Powder characterisation

Particle
 Smallest unit of a powder that cannot be
subdivided easily
 P/M generally deals with particles larger
than smoke (0.01-1 m), but smaller
than sand (0.1-3 mm)
 SEM is one of the best tools available to
study particle characteristics
a) tellurium, milled, acicular
b) iron alloy, argon atomized,
spherical with agglomerated
fines
c) tungsten, gas reduced, polygonal
aggregates
d) tin, air atomized, rounded &
ligamental
e) iron alloy, centrifugally atomized,
spherical
f) tin, splat quenched, flake
g) stainless steel, water atomized
rounded & irregular
h) palladium, electrolytic, sponge
i) nickel, carbonyl decomposition
porous
j) iron-based metallic glass,
crushed ribbon, angular plates
k) titanium, sodium reduced &
milled, irregular
l) niobium hydride, milled, angular
Powder characteristics
 Particle size & distribution
 Particle shape
 Surface area
 Interparticle friction
 Flow & packing
 Internal particle structure
 Composition, homogeneity & contamination
Powder characteristics
o Properties of single particle
 Size, shape, chemistry, microstructure,
density, hardness
 Properties of bulk powder
 Packing, flow, size distribution, surface
attributes
 Powder sampling & dispersion
 Collecting a representative sample is a
difficult task
 Simple rules for avoiding sampling errors
 Powder sample should be taken from a moving
stream
 If, taken after shipping
 More probability for segregation
 Hence, it may not be a true representative sample
 It is important to blend the lot before sampling
 Sample should be taken from many points
 Particle size
 Consider a rounded, but
irregular shape particle
 Dimensioning the
particle is quite difficult
 Widely differing size
determinations are
possible
 Depending on the size
parameter
 For a cubic particle with a size of 1 m
as measured on each edge, find out
equivalent spherical diameter based on
projected area, surface area and
volume.
 DA=1.13 m, DS=1.38 m and DV=1.24
m
Particle clustering
 Most of the metal particles are cohesive
 Not easily dispersed
 Adsorbed moisture causes particle agglomeration
 Agglomerate
 A cluster of particles held together by weak forces
 Can be dispersed easily
 Eg. Dried mud
 Aggregate
 Cluster of crystals or particles held together by strong bonds
 Cannot be dispersed easily
Particle clustering
 Small particles
 Large driving force for agglomeration
 Significant problem in characterisation
 Agglomerates of small particles are considered as large
particles
 Improper characterisation can create
difficulties in processing
 Proper dispersion is necessary
 Surface active agents can be used
Powder dispersion
 First step is to remove adsorbed moisture
 Smaller particles (<100 m) exhibit sufficient capillary
forces
 Agglomerate with water contents of 1%
 Capillary force increases as the moisture content
decreases
 Polar molecules are used as dispersants
 Carbon chains with charged anionic or cationic terminal
groups
 Hydroxyl, sulphite, sulphate, ammonium
 Shear forces are effective in conjunction with the
dispersant
 Ultrasonic agitation or intensive mixing
Particle size determination
 Determination of the dimensions of a particle
 Particle size depends on
 Measurement technique
 Specific parameter being measured
 Particle shape
 Different instruments will give different values
 Because of the differences in the measured parameter
 Most of the particle size analysers use only one
geometric parameter
 Also assume spherical particle shape
 Basis for analysis can be any one of the geometric
values
 Surface area, projected area, maximum dimension,
minimum cross-sectional area, volume
 Particle size
 Spherical particle
 Size can be defined by a
single parameter
 The diameter
 As the shape becomes
more complex
 Single parameter may not be
enough
 Flake-shaped particle
 At least two parameters are
needed An illustration of the difficulty in measuring particle size.
 Diameter & width The number of possible size parameters increases
as the particle shape becomes more complex.
 Irregular shapes
 Large number of parameters
Particle size
 Rounded shape
 Size can be described in terms of
 Projected height, maximum length, horizontal width, equiv.
spherical volume, dia. of a sphere with an equiv. surface area
 Irregular shaped particle
 Difficult to define a single particle size
 Size depends on the attribute measured
 So, disagreement between different measurements
 Usually a spherical particle shape is assumed
 Size is given in terms of diameter
 Parameters used for the determination of equivalent
spherical diameter
 Surface area, volume, projected area, settling rate
Particle size measurement
techniques
 Microscopy
 Screening (Sieve analysis)
 Sedimentation
 Light scattering
 Electrical zone sensing
 X-ray diffraction
 Microscopy
 Widely used technique
 Reasonably accurate
 Size & shape can be observed
 Microscopes
 Optical, SEM or TEM
 Instrument choice depends on particle size
 Large depth of field in SEM is a distinct advantage
 Analysing statistically significant quantities
 Image analysers are used
 Microscopes can generate image for analysis
 Image analysers count length or area
 Generate frequency distribution
 Microscopy
 A major problem
 Obtaining well dispersed
sample
 Frequently agglomeration
occurs
 Difficult to distinguish the
actual particle size & shape Agglomerated tungsten powder, showing a common
difficulty in separating particles for size analysis by
 One technique for microscopy techniques
a) SEM micrograph
dispersing sample b) TEM micrograph
 Using 40% naphthalene &
60% camphor eutectic
 Orientation independent
parameters are preferred
 Equivalent spherical
projected diameter
 Screening (Sieve analysis)
 Common technique for rapidly analysing particle size
 A square grid of evenly spaced wires creates mesh
 Common convention for specifying mesh size
 Number of wires per inch
 200 mesh implies 200 wires per inch
 Useful only to particles larger than 38 m
 Electroformed meshes available down to 5 m
 Screening is useful for obtaining a particular size powder
 Termed as classification
 Screening also provides a means for removing specific
size particles
 Sieve analysis
 Stack screens with decreasing
mesh openings
 100 g of powder is loaded
 Agitated for 15 min.
 Amount of powder in each
screen is weighed
 Powder passing through a mesh
is designated by –ve sign
 Retained on a mesh is Sieve analysis relies on use of a stack of mesh
designated by +ve sign screens of progressively smaller opening sizes
for capture of particles based on the projected
 Powder below 45 m is termed cross sectional size
as sub-sieve powder
Problems with screening
 Permissible screen variation is 3-7%
 Individual openings can be up to 50% larger
 Overloading is a common problem
 Blocks the mesh openings
 Different screens & techniques
 Defects in screens will allow oversized particles
 Long screening duration may result in breakage of
particles
 Too short duration may not be sufficient
 8% error can be expected
 Minimum error is 1%
Sedimentation
 Applicable to smaller sizes
 Applicable size range 0.02-100 m
 Larger particle sizes need higher fluid viscosities
 Particle settling in a fluid reach a terminal
velocity
 Dependent on particle size & fluid viscosity
 Particle size is estimated from the settling
velocity
 Sedimentation
 Uses a predetermined settling height
 Fluid can be water or air
 Air for smaller particles
 Amount of powder settling at the bottom w.r.t.
time is measured
 Particle size distribution is calculated
 Largest particles settle fast
 Smallest take considerable amount of time
 Automatic instrumentation used
 Light blocking, x-ray attenuation, weight or settled
cake height
Sedimentation
 Different forces
acting on the settling
particles
 Upward buoyancy &
viscous forces
 Downward
gravitational force
 At the terminal
velocity, the forces
are balanced
 Sedimentation
g mD 3
 Gravitational settling FG 
6
force equals mass  m  density of particle
times acceleration
g f D 3
 Buoyancy force is FB 
determined by the 6
 f  density of fluid
volume of fluid
displaced Fv  3DV
 Viscous drag force V  terminal velocity, η  fluid viscosity
depends on the gD 2  m   f 
viscosity of fluid V Stokes law
 Combining equations 18
1
 Experimentally, settling  18H  2

Particle size D  
time t is measured for a
known settling height H 
 gt  m   f  

Sedimentation - Limitations
 Limited to narrow size range
 Unreliable result with particles below 1 m
 Slow settling & turbulence
 Certain particles can be quite troublesome
 Internal porosity decreases the powder density
 Slow particle settling
 Irregular particles
 Settling depends on hydraulic diameter
 May not take a straight trajectory
 Prior information of particles are needed
 Approximate particle size & density
 Concentration should be kept below 1%
 To avoid particle-particle interaction
 Fluid & powder should not react chemically
 Iron powder in water is not advised
Elutriation
 A sedimentation technique
 Where the fluid flow is in the opposite
direction to gravity
 Provides a means of separating into
sized fractions
 The greater the fluid flow rate
 The larger the particle size carried away
 Air classification
 Another variation of
sedimentation
 Separation of powders using
cyclone or spinning disk and
a cross-current air flow
 Lighter or smaller particles
are deflected by air flow
 To alter the particle size
separation
 Control the disk rotational
speed & air flow velocity
 Applicable size range
 1-150 m
Streaming techniques
 Particles are dispersed in a moving fluid
 Size determination is based on a discontinuity in
the fluid stream
 Most of the devices are highly automated
 Expensive, but popular
 Provide a large dynamic ratio (large/small)
 Can be as large as 8000
 A versatile streaming technique is based on
light scattering
 Light scattering
 Low angle Fraunhofer
light scattering using
monochromatic light
(laser)
 Particle size affects the
intensity & angular extent
of scattering
 Angle of scattering varies
inversely with diameter
 Intensity of scattered
signal varies with d2

http://www.particletesting.com/docs/primer_particle_sizing_laser.pdf
Light scattering
 Computer analysis of intensity versus angle data
 Gives particle size distribution
 Fraunhofer scattering applied to 1-200 m range
 Smallest particles should be at least twice the
wavelength of laser
 Particle shape is assumed to be spherical
 Detecting agglomeration is difficult
 Minimised by proper distribution
 Widely used because of easy data collection
 Mie scattering is applicable below 3 m
 Detector is located at 90˚ w.r.t. incident beam
 Both detectors can be incorporated into one
instrument
 Expanded dynamic ratio
 Electrical zone sensing
 Electrical conductivity of a
fluid passing through a
small aperture in an
insulator is measured
 Conductivity of fluid
changes when particles
are suspended
 Depends on the size of
particles
 Common technique for
measuring the size of
blood cells
 Electrical zone sensing
 An electrolyte flows
through a narrow aperture
in a nonconductive glass
tube
 An electrical current is
maintained between the
electrodes inside & outside
of tube
 Particles are dispersed in
the fluid
 Cause a decrease in the
conductivity
 Decrease is proportional to
particle size
Electrical zone sensing
 Technique can be applied to several size ranges
 Better calibration is needed
 Selection of appropriate aperture diameter is important
 1.6 times the largest particle size
 Dynamic ratio is approx 300
 Lower particle size up to 0.5 m
 Particle settling problem is acute for high density
materials
 Iron & Tungsten
 For tungsten powder, limited to <6 m
 Low powder concentration should be maintained
 Better results are obtained for low density materials
 Ceramics & polymers
 Light blocking
 Another variation of
streaming analysis
 A light beam is interrupted
by the flow of dispersed
particles
 Particle partially blocks the
light reaching the photocell
 The amount of light blockage
is equated to an equivalent
circular cross-sectional area
 Dynamic ratio is 45
 Problems & limitations
similar to electrical zone
technique
X-ray techniques
 Applied to size analysis of very small
crystallites
 Diffraction line broadening
 strain and small crystal size
 Reason for broadening
 The destructive interference from the crystal is not
complete at angles slightly different from the
Bragg condition
 Due to insufficient number of diffracting planes
 The width of the diffraction peak increases as
the thickness of the diffracting crystal
decreases
X-ray techniques
 The most widely used
approach
 the peak width at half of
the maximum intensity
 Scherrer formula gives
the crystal size
 The wider the diffraction
peak, the smaller the
particle size
0.9
D
B cos
X-ray techniques
 For accurate size analysis
 the effect of strain must be subtracted
 broadening due to machine sources and
beam divergence must be subtracted
 Peak broadening is best applied to
annealed or brittle materials
 Milled metal powders usually exhibit non-
uniform strains
X-ray techniques
 To isolate the broadening due to crystallite size
 Mix a standard that produces a different diffraction pattern
 Particle size broadening B is calculated from the total BT
using the difference of the squares
 B2=BT2-Bs2
 Bs is the peak broadening for the standard
 The technique is best applied to crystallites in the
50 nm size range
 Under careful experimental conditions
 Can be used for crystallites up to 200 nm
 This technique gives only a mean crystal size
 No distribution or shape information.
Small angle X-ray scattering
 The x-ray intensity versus angle is
measured within the 0 to 3˚ range
 Can determine the size distribution
 The intensity varies with the particle
volume.
 most useful for particles below 50 nm
 The technique assumes that the
particles are dispersed without
interparticle interference.
Comparison of Particle Size
Analysis Techniques
 Analysis of particle size depends upon measuring the
response of a particle to some physical parameter
 Spherical particle shape is assumed
 Various size analysis techniques will give very
different results for the same powder
 Automated instruments are relatively expensive
 An accurate particle size analysis is possible using
simple instrumentation and basic physical principles
 with a watch and water filled graduated cylinder
 The selection of a technique
 Depends on several factors including availability and
approximate particle size range
Particle size data
 The distribution is given in terms of a
histogram or frequency plot
 The amount of powder in each size
increment
 The first task
 Convert the data into incremental
percentages
Example particle size
distribution data
Mesh size Opening size Weight Interval Cumulative
(m) retained (g) percentage percentage
500 25 0 0 0
400 38 10.8 8.8 8.8
325 45 13.6 11.1 19.9
270 53 16.9 13.8 33.7
230 63 18.0 14.7 48.4
200 75 20.8 17.0 65.3
170 90 16.5 13.5 78.8
140 106 13.2 10.8 89.6
120 125 8.7 7.1 96.7
100 150 3.0 2.5 99.1
80 180 1.1 0.9 100
70 212 0 0 100

Total weight 122.6 g

 Particle size data
 The mode particle
size corresponds to
the most frequent
particle size
 The highest peak on
the distribution
histogram
 Particle size data
 A cumulative
particle size
distribution is
generated by adding
the interval
percentages
 The median size The cumulative particles size distribution plot for the
data in Table 2.5. The arrows indicate the standard
corresponds to the deviations for the distribution (Figure 2.18).

50% value (d50)

The log-normal particle size distribution plot of the data from Table 2.5 using the standard deviation points
from Figure 2.18.
Common distributions

A comparison of the common types of

particle size distributions, showing the
nature of both the frequency &
cumulative plots.
Problems in Particle Size
Analysis
 It is quite difficult to resolve a wide range of
particle sizes simultaneously
 Almost all devices have a limited size range
 If the particle size distribution is broader than that, the
methods are not accurate
 Each technique has a range of optimal
suitability
 For sieves, it is generally above 38 m
 The finer particle sizes are poorly characterised by
sieving techniques
 Optical microscopy is restricted to particles above
approximately 1 m
 Techniques such as sedimentation are only
applicable to a narrow size range
Problems in Particle Size
Analysis
 The more irregular the particle shape,
the more parameters necessary to
determine the particle size
 Most measurement techniques assume a
spherical shape
Problems in Particle Size
Analysis
 There are some common problems with
automatic size analysers.
 The first is coincidence
 Secondly, agglomeration causes fine
particles to appear as coarser particles
 Another problem results from the relatively
high specific gravity of most metal powders
 Particle size data
 An analysis determined
by microscopy gives the
population of particles
versus their size
 Sieving technique
provides a weight
distribution
 There is a difference A comparison of the cumulative particle size distributions
as determined on the basis of weight (e.g. screening)
 Hence, it is important to and population (e.g. microscopy).
state the basis for
plotting
 Problems in Particle Size
Analysis
 The particle size
distribution reproduced
can have 2 to 3 percent
variation
 Between instruments it
is common to see at
least a 10% difference
in the median particle
size
A demonstration of scatter for particle size analysis results
using the same powder & seven measurements of the
size distribution with four laser scattering devices.
The powder was nominally a 60 m spherical iron.
Note the variation at the D10 and D90 particle sizes.
Particle shape
 Influence of particle shape
 packing, flow, and compressibility
 Provides information on the powder
fabrication route
 Helps to explain many processing
characteristics
 But, it is difficult to quantify particle shape
 Only qualitative descriptors are frequently used
A collection of possible particle shapes and the suggested qualitative descriptors
Particle shape
 An adequate simple quantitative shape
descriptor is aspect ratio
 unity for sphere
 3-5 for ligament
 More than 10 for flake
 Microscopy techniques are most appropriate
for quantifying shape
 Easier to understand
 Easy to obtain from projected images
Particle shape
 Various shape
parameters result
from the projected
image
 Shape can be
expressed by the
ratio Do/DA The projected image of an irregular particle and two
forms of measuring the size in terms of the
circular diameters
 Particle shape
 A more complex shape
parameter can be
generated from a profile
analysis
 Complementary to
microscopy techniques
 Too much information
 The most efficient particle A two dimensional particle profile showing one
shape index approach to particle shape analysis. The outer
particle contour is used to create a functional relation
 A simple qualitative between the radial length R and the angle θ.
description coupled with a
SEM micrograph
Surface area
 An average measure of the external condition
 Very useful parameter
 Correlates with various kinetic & geometric
characteristics
 Provides insight into the powder behaviour
 Chemical activity, catalysis, friction, adsorption,
contamination, pressing & sintering
 Tells nothing about the distribution in
properties, powder texture or internal
structure
Surface area analysis
 Two main analysis techniques
 Gas adsorption
 Gas permeability
Gas adsorption
 The surface area is
calculated from the gas
adsorption
 Measurement is often
referred as BET specific
surface area
 Brunauer, Emmett &
Teller developed the
concept in 1938
 BET technique
measures the quantity
of gas needed to
saturate the powder Illustration of molecular adsorption on a
surface surface and the use of a monolayer
coating at saturation to assess the SA
 Gas adsorption
 Let P is the partial pressure of
adsorbate
 Po is the saturation pressure of
adsorbate
 X is the amount of gas
P 1  P 
1  C  1
adsorbed at pressure P 
 Xm is equal to monolayer X Po  P  X mC  Po 
capacity of the powder
 C is a constant relating to the
adsorption enthalpy
 BET equation is generally valid
for powders in the pressure
range P/Po from 0.05-0.3
Gas adsorption
P P
General form of the  B A
 X Po  P  Po
previous equation where  A  B   X m
1

 A is the slope & B is

the intercept of the X m N o Ao
S
linear equation wM
M is the molecular weight of adsorbate
 Finally, the specific Ao is the average occupational area of
surface area is an adsorbate molecule
calculated as N o is Avogadro' s number
w is the sample weight
Gas adsorption
 Starts with a clean powder surface
 Achieved through vacuum or inert gas bake-out
 Exposed to varying partial pressures of
known adsorbing gases
 The amount of gas adsorbed versus partial
pressure is measured
A schematic drawing of a nitrogen BET specific surface area analyser.
A clean powder sample is chilled to a temperature where adsorption will occur.
The helium & nitrogen flows are adjusted for a specific partial pressure ratio.
The sample is exposed to the gas mixture and the change in gas thermal conductivity is measured.
The area of the adsorption peak provides a means of measuring the surface area.
Example of data for the specific surface area of a fine irregular tantalum powder
(mean size of 4.1 m).
Gas permeability
Relatively simple
PA

method
 Permeability of a gas
Q
L
passing through a
porous structure is
dependent on the
surface area L is the sample length
 Darcy equation for flow A is cross-sectional area
in a porous material  is permeability coefficient
gives flow rate based  is gas viscosity
on pressure drop
 Gas permeability
 This method can be used
for sub-sieve size powders
 Restricted to particles in the
0.5 to 50 m range
 A pre-weighed amount of The determination of powder surface area by
gas permeability is possible by measuring the
powder is exposed to a flow rate of a gas through a packed powder bed
known flow rate and the at a known pressure differential

pressure drop is measured

 An approximate 1

measurement tool 1   3
 2
S  
 Does not access closed pores  m  5 1   2 
 is porosity
 m is theoretical density of material
Surface area as a shape index
 Specific surface As  D 2
area is area per unit D 3
V
mass (m2/g) 6
Area per unit weight is A / W
W   mV
6
Area per unit weight is S 
D m
Interparticle friction
 Interparticle friction is another main concern
 Powder flow & packing
 Factors controlling friction between particles
 Surface area, surface roughness, surface
chemistry
 As the surface area increases, the amount of
friction increases
 Less efficient flow & packing
 Important parameter for
 Die filling and compaction, packaging,
transportation, blending & mixing
 Interparticle friction
 Resistance to flow is
a main feature of
friction
 Density or packing
properties decrease
 Measures of
interparticle friction
 Apparent density &
tap density The angle of repose can be determined from
the height and radius of a powder pile passed
 The angle of repose through a funnel
 Interparticle friction
 Flow rate
 Rate of powder flow
under gravity through a
small opening
 Most sub-sieve
powders will not flow
 Non-free flowing
 Hall flow meter & Scott
volumeter measure flow
The basic components of Hall flow meter and
rate & apparent density Scott volumeter for measuring the flow &
packing of powders
Interparticle friction
 The flow rate is usually expressed as the time
for 50 g of powder to flow through the Hall
flow meter
 Short flow times indicate free flowing powders
 long times indicate high interparticle friction
 For easy determination of the apparent
density and flow time
 Hall flow meter with a precision volume cup &
funnel
 Interparticle friction
 High packing densities are desired in most of the
applications
 Improved packing densities
 by selecting appropriate particle size, shape, and size distribution
 Small particles will have more interparticle friction
 So, lower number of nearest neighbours
 the smaller the mean particle size, the lower the apparent density.
 Tap to apparent densities ratio (Hausner ratio)
 Gives a signature characteristic of the interparticle friction
 For a spherical powder, slightly above unity.
 More irregular particle shapes, higher Hausner ratio
 undergo a larger density increase with vibration
 True density of powder
 Pycnometer is used
to assess the true
density of an
unknown powder
 Powder mass
divided by the
A schematic diagram of the true volume
volume gives measurement for a loose powder using a
powder density pycnometer


1 s  p 
The typical error is P V  V  P V  V  V
2 s p c
1%
V p  Vs  Vc 1  P1 / P2 
1
Compressibility
 Measures the ability to densify a powder
under an applied load
 Density measured after compaction
 Green density
 pressure, often near 400 MPa
 Compression ratio
 CR=VL/VC=g/a
 A parameter used in tool design
 Particle size, particle chemistry, lubrication
will determine the pressed density
Powder internal structure
 Cross-sectional analysis
 provides information on internal pores &
segregation
 can be useful in detecting inclusions and oxides

Such microstructures
indicate subsequent
processing problems,
since internal pores are
difficult to eliminate
Powder internal structure
 SEM analysis
 Important microstructure information can be gained
 Additionally, nucleation sites, contamination, cooling rate,
grain size, and segregation can be assessed

a) particle fractured to reveal

two shells around a small
particle core
b) Shows clear evidence of
the solidification events
Chemical characterisation
 Three groups of powders
 Elemental powders
 relatively high-purity materials
 chemical analysis assesses the impurity concentration
 Pre-mixed powders
 combinations of two or more distinct powders that will
form an alloy during sintering
 E.g. copper and tin powders to form a bronze alloy
 Impurity levels and proper compounding of the mixture
are chemical concerns
 Pre-alloyed powders
 micro-castings with multiple elements in a predetermined
ratio
 attention is given to the alloy composition as well as
impurity concentrations
Chemical characterisation
 The surface condition
 Another important property of the powder
 oxides, adsorbed organic films, and the presence
of surface coatings
 Inclusions
 concentration is measured by acid dissolution
 bulk chemical characterisation techniques
 wet analysis, emission or flame spectroscopy,
atomic absorption, x-ray diffraction, x-ray
fluorescence, or neutron activation analysis
A Minimum Characterisation
Battery
 The typical goal in powder metallurgy
 To control the process to provide a standardised
product
 Powder characterisation is geared towards
performing the minimum amount of testing
necessary
 In research and development applications
 Characterisation is necessary for future repetition
and understanding of the results
 A minimum number of tests should be
performed on a powder to ensure control
 Powder characterisation for the W powder shown in Figure

Material Tungsten
Designation -325 mesh
Metallic chemistry 99.99% W
Impurities (ppm) C (10), Cu (1), Fe (2), K (15),
Mg (4), Mo (10), N (100), Na
(6), O (740), Si (2)
Apparent density 4.37 g/cm3 (23%)
Tap density 8.05 g/cm3 (42%)
Flow time for 50 g Not free flowing
BET specific surface area 0.12 m2/g
Gas permeability surface area 0.028 m2/g
Particle size by sedimentation D10 = 3.0 m
D50 = 6.4 m
D90 = 12 m SEM micrograph of
tungsten powder
Particle size by electrical zone D10 = 3.5 m
sensing D50 = 6.2 m
D90 = 8.9 m
A spherical nickel powder is analyzed for particle size using sedimentation.
It is suspected that the particle size is 8 m. If the powder is dispersed in water
at the top of a settling column 100 mm high, then what is the expected settling
time? Nickel density is 8.9 g/cc, water viscosity is 10-3 kg/m/s. Also calculate the
time taken by a tungsten particle of size 2 m (Tungsten density is 19.3 g/cc).

1
 18 H  2

Particle size D  

 gt  m   f 
 
The specific surface area of nickel powder is 20 m2/g.
Find the diameter of particles.
For iron with an apparent density of 2.4 g/cc, a pressure of 770 MPa gives a
density of 7.0.8 g/cc. What is the fill height needed to form a compact of
height 1.5 cm?