Lecture one: Stress and strain

1.1 Stress in one dimension Force is an invariant quantity

r
j
r r r r
− Fi i Ai Fi
r
k
r
r r r j r
j Fs s Fn n n
r
r r s θ
− Fi i r
r i
k

r r
F r= σ A r r
Fi = Fn n + Fs s , Fn= F cos θ , Fs = − F sin θ
r r r r r r
n = cos θ i + sin θ j ,s = − sin θ i + cos θ j
Fn F 2 Fs F
Area= Aθ = A / cos θ , σ n = = cos θ σs = = − cos θ sin θ
Aθ A Aθ A
1.2 Stress in two dimensions
F22 F21 Figure 1.2b
r
c F r
F11 r N
F12 S
b
F11 F12
F11
F12 θ
F21
o a
F21 h F22
F22 r r r
A = A0 x F invariant
Figure 1.2a

F21= shear force, etc, Figure 1.2a

σ 11 = F11 / bh,σ 12 = F12 / bh,σ 21 = F21 / ah,σ 22 = F22 / ah .
Moments about o: aF12 = bF21 , σ 12 abh = σ 21abh ,∴σ 12 = σ 21 = τ .
r r r r r r r
A = A0 x = A0 ( l1i + l2 j ) = A1i + A2 j = ahi + bhj
r
Area
Direction cosines l1 = cos θ , l2 = cos ( 90° − θ ) = ± sin θ
 r r r r r
Face 1: F1 = (σ 11i + σ 12 j ) l1 A0 = F11i + F12 j
r r r r r
Face 2: F2 = (σ 21i + σ 22 j ) l2 A0 = F21i + F22 j
r r r r r
Inclined face: F = ( p 1 i + p2 j ) A0 = F1 + F2 .
⎧ p1 ⎫ ⎡σ 11 σ 21 ⎤ ⎧ l1 ⎫
Comparing: ⎨ ⎬ A0 = ⎢ ⎥ ⎨ ⎬ A0
⎩ p2 ⎭ r ⎣σ 12 σ 22 ⎦ ⎩l2 ⎭ r
r r
Normal component ofr F on x plane= normal force= N = Nx , where
r
N = F ⋅ x = A0 ∑ pi li = A0 ∑σ ij li l j = A0σ ij li l j
i i, j
Dot product with unit vector=projection.
Sum over repeated indices= Einstein Convention.
The direct stress σ xx = σ ij li l j is a quadratic form.
r r r r r
Shear component of F on x plane= shear force= S = F − Nx
There is a certain direction where the normal stress is optimal.
► principal axis and principal stress.
We use Lagrange multiplier method to solve for li
∂σ ∂φ
Maximizing σ xx = σ ij li l j with constraint φ = li li − 1 = 0 : xx − χ =0
∂li ∂li
giving 2 equations and φ = li li − 1 = 0 to determine 3 unknowns from
σ ij l j − χ l j = 0 or [σ − χ I ]{l} = 0
det [σ − χ I ] = 0 , ► χ 2 − I1 χ + I 2 = 0
stress invariants: I1 = σ 11 + σ 22 and I2 = σ 11σ 22 − τ 122 .
Equilibrium equations: figure 1.2d
⎧ ( dy ) dσ 11 + ( dx ) dσ 21 = ( dxdy ) f x
Horizontal and vertical forces: ⎨
⎩( dx ) dσ 22 + ( dy ) dσ 12 = ( dxdy ) f y
⎧ ∂σ 11 + ∂σ 21 = f
⎪⎪ ∂x ∂y
x

Divided by dxdy, one gets ⎨

⎪ ∂σ 12 + ∂σ 22 = f y
⎪⎩ ∂x ∂y

σ22+dσ22 σ +dσ
21 21

F22 F21 σ12+dσ12

fy
Fyy Fxx dy
F12 σ11 fx
σ12 σ11+dσ11
F11
F11
F12 σ21
σ22
F21
F22 dx

Figure 1.2c Figure 1.2d

1.3 Three dimensional stresses
r σ 33 r r
j
A = A0 x
σ 31
r r r
Face 3
r r
A = A0 x
σ 32

σ 23
σ 13 (
= A0 l1i + l2 j + l3 k )
r σ 11 r r r
Face 1
F
r σ 21 σ 12
= A1i + A2 j + A3 k
i
σ 22
Face 2

r Equilibrium
k Stresses on the positive faces are
shown only

r r r r
r r r r
(
Forces on faces 1,2,3: F1 = σ 11i + σ 12 j + σ 13 k l1 A0 ,
r r r r
)
(
F2 = σ 21i + σ 22 j + σ 23 k l2 A0 ,
r r r
)
F3 = σ 31i + σ 32 j + σ 33 k l3 A0 .
r r r r
( )
(
Inclined plane: F = p 1 i + p2 j + p3 k A0 = F1 + F2 + F3 . )
⎧ p1 ⎫ ⎡σ 11 σ 21 σ 31 ⎤ ⎧ l1 ⎫
⎪ ⎪ ⎪ ⎪
Comparing terms: ⎨ p2 ⎬ A0 = ⎢⎢σ 12 σ 22 σ 32 ⎥⎥ ⎨l2 ⎬ A0
⎪p ⎪ ⎢ σ σ σ ⎥ ⎪l ⎪
⎩ 3⎭ ⎣ 13 23 33 ⎦ ⎩ 3 ⎭
Transformation
r ofr stressr r
Normal of F on x : N = F ⋅ x = A0 ∑ pi li = A0 ∑σ ij li l j = A0σ ij li l j = A0 σ xx
i i, j
r r r r r
Direction cosines of y , z be mi,ni so that x , y , z form a right hand frame.
r r r r r
Shear of F on x plane: S = F − Nx = A0 (σ xy y + σ xz z ) .
r r
r r
A0σ xy = F ⋅ y = A0σ ij li m j ,
r r .
A0σ xz = F ⋅ z = A0σ ij li n j
⎡σ xx σ xy σ xz ⎤ ⎡ l1 l2 l3 ⎤ ⎡σ 11 σ 12 σ 13 ⎤ ⎡ l1 m1 n1 ⎤
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢σ ⎥ ⎢l m n ⎥
σ
⎢ yx σ yy σ yz ⎥ = m
⎢ 1 m 2 m3 ⎥ ⎢ 21 σ 22 σ 23 ⎥ ⎢ 2 2 2⎥
⎢⎣σ zx σ zy σ zz ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ n1 n2 n3 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣σ 31 σ 32 σ 33 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ l3 m3 n3 ⎥⎦
Principal stresses
Lagrange multiplier li maximizing σ xx = σ ij li l j with φ = li li − 1 = 0 .
∂σ xx ∂φ
−λ =0
∂li ∂li
giving 3 equations and φ = li li − 1 = 0 to determine 4 unknowns: the
principal stress λ and the direction li, from the eigenvalue problem
σ ij l j − λl j = 0 or [σ − λ I ]{l} = 0
Expanding the determinant equation det [σ − λ I ] = 0 , one has a cubic
equation for λ,
λ 3 − I1λ 2 + I 2 λ − I 3 = 0
where Ii i=1,2,3 are the three invariants.
 dσ 33
+Face 3
dσ 31
dσ 32
dσ 13
fz
dσ 23 +Face 1
fx
dσ 11
fy
dσ 21 dσ 12
dz
dσ 22
+Face 2
dy
Stress increments, positive
dx over negative faces

Equilibrium equations
x direction: ( dydz ) dσ 11 + ( dzdx ) dσ 21 + ( dxdy ) dσ 31 + ( dxdydz ) f x = 0 , or
∂σ 11 ∂σ 21 ∂σ 31
+ + + fx = 0
∂x ∂y ∂z
Comma denoting partial derivatives and x1 , x2 , x3 = x , y , z ,
σ ji , j + fi = 0
Inertia force
σ ji , j + fi − ρ u&&i = 0
dots denote differentiation with respect to time t.
1.4 Strains: Distance is an invariant quantity

Q’(x+dx+u+du) The distance P ( x , y , z )

Q(x+dx)
u+du
and Q ( x + dx , y + dy , z + dz ) :
dx+du

( ds0 ) = ( dx ) + ( dy ) + ( dz )
2 2 2 2
dx
P(x) u P’(x+u)
= dxi dxi

After deformation, these two points change to

P′ ( x + u , y + v , z + w ) , Q′ ( x + u + dx + du , y + v + dy + dv , z + w + dz + dw )
∂u ∂u ∂u
where du = dx + dy + dz etc.
∂x ∂y ∂z
⎛ ∂ui ⎞
P ( xi ) Q ( xi + dxi ) → P′ ( xi + ui ) Q′ ⎜ xi + ui + dxi + dx j ⎟
⎜ ∂ x ⎟
⎝ j ⎠
The new distance square (note change of dummy indices)
⎛ ∂ui ⎞⎛ ∂ui ⎞
( ds ) = ⎜⎜ dxi + dx j ⎟⎟ ⎜ dxi + dxk ⎟
2

⎝ ∂x j ⎠⎝ ∂xk ⎠
∂ui ∂u j ∂ui ∂ui
= dxi dxi + dx j dxi + dx j dxi + dx j dxk
∂x j ∂xi ∂x j ∂xk
Change in distance squares
∂ui ∂u j ∂uk ∂uk
( ds ) − ( ds0 ) = dx j dxi +
2 2
dx j dxi + dx j dxi
∂x j ∂xi ∂x j ∂xi
⎛ ∂ui ∂u j ∂uk ∂uk ⎞
=⎜
⎜ ∂x
+ + ⎟⎟ dxi dx j = ( ui , j + u j ,i + uk , j uk ,i )
⎝ j ∂xi ∂x j ∂xi ⎠
= 2 ( ε ij + ∈ij ) dxi dx j
Strains : 2ε ij = ui , j + u j ,i , 2 ∈ij = uk , j uk ,i
The factor of two is because, for small strains,
( ds )2 − ( ds0 ) ( ds − ds0 )( ds + ds0 ) ds − ds0
2

= ≈
2 ( ds ) 2 ( ds ) ( ds )
2 2
Quadratic form for small strain
( ) ( 0)2 2
ds − ds dxi dx j
Q= = ε ij = ε ij li l j
2 ( ds )
2
ds ds
Principal strain direction is the direction li which optimize Q subject to
φ = li li − 1 = 0 .
∂Q ∂φ
−χ = 0 to give the eigenvalue problem: [ε − χ I ]{l} = 0
∂li ∂li
Transformation of strains
( ds ) − ( ds0 )
2 2
dxi dx j dxk dxl
Q= = ε ij = ε kl
2 ( ds )
2
ds ds ds ds
∂xk ∂xl
ε ij = ε kl = ε kl lki llj
∂xi ∂x j
Compatibility
Since there are 6 strains but 3 displacements, ε ij ,kl + ε kl ,ij = ε ik , jl + ε jl ,ik .
∂ ε xx
2
∂ 2
ε ∂ 2
ε xy
+ =2
yy
For a two-dimensional problem:
∂y 2
∂x 2
∂x∂y
Temperature strains
ε%ij = α T (T − T0 )δ ij where the Kronecker delta
δ ij = 1 when i = j , δ ij =0 otherwise .
Engineering stress and strain:
⎧σ 1 ⎫ ⎧σ 11 ⎫ ⎧ ε11 ⎫ ⎧ ε1 ⎫ ⎧ ε11 ⎫
⎪σ ⎪ ⎪σ ⎪ ⎪ε ⎪ ⎪ε ⎪ ⎪ ε ⎪
⎪ 2 ⎪ ⎪ 22 ⎪ ⎪ 22 ⎪ ⎪ 2 ⎪ ⎪ 22 ⎪
⎪σ 3 ⎪ ⎪σ 33 ⎪ ⎪ε 33 ⎪ ⎪ε 3 ⎪ ⎪ ε 33 ⎪
⎨ ⎬ = ⎨ ⎬, ⎨ ⎬ = ⎨ ⎬ = ⎨ ⎬
σ σ γ ε
⎪ 4 ⎪ ⎪ 23 ⎪ ⎪ 23 ⎪ ⎪ 4 ⎪ ⎪ 23 ⎪2ε
⎪σ 5 ⎪ ⎪σ 31 ⎪ ⎪γ 31 ⎪ ⎪ε 5 ⎪ ⎪ 2ε 31 ⎪
⎪ ⎪ ⎪ ⎪ ⎪ ⎪ ⎪ ⎪ ⎪ ⎪
σ σ γ ε
⎩ 6 ⎭ ⎩ 12 ⎭ ⎩ 12 ⎭ ⎩ 6 ⎭ ⎩ 12 ⎭2ε
1 1
Strain Energy Density (per volume) U 0 = σ ij ε ij = σ iε i
2 2
∂U 0
Castigliano’s theorem = ε ij
∂σ ij
 σ 1 −νσ 2 −νσ 3
direct strain ε1 = ;
E
Hooke’s law
σj
shear strain ε j = , j =4,5,6
G
Equations of elasticity
3 equilibrium, 6 strain-displacement, 6 constitutive equations.
3 displacements+6 stresses+6 strains=18 unknowns
σ ji , j + fi − ρ u&& = 0
2ε ij = ui , j + u j ,i
σ ij = λδ ijε mm + 2Gε ij = λδ ijε mm + Gγ ij
νE E
where the Lame constants λ = ,G = .
(1 +ν )(1 − 2ν ) 2 (1 +ν )

In terms of displacements: Linear Navier-Stoke equation

( λ + G )θ ,i + G∇ 2ui + fi = 0
θ = ui ,i is the divergence