined
self-weight
Confined
concrete concrete
concrete Mcon Mcon
concrete
concrete f steeltop = S(s+c)top f steelbottom = S(s+c)bottom
self-weight
self-weight self-weight
self-weight
self-weight
Turn-Over 2 2
process 2 2+con 22Msteel+con222
Turn-Over Turn-Over steel2
2
Turn-Over
Turn-Over
Turn-Over process f steeltop = 2M
S(s+c)top f steelbttom = S(s+c)bottom
process process
process
process

Msteel Msteel
Upright f steeltop = Ssteeltop + f steelbttom = − Ssteelbottom −
Upright position Mcon 2Msteel+con Mcon 2Msteel+con
position −
2 S(s+c)top +
Upright Upright
Upright S(s+c)top S(s+c)bottom S(s+c)bottom 2
Upright
position
position 22
position position 2 2 22
2 2
The comparison of the amount of steel required for an ordinary steel girder and the TO girder
Table 2. Comparison of the amount of steel required for ordinary and TO girder.
is tabulated in Table 2. As shown in Table 2, the steel required for the confined section located at the
Table
Table 2. Comparison of
of the amount of
of steel required for ordinary and TO girder.
bottom flangeTableof the 2. TO girder2.
Table
Comparison Comparison
ofOrdinary
2. with
Comparison
thea amount of
Girder
confining the amount
of(OG)
the amount
steel of
required
concrete steel
steel required
required
for
section for
TO
ordinary
width ordinary
forGirder
ordinary
and
and TO(TO) and
andofTO
girder.
height girder.
TO400
girder.mmArea andRatio
Cross-Section Width Ordinary Height Area Width Height Area
Girder (OG) TO Girder (TO) (TO/OG, %)
1000 mm, respectively, shows noGirder
(mm)
Ordinary significant
Ordinary
Ordinary
(mm)
(OG) difference
Girder
Girder (OG)
(OG)(mm2)compared TO(mm) to that
Girder TO
TO
(TO) of an(TO)
Girder
Girder
(mm) ordinary
(TO) (mm2)steel girder. Area
Area Ratio
Cross-Section Width Height Area Width Height AreaArea Ratio Area Ratio
Ratio
Cross-Section
Cross-Section Width
Width Height
Height Area
Area Width
Width Height
Height Area
Area (TO/OG,
However, withTop
Cross-Section respect
Widthto theHeight
flange top
800 flange,(mm)
(mm) the
40Arearequired 32,000
(mm 2steel
Width
) for(mm)the
300 TO girder
Height 15 Area
(mm) is reduced
45002) by 85.94%
(mm 14.06 %)
(TO/OG,
(TO/OG, %)
%)
(mm)
(mm) (mm)
(mm) 2 (mm22))
(mm (mm)
(mm) (mm)
(mm) 2 (mm
(mm(TO/OG,
22)
) %)
compared to that Web
of(mm)
an ordinary 26steel girder.
(mm) 3153
(mm The ) 81,978
(mm)
reduction in steel26 (mm)
in the TO3146 (mm
girder ) 81,796
results in savings 99.8
Top
Top flange
flange 800
800 40
40 32,000
32,000 300
300 15
15 4500
4500 14.06
14.06
Top flange
Bottom flange 800
800 40
57 32,000
45,600 300
800 15
64 4500 14.06
Top flange
of material Web
costs and 800 40
26 32,000
3153 300
81,978 26 15 using 3146 4500TO51,200
81,796 14.06 112.3 99.8
Webconstruction
Web
Total 26 time from
-26 3153
3153
-
the precasted 81,978 construction
81,978
159,578 -26
26 3146
3146
-
the method.
81,796
81,796
137,496 99.8
99.8
86.2
Web Bottom 26
flange 3153
800 81,978
57 45,60026 800 3146 64 81,796 51,200 99.8 112.3
Bottom
Bottom flange
flange 800
800 57
57 45,600
45,600 800
800 64
64 51,200
51,200 112.3
112.3
Bottom flange 800
Total
Total 57
-- 45,600
-- 800
159,578
159,578 -- 64 -- 51,200 137,496
137,496 112.3 86.2
86.2
Total
2. -Comparison - -
of the amount 159,578 - - 137,496 86.2
Total 2.2.Table
The Optimum Cross- Section 159,578of steel required
Determination - for ordinary
- and 137,496
TO girder. 86.2
2.2.
2.2. The
The Optimum
Optimum
In order Cross
Cross
to obtain Section
theSection Determination
Determination
optimal cross section design for the(TO)TO girder, the following construction
Ordinary Girder (OG) TO Girder
2.2. The Optimum Cross Section Determination Area
parameters
Cross-Section In order
In Width have
to
order to obtain been
obtain
Height considered:
the optimal
the optimal Area (1)
cross Confining
section
cross section the
design
Widthdesign Heightconcrete
for
for the TO
the TO section
Area location;
girder,
girder, the (2)Ratio
the following
following Cross-section
construction
construction
(TO/OG, %)
In orderweight
to
parametersand
obtain
(mm) steel
the
have ratios;
optimal
been
(mm) (3) Span-to-depth
cross section
considered:
(mm 2
(1)
) ratio.
design for
Confining
(mm) the TO
the girder,
concrete
(mm)
parameters have been considered: (1) Confining the concrete section location; (2) Cross-section the
section
(mm 2
following
)location; construction
(2) Cross-section
Top flangeweight
parameters have been
weight and800 steel
and steel ratios;
considered: 40 (3)
ratios; Span-to-depth
(3)(1) Confining
32,000
Span-to-depth ratio.
the300
ratio.concrete section 15 location;
4500 (2) Cross-section
14.06
weightWeband2.2.1.
steel Confining
26 (3) the
ratios; Concrete
3153
Span-to-depth Section
ratio.Location26
81,978 3146 81,796 99.8
Bottom flange
2.2.1. 800 57 45,600 800 64 51,200 112.3
Total
2.2.1.InConfining
Confining
order-
the
the Concrete
Concrete
to determine- theSection
Section
optimal Location
Location-
159,578 composite action between
- the confining concrete
137,496 86.2 and plate
2.2.1. Confining the
sections,
In Concrete
the location Section
of the Location
confining concrete section in the cross section is varied, as shown in Figure 3.
In order to determine the optimal composite action between the confining concrete and
order to determine the optimal composite action between the confining concrete and plate
plate
The effective
sections, the height
location of
of the
the bridge
confining cross section
concrete is maintained
section in the at
cross 3200
sectionmm is for all
varied, three
as cases
shown shown
in in
in Figure 3.
Figure
In order
2.2. The Optimum to determine
sections, the Section
Cross theDetermination
location optimal
of composite
the confining concreteaction between
section the confining
in the cross concrete
section is varied, and plate
as shown 3.
Figure
The
The 3.
effectiveThe
effective cross
height
height section
of
of the
the dimensions
bridge
bridge cross
cross of the
section
section confining
is
is maintained
maintained concreteat
at section
3200
3200 mm
mm are
for
for 1000
all
all mm
three
three in
cases
casesheight
shown
shownand in
in
sections, the location of the confining concrete section in the cross section is varied, as shown in Figure 3.
In order400tomm
Figureobtain
3.inof
3. The thecross
width. optimal
The three cross sectionconsidered
locations design for thethe
for TOconfining
girder, the following
concrete section construction
are asin follows.
The effective Figure
height Thethecross
bridgesection
crossdimensions
section dimensions of
of the
the confining
section is maintained confiningat 3200concrete
concrete
mm for section
section are
are
all three 1000
casesmm
1000 mm in
shown height
in and
height and
parameters have400 mm
400crossbeen in
mm section considered:
width.
in width. The (1)
three Confining
locations
The three locations the concrete
considered
considered section
for the location;
confining
for the section
confining (2)
concrete Cross-section
section are weight
as follows.
Figure 3. The dimensions of the confining concrete areconcrete
1000 mm section are as and
in height follows.
and steel ratios; (3) Span-to-depth ratio.
400 mm in width. The three locations considered for the confining concrete section are as follows.
Materials 2017, 10, 283 6 of 14

2.2.1. Confining the Concrete Section Location

In order to determine the optimal composite action between the confining concrete and plate
sections, the location of the confining concrete section in the cross section is varied, as shown in
Figure 3. The effective height of the bridge cross section is maintained at 3200 mm for all three cases
shown in Figure 3. The cross section dimensions of the confining concrete section are 1000 mm in height
and 400 mm in width. The three locations considered for the confining concrete section are as follows.

1. The confining concrete section is located between the bottom surface of the plate and the top
flange section surface of the I-steel member.
2. The top flange of I-steel member is embedded in the confining concrete section and the confining
concrete section is attached to the bottom surface of the plate.
3. The confining section is attached to the bottom surface of the top flange section of the I-steel
member with the top flange section embedded in the plate.

With the confining concrete section location parameter as the top surface, center, and bottom
surface of the top flange section of the I-steel member, this study focuses on the stress and steel ratios
of a TO girder bridge. When the confining concrete section is located at the top surface of the top flange
of I-steel member, the compressive forces acting on the confining concrete section is large enough to
require a larger width of the confining section. The calculated amount of steel needed for this setup
is approximately 50 t. When the top flange section is embedded in the confining concrete section,
inverting of the system becomes easier and the required amount of steel is 50.2 t. Finally, when the
confining concrete section is placed at the bottom surface of the top flange section of the steel I-beam,
the compressive force acting on the confining concrete section is increased due to the effective height
reduction of the cross section and the required steel amount is approximately 51.0 t. Also, in order
to implement this setup, dowel studs and complex formwork are required, making the construction
much more difficult. Also, since the effective height of the girder bridge is increased, the required steel
amount is increased. However, since the difference in the required steel amount for all three cases is
nearly equal, the case with the top flange section embedded in the confining concrete section is selected
for its construction simplicity, better structural stability, smoother force transfer, better embedment
connection of the steel I-beam, etc.

2.2.2. Required Steel and Stress Ratios for Various Cross-Sectional Parameters
Once the confining concrete section location is selected, the required amount of steel and concrete
section area are calculated based on 9 different cross-sectional parameters as follows: the effective
height (H), the top and bottom flange thicknesses and widths (Tft, Tfb, Wst, and Wsb), the confining
concrete section thickness and width (Tc and Wc), and the distance between confining concrete and
top flange upper surfaces (Hc) as shown in Table 3. In Table 3, the upper and lower values for all of the
parameters are tabulated, obtained from design equation calculations of required strength. Based on
these upper and lower values, the design of the TO girder cross-section is performed.
Materials 2017, 10, 283
Table 3. Dimensional parameters of the cross 7section
of 14
(unit: mm).
Table 3. Dimensional parameters of the cross section (unit: mm).

Parameter
Parameter Wsb Wst WsbTft
Tfb Wst Tfb Tft
Lower
Lower value value
800 300 40800 15 300 40 15
Upper
Upper value value
1000 400 100025
60 400 60 25
Tw Tw H Wc Tc H Hc Wc Tc Hc
26 26 3000 1500 300
3000150 1500 300 150
30 30 4000 2500 4000250
400 2500 400 250

The total number of possible parametric variables cases are 29 = 512. However, if the
Determination of Experiment (DOE) method is used, then the parametric variable cases can be
Materials 2017, 10, 283 7 of 14
Materials 2017, 10, 283 7 of 14

reduced to one eighth of 512,

Table i.e., 64 cases.
3. Dimensional Also, in
parameters Korea
of the crossfor a 50 (unit:
section m span girder, a general steel
mm).
weight per unit area is less than 200 kg/m2 and the allowable stress limit is 90% of the actual stress.
Therefore, these values are used as the criteria in the analysis.Wsb
Parameter From theWstanalysis
Tfb results,
Tft the required
steel weight, steel stress and concrete stress were plotted, as shown in Figure 5. Depending on the
slope of the curve between the upper and lower Lower value
values 800
of the parameter, 300the parameter’s
40 15 sensitivity to
the cross-sectional design can be observed. In Figure 5, the dotted lines indicate the average values
Upper value 1000 400 60 25
of required steel weight, steel stress, and concrete stress. From the parametric study, the order of
parameter importance in required steel amount isTw as follows: H the effective
Wc height
Tc (H)
Hc > the bottom
flange thickness (Tfb) > the web thickness (Tw). With respect to the steel stress, the order is as follows:
the effective height (H) > the bottom flange thickness26 (Tfb) > the3000bottom
1500flange
300 width
150(Wsb). Finally,
with respect to the parameter effect on stress applied to concrete section, the importance of order is as
30
follows: the effective height (H) > the confining concrete section4000
width 2500
(Wc).400 250

Figure 5. Steel weight, steel and concrete stress by cross section area.
Figure 5. Steel weight, steel and concrete stress by cross section area.
In conclusion, the effective height most significantly affects the required steel weight as well as
the steel and concrete
In conclusion, stressesheight
the effective on themost
cross section. Since
significantly the
affects thenumber
requiredcases from nine
steel weight different
as well as the
parameters turns out
steel and concrete to be on
stresses 64 cases, thesection.
the cross differentSince
parameter combinations
the number give
cases from slightly
nine different
different result
parameters
trends.
turns outTherefore,
to be 64in the case
cases, the of Hc parameter,
different the required
parameter unit steel
combinations giveweight atdifferent
slightly the upperresult
valuetrends.
is less
than the lower
Therefore, in thevalue,
case ofdue
Hctoparameter,
the nonlinear trend in unit
the required the analysis result.
steel weight at the upper value is less than the
lower value, due to the nonlinear trend in the analysis result.
Materials 2017, 10, 283 8 of 14

Materials 2017, 10, 283 8 of 14

3. Performance Evaluations by TO Girder Static Testing

3. Performance Evaluations by TO Girder Static Testing
In order to evaluate the performance of the girder built by the TO method, a 20 m TO girder
In order to evaluate the performance of the girder built by the TO method, a 20 m TO girder
specimen andand
specimen a two-main
a two-main TOTOgirder
girderplate
platebridge specimenwith
bridge specimen with a plate
a plate section
section are are tested.
tested. The cross
The cross
section dimensions
Materials
section 2017, 10,of
dimensions 283these two
of these specimens
two specimensare
are shown inFigure
shown in Figure6a,b.
6a,b. 8 of 14

3. Performance Evaluations by TO Girder Static Testing

In order to evaluate the performance of the girder built by the TO method, a 20 m TO girder
specimen and a two-main TO girder plate bridge specimen with a plate section are tested. The cross
section dimensions of these two specimens are shown in Figure 6a,b.

(a) Girder specimen (b) Bridge specimen

Figure 6. Cross section dimensions. (a) Girder specimen; (b) Bridge specimen. (Unit: mm).
Figure 6. Cross section dimensions. (a) Girder specimen; (b) Bridge specimen. (Unit: mm).
3.1. Expeimental Details
3.1. Expeimental Details
(a) Girder specimen (b) Bridge specimen
The TO girder and bridge specimens with a central location for a confining concrete section were
The TO tested
statically Figure
girder 6.
toand Cross
evaluate section
bridge their dimensions.
specimens
load carrying (a) Girder
with a specimen;
central
capacity. (b) Bridge
location
As shown specimen. (Unit:
for a6,confining
in Figure the mm).of
width concrete
the girder section
wereand the plate
statically were
tested to
3.1. Expeimental Details
1.0 and 1.5
evaluate theirm,load
respectively.
carrying HSB-600
capacity. reinforcements
As shown in and 506,MPa
Figure the 28 dayof the
width
girdercompressive
and the plate strength
were concrete
1.0 and were
1.5 used to design the specimens.
m, respectively. However, due toand
HSB-600 reinforcements the testing
50 MPasite 28 day
and The TO
casting girder andlimitations,
condition bridge specimens the with×a 200
100 centralmm location for a confining
cylindrical concrete concrete section 28
specimen’s were day
compressive strength concrete were used to design the specimens. However, due to the testing site and
statically tested
compressive to evaluate
strength data attheir
30 MPa loadand
carrying
27 MPa capacity.
were As only shown in Figure
available 6, the
to cast thewidth of the concrete
confining girder
casting and
condition
the limitations,
plate were 1.0 the 100
and 1.5 × 200
m, mm cylindrical
respectively. HSB-600 concrete specimen’s
reinforcements and 5028MPaday28compressive
day is
and the plate sections, respectively. As shown in Figure 6b, the top flange of the I-steel member
strength data
compressiveat 30 MPa
strength and 27
concrete MPa werewere
used only
to available
design the to cast
specimens.
embedded in the confining concrete section and approximately 30 mm of the confining concrete
the confining
However, due concrete
to the and
testing the plate
site
sections,
section is embedded in the plate section. Also, the two-main girder/plate were connected by ain the
respectively.
and casting As
condition shown in
limitations,Figure
the 6b,
100 the
× top
200 flange
mm of the
cylindrical I-steel
concretemember is
specimen’s embedded
28 day
confining compressive
concrete strength
section data
and atapproximately
30 MPa and 27 MPa wereofonly
30specimens
mm the available
confining to cast the confining concrete
stiffener connection using bolt attachments. The were tested inconcrete
a simply section
supported is embedded
setup
and the plate sections, respectively. As shown in Figure 6b, the top flange of the I-steel member is
in thewith
plate section. Also,
three-point loading. theFor two-main girder/plate
the application wereUTM
of the load, connected
with 10,000by a kNstiffener
capacity connection
was used.using
embedded in the confining concrete section and approximately 30 mm of the confining concrete
bolt attachments.
In order to firmly The setspecimens
the specimen were tested
on the in a simply
supports, the loadsupported
was appliedsetup up to with
300 kN three-point
with a 100 kN loading.
section is embedded in the plate section. Also, the two-main girder/plate were connected by a
force
For the loading increment beforeUTM a displacement controlled loadingwas was used.
appliedInatorder
a rate of 0.1 mm/s.
stiffener connection using bolt attachments. The specimens were tested in a simply supported setup set the
application of the load, with 10,000 kN capacity to firmly
The
specimen schematic
with drawings
onthree-point
the supports,loading. of the
the load
For specimen
thewas setupofare
applied
application theshown
up toload,
300UTMin
kN Figure
with7.
with A
a10,000
100 center
kN span deflection
kN force
capacity loading
was used. was
increment
measured using a 250 mm LVDT. The top and bottom flange surface strains and mid-height web
before aIndisplacement
order to firmly controlled
set the specimen on the
loading supports,
was applied theat load was of
a rate applied up to 300
0.1 mm/s. kNschematic
The with a 100 kN drawings
strains
force were
loadingmeasured
increment using
before strain
a gauges. Embedded
displacement controlled strain was
loading gauges were
applied at aalso
rate placed
of 0.1 in the
mm/s.
of the specimen setup are shown in Figure 7. A center span deflection was measured using a 250 mm
confining concrete
The schematic section and
drawings of the onspecimen
reinforcement
setup are surfaces
shownofinthe plate7.section.
Figure A center span deflection was
LVDT. The top and bottom flange surface strains and mid-height web strains were measured using
measured using a 250 mm LVDT. The top and bottom flange surface strains and mid-height web
strain gauges. Embedded strain gauges were also placed in the confining concrete section and on
strains were measured using strain gauges. Embedded strain gauges were also placed in the
reinforcement surfaces
confining concreteof the plate
section section.
and on reinforcement surfaces of the plate section.

(a) Side view

Figure 7. Cont.
(a) Side view
Figure 7. Cont.
Figure 7. Cont.
Materials 2017, 10, 283 9 of 14
Materials 2017, 10, 283 9 of 14

(b) Cross-sectional view of girder specimen (c) Cross-sectional view of bridge specimen
Figure 7. Schematic drawings of the bending test setup, (a) Side view; (b) Cross-sectional view of
7. Schematic
Figure girder drawings of the bending test setup, (a) Side view; (b) Cross-sectional view of
specimen and (c) Cross-sectional view of bridge specimen.
girder specimen and (c) Cross-sectional view of bridge specimen.
3.2. Results and Discussion
3.2. Results and Discussion
3.2.1. Load-Deflection Relationship
3.2.1. Load-Deflection Relationship
The load-deflection relationships measured at the center of the span for the girder and bridge
specimens are shown in Figure 8a,b respectively. The girder and bridge specimens initially cracked
Theat load-deflection
loads of 886 kN and relationships measured
1248 kN, respectively, withatthe
the center of the
corresponding span
center fordeflection
span the girder and bridge
of 111.1
specimensand are
145.5shown in Figure 8a,b
mm, respectively. Theserespectively.
initial crackingThe girder
loads wereand bridge specimens
approximately initially
1.3 to 1.6 times cracked at
greater
loads ofthan
886the kNdesign
and 1248 kN,load
cracking respectively,
of 665 kN and with
750 the
kN forcorresponding centerspecimens,
the girder and bridge span deflection of 111.1 and
respectively.
145.5 mm,After initial cracking
respectively. of theinitial
These specimens, stiffness
cracking reduction
loads occurred in both specimens
were approximately 1.3 to 1.6 at maximum
times greater than
loads of 1276.8 kN and 2128.7 kN with the corresponding center deflections of 170.4 and 220.4 mm
the design cracking load of 665 kN and 750 kN for the girder and bridge specimens, respectively. After
for the girder and bridge specimens as shown in Figure 8a,b respectively. In Figure 8b the load cycles
initial cracking of the specimens, stiffness reduction occurred in both specimens at maximum loads
show were conducted as follows. The load was applied until initial cracks formed, then the specimen
of 1276.8was kN and 2128.7
unloaded. Then,kNthewith the corresponding
specimen was reloaded until center
the deflections
load reached of 170.4 and 220.4
approximately twicemmthe for the
girder and
design bridge
load, specimens as shown
at which point, in Figure
the specimen 8a,b respectively.
was unloaded. Finally, theIn Figure was
specimen 8b the load cycles
reloaded until show
significant as
were conducted macro-damage
follows. The occurred, which
load was can be considered
applied until initial as an ultimate
cracks load. This
formed, load
then thecycle was
specimen was
used to clearly understand the specimen failure behavior at initial cracking
unloaded. Then, the specimen was reloaded until the load reached approximately twice the design stage, service stage, and
ultimate failure stage.
load, at which point, the specimen was unloaded. Finally, the specimen was reloaded until significant
Since the load-deflection data obtained from both the girder and bridge specimens are similar,
macro-damage occurred, which can be considered as an ultimate load. This load cycle was used to
it is safe to conclude that the stress distributions in the bridge specimens are even and symmetrical.
clearly understand
In both girderthe and specimen failure behavior
bridge specimens, at initial
both buckling andcracking
interfacialstage, service
cracking stage,
failures and ultimate
occurred.
failure stage.
However, only in a bridge specimen was there bearing failure (e.g., concrete spalling above the
support),
Since as shown in Figure
the load-deflection data9. Because
obtained of from
the buckling
both the andgirder
interfacial
andcracking failures, the ultimate
bridge specimens are similar, it is
loads could not be measured. However, since the maximum applied load
safe to conclude that the stress distributions in the bridge specimens are even and symmetrical. was approximately 1.9 to In both
2.8 times greater than the design load, it is safe to conclude that the load carrying capacity of the TO
girder and bridge specimens, both buckling and interfacial cracking failures occurred. However, only
girder and TO girder bridge is sufficient for practical applications.
in a bridge specimen was there bearing failure (e.g., concrete spalling above the support), as shown
in Figure 9. Because of the buckling and interfacial cracking failures, the ultimate loads could not be
measured. However, since the maximum applied load was approximately 1.9 to 2.8 times greater than
the design load, it is safe to conclude that the load carrying capacity of the TO girder and TO girder
bridge is sufficient for practical applications.
Materials 2017, 10, 283 10 of 14
Materials 2017, 10, 283 10 of 14

Materials 2017, 10, 283 10 of 14

(a) Girder specimen

(a) Girder specimen

(b) Bridge specimen

Figure 8. Load-deflection relationships measured (b) Bridge at the center of the span, (a) Girder specimen and
specimen
Figure 8. Load-deflection relationships measured at the center of the span, (a) Girder specimen and
(b) Bridge specimen.
(b) BridgeFigure 8. Load-deflection relationships measured at the center of the span, (a) Girder specimen and
specimen.
(b) Bridge specimen.

(a) Girder/plate specimen

Figure 9. Cont.
Figure 9. Cont.
(a) Girder/plate specimen
Figure 9. Cont.
Materials 2017, 10, 283 11 of 14
Materials 2017, 10, 283 11 of 14

Materials 2017, 10, 283 11 of 14

(b) Bridge specimen

Figure 9. Failure pattern of girder and bridge test specimens, (a) Girder/plate specimen and
Figure 9. (b)Failure pattern of girder and bridge test specimens, (a) Girder/plate specimen and
Bridge specimen.
(b) Bridge specimen.
3.2.2. Load-Strain Relationship (b) Bridge specimen
3.2.2. Load-Strain Relationship
The load-strain relations at the center span of the girder and bridge specimens are shown in
Figure 9. Failure pattern of girder and bridge test specimens, (a) Girder/plate specimen and
Figure 10a,b respectively. For the girder specimen, the initial cracking at the confining concrete section
(b) Bridge specimen.
The load-strain relationsatata load the center span
occurred approximately of 900 kN, afterof the the
which girder and load-strain
non-linear bridge specimens
relationship are was shown in
Figure 10a,b respectively.
observed. For theload,
At this cracking girder specimen,
the confining the initial
concrete section cracking
cracked, and atthethecracks
confining
propagated concrete
as section
3.2.2. the
Load-Strain Relationship
strain of the steel
occurred approximately atgirder
a load also
ofcorrespondingly
900 kN, afterincreased.
which the Figure 9a shows a load-strain
non-linear photo of local buckling
relationship was
failure, which occurred slightly theafter the confining concrete section bridge
cracked, indicating are that the
observed.The At load-strain
this cracking relations
load, at the center
confining span of the
concrete girder
sectionand cracked, specimens
and the cracksshown in
propagated
interfacial cracking caused this local buckling. Additionally, the interface failure
Figure 10a,b respectively. For the girder specimen, the initial cracking at the confining concrete section of confining concrete
as the strainand of
the the steel
I-steel girdergirder
is likelyalso
duecorrespondingly increased.
to the compressive strength Figure
of concrete used9a to shows
manufacture a photo
the of local
occurred approximately at a load of 900 kN, after which the non-linear load-strain relationship was
buckling failure, which occurred slightly after the confining concrete section cracked, indicating that
specimens, which was lower than the required design compressive strength. However, the load-strain
observed. At this obtained
relationships
cracking from load,thethetestsconfining concrete section cracked, the andbottom
the cracks propagated as
the interfacial
the strain
cracking
of the steel
caused
girder also
this localshowed
correspondingly
that the
buckling. tensile strain of
Additionally,
increased. Figure 9a
the
shows
interface
a photo
flange
failure
of
section
local
of confining
buckling
exceeded 2500 με and the top flange had approximately 50% of the strain measured at the bottom flange.
concrete and
failure, the
Thewhich
I-steel
relatively
girderslightly
occurred is likely
small compressive
duethe
after
strain
to the compressive
in confining concrete
the steel member
strength
section
is likely
oftoconcrete
due cracked,
used
indicating
the confining
to manufacture
that the
concrete
the specimens,
interfacial
section which
cracking
cast at the was
caused lower
top flange than
thissection.
local theto required
buckling.
Due increaseddesign
theAdditionally, the compressive
compressive interface
stress failure strength.
resistanceof capacity
confining ofHowever,
concrete the
the
load-strain
and the relationships
section above
I-steel girder obtained
the neutral
is likelyaxis,
dueafrom
smaller
to the the tests showed
compressive
compressive force that the
needed
strength tensile
oftoconcrete
be resisted strain toof
by the
used thesection
steel bottomthe
manufacture flange
section above the
specimens,
exceeded whichneutral
2500 was axis,
µε lower
and thereby
thantop
the reducing
the flange the size
required ofapproximately
design
had thecompressive
top steel flange section
strength.
50% ofneeded
However, for the
the strain the girder.
load-strainat the
measured
bottomrelationships
flange. The obtained from the
relatively small tests showed that strain
compressive the tensile
in the strain
steelof member
the bottom is flange
likely section
due to the
exceeded 2500 με and the top flange had approximately 50%
confining concrete section cast at the top flange section. Due to the increased compressive of the strain measured at the bottom flange. stress
The relatively small compressive strain in the steel member is likely due to the confining concrete
resistance capacity of the section above the neutral axis, a smaller compressive force needed to be
section cast at the top flange section. Due to the increased compressive stress resistance capacity of the
resisted by the steel section above the neutral axis, thereby reducing the size of the top steel flange
section above the neutral axis, a smaller compressive force needed to be resisted by the steel section
section needed
above for theaxis,
the neutral girder.thereby reducing the size of the top steel flange section needed for the girder.

(a) Girder specimen

Figure 10. Cont.

(a) Girder specimen

Figure 10. Cont.
Figure 10. Cont.
Materials 2017, 10, 283 12 of 14

Materials 2017, 10, 283 12 of 14

Materials 2017, 10, 283 12 of 14

(b) Bridge specimen

(b) Bridge specimen
Figure 10. Load-strain relations at the center span of the girder and bridge specimens, (a) Girder
Figure 10. Load-strain relations at the center span of the girder and bridge specimens, (a) Girder
Figure Load-strain
10. and
specimen (b) Bridge relations
specimen.at the center span of the girder and bridge specimens, (a) Girder
specimen and (b) Bridge specimen.
specimen and (b) Bridge specimen.
In the Inbridge
the bridgespecimen,
specimen, initial
initialcracking
crackingoccurred
occurred at ataaload
loadofofapproximately
approximately 1300 1300
kN, kN,
afterafter
which which
In the bridge
a non-linear behavior
a non-linear specimen,
behavior waswas initial
observed. cracking
observed. Due
Dueto tooccurred
the at a load
the confining
confining effect
effect offrom
approximately
fromthethe confining
confining 1300 kN, section,
concrete
concrete aftersection,
which
aa non-linear
verya very
low low behavior
strainstrain
of 580was
of μεobserved.
580 μεwas Due toat
wasobserved
observed atthetheconfining
the web and
web andtopeffect
topflangefrom
flange the
sections confining
sections of the concrete
I-steel
of the member
I-steel section,
member
awith with
veryhigh high
low strain strain
strain values.values.
of 580 µε was observed at the web and top flange sections of the I-steel member with
high Overall
strain Overall
the the
values. specimen
specimen showedductile
showed ductile behavior
behavior of of the
thebottom
bottomflange flange section.
section.As shown
As shown in in
Figure
Overall 11,
theboth the
specimen top and
showed bottom flange
ductile sections
behavior showed
of the compressive
bottom flange stresses
section. in the
As bridge
shown in
Figure 11, both the top and bottom flange sections showed compressive stresses in the bridge
specimen. The load-strain relationship measured from the plate section of the bridge specimen is
Figure 11, both
specimen. The the top and bottom
load-strain flangemeasured
relationship sections showed from thecompressive
plate sectionstresses in the
of the bridge
bridge specimen.
specimen is
shown in Figure 11. Both the top and bottom surfaces of the plate section showed compressive
The load-strain
shown in relationship
Figure 11. Both measured
the top frombottom
and the platesurfaces
section of of the
the bridge
plate specimen
section is showncompressive
showed in Figure 11.
stresses, indicating that large compressive stresses occurred in the top section of the specimen. The
Both the
test top
stresses, andindicate
indicating
results bottom surfaces
thatthat
large ofgirder
the plate
thecompressive
TO section
stresses
bridge showed
occurred
specimen showscompressive
ina the
goodtop stresses,behavior
section
composite ofindicating
the specimen. that large
between The
compressive
the plate and the girder, having a low effective height with strong compressive stress resisting TO
test results stresses
indicate occurred
that the TOin the
girdertop section
bridge of the
specimen specimen.
shows a The
goodtest results
composite indicate
behavior that the
between
girder bridge
the plate
capacityandspecimen
of the shows
girder,
the specimen. a good
having
This a composite
low that
indicates effective
thebehavior
height
overall between
steel with the
forplate
usagestrong andorthe
the compressive
two- girder,
three- having
stress
main a low
resisting
girder
effective
plateheight
capacity ofbridges withcanstrong
the specimen. compressive
be significantly
This indicates stress
reduced
that by
the resisting
using the
overall capacity
TOusage
steel of the
girders, specimen.
for proving
the This
two-itsoradvantages
three- indicates that
mainforgirder
the
plate construction
overall
bridges steelcan reductions
usagebe for in costs
the two- and
significantly time. main
orreduced
three- girder the
by using plateTO bridges canproving
girders, be significantly reduced for
its advantages by
using the TO girders, proving
construction reductions in costs and time. its advantages for construction reductions in costs and time.

Figure 11. Load-strain relationship measured from the plate section of the bridge specimen.

Figure 11. Load-strain relationship measured from the plate section of the bridge specimen.
Figure 11. Load-strain relationship measured from the plate section of the bridge specimen.
Materials 2017, 10, 283 13 of 14

4. Conclusions
In this study, a modified precast construction method called Turn Over (TO) was proposed for
construction efficiency improvement for turning over an I-section steel girder. A full-scale 20 m single
girder specimen and a full-scale 20 m two-girder plate bridge specimen were used to investigate the
optimum cross section design and the confining concrete section location, and to evaluate the structural
performance. Based on the study results, the following conclusions were drawn.

• The ordinary I-section steel girder and proposed TO girder with a confining concrete section and
a height of 3250 mm were compared. With respect to saving steel in the I-beam, the required
steel area for the TO girder was reduced by over 13.8% than that of ordinary steel girders. Also,
due to the simplicity of precast inverting construction using the TO method, the savings on
manufacturing costs are significant. Therefore, there are significant economic benefits in using a
TO girder over an ordinary steel girder.
• In order to investigate the optimal cross section for a TO girder, parametric studies of the
confining concrete section location, cross-section weight, and stress ratios were carried out.
The optimal location of the confining concrete section was selected as the flange of the I-beam.
It was embedded in the section for its benefits in performance enhancements and construction
simplicity. The sensitivity of the parameters with respect to steel weight and applied stresses are
in the order of height, bottom flange thickness, and top flange thickness.
• A full-scale 20 m TO girder and bridge system were tested. From the static test results, initial
crack of the TO girder and bridge system behaved elastically and occurred after reaching the
design loads. Since the maximum applied load was approximately 1.9 to 2.8 times greater than the
design load, the steel I-beam and concrete plate girder system constructed using the TO method
can be assumed to have sufficient safety and load carrying capacity.
• From the TO manufacturing, the steel I-beam showed well distributed deflection from the
application of self-weight of the confining concrete section. Since the failure load of the TO
girder system increased by implementing the confining concrete section, the efficient composite
behavior between the I-section steel girder, confining concrete, and concrete plate can be assumed.
• Analysis of the study results showed that the proposed TO method can be applied to practical
designs as an improved precast construction method. However, additional experiments with
other parametric variations of the TO girder need to be carried out. (i.e., buckling, interface
bonding, etc.)

Acknowledgments: This study was supported by the National Research Foundation of Korea (NRF) grant funded
by the Korea government (MSIP) (No. 2016R1A2B3009444) and the Nuclear Safety Research Program through the
Korea Foundation of Nuclear Safety (KOFONS), granted financial resource from the Nuclear Safety and Security
Commission (NSSC), Republic of Korea (No. 1403010).
Author Contributions: Gi-Ha Eom is a person who performed most of test and analysis works; a main writer of
the paper. Jang-Ho Jay Kim is a PI of the research project, who provided the main idea of the study. Tae-Hee Lee
is a person who assisted the research and writing the paper. Sung Jae Kim is a consultant to the research work and
writing of the paper.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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