The cohesive forces between liquid molecules are responsible for the

phenomenon known as surface tension. The molecules at the surface of a

glass of water do not have other water molecules on all sides of them and
consequently they cohere more strongly to those directly associated with
them (in this case, next to and below them, but not above). It is not really
true that a "skin" forms on the water surface; the stronger cohesion between
the water molecules as opposed to the attraction of the water molecules to
the air makes it more difficult to move an object through the surface than to
move it when it is completely submersed. (Source: GSU).

Cohesion and Surface Tension

The cohesive forces between molecules in a liquid are shared with all
neighboring molecules. Those on the surface have no neighboring molecules
above and, thus, exhibit stronger attractive forces upon their nearest
neighbors on and below the surface. Surface tension could be defined as the
property of the surface of a liquid that allows it to resist an external force,
due to the cohesive nature of the water molecules.

Surface tension at a molecular level

Water molecules want to cling to each

other. At the surface, however, there are fewer water molecules to cling to
since there is air above (thus, no water molecules). This results in a stronger
bond between those molecules that actually do come in contact with one
another, and a layer of strongly bonded water (see diagram). This surface
layer (held together by surface tension) creates a considerable barrier
between the atmosphere and the water. In fact, other than mercury, water
has the greatest surface tension of any liquid. (Source: Lakes of Missouri)
Within a body of a liquid, a molecule will not experience a net force because
the forces by the neighboring molecules all cancel out (diagram). However
for a molecule on the surface of the liquid, there will be a net inward force
since there will be no attractive force acting from above. This inward net
force causes the molecules on the surface to contract and to resist being
stretched or broken. Thus the surface is under tension, which is probably
where the name "surface tension" came from. (Source: Woodrow Wilson
Foundation).

Due to the surface tension, small objects will "float" on the surface of a fluid,
as long as the object cannot break through and separate the top layer of
water molecules. When an object is on the surface of the fluid, the surface
under tension will behave like an elastic membrane.

Examples of surface tension

Walking on water: Small insects such as the water

strider can walk on water because their weight is not enough to penetrate
the surface.

Floating a needle: A carefully placed small needle can be made to float on

the surface of water even though it is several times as dense as water. If the
surface is agitated to break up the surface tension, then needle will quickly
sink.

Don't touch the tent!: Common tent materials are somewhat rainproof in
that the surface tension of water will bridge the pores in the finely woven
material. But if you touch the tent material with your finger, you break the
surface tension and the rain will drip through.

Clinical test for jaundice: Normal urine has a surface tension of about 66
dynes/centimeter but if bile is present (a test for jaundice), it drops to about
55. In the Hay test, powdered sulfur is sprinkled on the urine surface. It will
float on normal urine, but will sink if the surface tension is lowered by the
bile.
Surface tension disinfectants: Disinfectants are usually solutions of low
surface tension. This allow them to spread out on the cell walls of bacteria
and disrupt them.

Soaps and detergents: These help the cleaning of clothes by lowering the
surface tension of the water so that it more readily soaks into pores and
soiled areas.

Washing with cold water: The major reason for using hot water for washing
is that its surface tension is lower and it is a better wetting agent. But if the
detergent lowers the surface tension, the heating may be unneccessary.

Why bubbles are round: The surface tension of water provides the necessary
wall tension for the formation of bubbles with water. The tendency to
minimize that wall tension pulls the bubbles into spherical shapes.

Surface Tension and Droplets: Surface tension is responsible for the shape
of liquid droplets. Although easily deformed, droplets of water tend to be
pulled into a spherical shape by the cohesive forces of the surface layer.

1.
o Properties of Liquids

o Cohesive and Adhesive Forces

2. picture_as_pdf
LMS

Donate

Capillary action can be defined as the ascension of liquids through slim tube, cylinder or
permeable substance due to adhesive and cohesive forces interacting between the liquid and the
surface. When intermolecular bonding of a liquid itself is substantially inferior to a substances’
surface it is interacting, capillarity occurs. Also, the diameter of the container as well as the
gravitational forces will determine amount of liquid raised. While, water possesses this unique
property, a liquid like mercury will not display the same attributes due to the fact that it has
higher cohesive force than adhesive force.

Forces in Capillary Action

Three main variables that determine whether a liquid possesses capillary action are:
  Cohesive force: It is the intermolecular bonding of a substance where its mutual attractiveness
forces them to maintain a certain shape of the liquid.
 Surface tension: This occurs as a result of like molecules, cohesive forces, banding together to
form a somewhat impenetrable surface on the body of water. The surface tension is measured in
Newton/meter.
 Adhesive force: When forces of attraction between unlike molecules occur, it is called adhesive
forces.

Capillary action only occurs when the adhesive forces are stronger than the cohesive forces,
which invariably becomes surface tension, in the liquid.
 Figure 1.11.1:The scientific properties of surface tension and cohesion allow the water strider
to calmly walk across water without
drowning. http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Water_Strider.jpg. Figure 4: It is possible to
see that in water, the strength of the adhesive forces are larger than the strength of the cohesive
forces. This results in the concave formation of water in the capillary tube; this is known as
capillary attraction. Alternatively for mercury, the cohesive forces are stronger than the adhesive
forces which allows the the meniscus to bend away from the walls of the capillary tube. This is
known as capillary
Repulsion. http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Capillary_Attraction_Repulsion_(PSF)
(bjl).svg

A good way to remember the difference between adhesive and cohesive forces is that
with adhesive forces you add another set of molecules, the molecules of the surface, for the
liquid to bond with. With cohesive forces, the molecules of the liquid will only cooperate with
their own kind. Decreased surface tension also increases capillary action. This is because
decreased surface tension means that the intermolecular forces are decreased, thus decreasing
cohesive forces. As a result, capillary action will be even greater.
Applications
Practical use of capillary action is evident in all forms of our daily lives. It makes performing our
tasks efficiently and effectively. Some applications of this unique property include:

 The fundamental properties are used to absorb water by using paper towels. The cohesive and
adhesive properties draw the fluid into the paper towel. The liquid flows into the paper towel at
a certain rate.
 A technique called thin layer chromatography uses capillary action in which a layer of liquid is
used to separate mixtures from substances.
 Capillary action helps us naturally by pumping out tear fluid in the eye. This process cleanses the
eye and clears all of the dust and particles that are around the ducts of the eye.
 To generate energy: A possible use for capillary action is as a source of renewable energy. By
allowing water to climb through capillaries, evaporate once it reaches the top, the condensate
and drop back down to the bottom spinning a turbine on its way to create the energy, capillary
action can make electricity! Although this idea is still in the works, it goes to show the potential
that capillary action holds and how important it is.
 Figure 1.21.2: Capillary action is evident in nature all around us. The properties allow the
water to be transpired by the xylem in the plant. The water starts in the roots and proceeds
upward to the highest branches of the
plant. http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:GemeineFichte.jpg

When measuring the level of liquid of a test tube or buret, it is imperative to measure at the
meniscus line for an accurate reading. It is possible to measure the height (represented by h) of a
test tube, buret, or other liquid column using the formula:

h=2γcosθρgr(1.1)(1.1)h=2γcos⁡θρgr

In this formula,

 γ represents the surface tension in a liquid-air environment,

 θ is the angle of contact or the degree of contact,
  ρ is the density of the liquid in the representative column,
 g is the acceleration due to the force of gravity and
 r is the radius of the tube in which the liquid is presented in.

At optimum level, in which a glass tube filled with water is present in air, this formula can
determine the height of a specific column of water in meters (m):

h≈1.4×10−5r(1.2)(1.2)h≈1.4×10−5r

However, the following conditions must be met for this formula to occur.

 γ= 0.0728 N/m (when water is at a temperature of 20°C)

 θ= 20°
 ρis 1000 kg/m3
 g= 9.8 m/s2

Formula for Volume of Liquid Transport in

Medium:
When certain objects that are porous encounter a liquid medium, it will begin to absorb the liquid
at a rate which actually decreases over a period of time. This formula is written as:

V=S∗At√(1.3)(1.3)V=S∗At

In this specific formula,

 A is the wet area (cross-section),

 S is the sorptivity (capacity of medium to absorb using the process of capillary action),
 V is the volume of liquid absorbed in time, t.
 Viscosity, resistance of a fluid (liquid or gas) to a change in
shape, or movement of neighbouring portions relative to one
another. Viscosity denotes opposition to flow. The reciprocal of
the viscosity is called the fluidity, a measure of the ease of
flow. Molasses, for example, has a greater viscosity than water.
Because part of a fluid that is forced to move carries along to
some extent adjacent parts, viscosity may be thought of as
internal friction between the molecules; such friction opposes
the development of velocity differences within a fluid. Viscosity
is a major factor in determining the forces that must be
overcome when fluids are used in lubrication and transported
 in pipelines. It controls the liquid flow in such processes as
spraying, injection molding, and surface coating.

Vapor Pressure
The Macroscopic View

The vapor pressure of a liquid is the equilibrium pressure of a vapor above its liquid (or solid); that is, the
pressure of the vapor resulting from evaporation of a liquid (or solid) above a sample of the liquid (or
solid) in a closed container. Examples:

vapor pressure
substance
at 25oC
diethyl
0.7 atm
ether
bromine 0.3 atm
ethyl
0.08 atm
alcohol
water 0.03 atm

The vapor pressure of a liquid varies with its temperature, as the following graph
shows for water. The line on the graph shows the boiling temperature for water.
As the temperature of a liquid or solid increases its vapor pressure also increases.
Conversely, vapor pressure decreases as the temperature decreases.

The vapor pressure of a liquid can be measured in a variety of ways. A simple

measurement involves injecting a little of the liquid into a closed flask connected to a
manometer. Click here for an illustration.

The Microscopic View

 When a solid or a liquid evaporates to a gas in a closed container, the molecules

cannot escape.
 Some of the gas molecules will eventually strike the condensed phase and
condense back into it.
 When the rate of condensation of the gas becomes equal to the rate of
evaporation of the liquid or solid, the amount of gas, liquid and/or solid no
longer changes.
 The gas in the container is in equilibrium with the liquid or solid.

Microscopic equilibrium between gas and Microscopic equilibrium between gas and
liquid. Note that the rate of evaporation of solid. Note that the rate of evaporation of
the liquid is equal to the rate of the solid is equal to the rate of
condensation of the gas. condensation of the gas.
 The pressure exerted by the gas in equilibrium with a solid or liquid in a closed
container at a given temperature is called the vapor pressure.

Factors That Affect Vapor Pressure

 Surface Area: the surface area of the solid or liquid in contact with the gas has
no effect on the vapor pressure.
 Types of Molecules: the types of molecules that make up a solid or liquid
determine its vapor pressure. If the intermolecular forces between molecules
are:
o relatively strong, the vapor pressure will be relatively low.

o relatively weak, the vapor pressure will be relatively high.

=C

o =O

=H
ethyl ether (C4H10O) ethyl alcohol (C2H6O)
Pvapor (25oC) = 520 torr Pvapor (25oC) = 75 torr
The relatively weak dipole- Although dipole-dipole
dipole forces and London forces and London dispersion
dispersion forces between forces also exist between
molecules results in a much ethyl alcohol molecules, the
higher vapor pressure strong hydrogen bonding
compared to ethyl alcohol. interactions are responsible
for the much lower vapor
pressure compared to ethyl
ether.
 Temperature: at a higher temperature, more molecules have enough energy to escape from
the liquid or solid. At a lower temperature, fewer molecules have sufficient energy to escape
from the liquid or solid.
Microscopic equilibrium between gas and Microscopic equilibrium between gas and
liquid at low temperature. Note the small liquid at high temperature. Note the large
number of particles in the gas. number of particles in the gas.