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Navigational Equipment Errors and Limitations
Navigational Equipment Errors and Limitations
Indirect Wave Error: This is where the radar beam is deflected off the sea surface before it reaches the contact resulting in the beam
travelling a greater distance than taking a direct path.
Side Lobe
Echo Sounders
Principle: The transmitter emits a pulse of energy which radiates out from the vessel, similar to radar. The pulse will be reflected
and returned by the seabed and received by the receiver on board. The time taken for the pulse to return is converted into distance, much
the same as radar except that sound travels at 1500 m/s in water.
Errors
Speed of Propagation: The speed of the pulse will vary with the temperatures and salinities of water and therefore may affect the pulse.
Aeration: The presence of air in the water will affect the speed of the pulse since sound travels slower in air. The main sources of aeration
are; sternway, turbulence caused from hard rudder, broken water over shoals, entering areas in which there has been bad weather/ turbulent
waters, light ships pitching heavily. The ship’s bow wave would also constitute an area of aeration however most echo sounders are sighted
forward of the position where the bow waves re enters the water.
Bottom Reverberation: Caused by excess power being emitted and or shallow water beneath the vessel. The power is so great that the
pulse actually rebounds off the seabed more than once, being sent back as it bounces of the vessel’s hull showing multiple seabeds.
Attenuation due to Noise: Any ambient noise present in the water has the ability to degrade the echo sound signal. Such noise may be
from marine mammals, turbulent water or other traffic operating in the vicinity.
Absorption due to soft Seabeds: If the seabed is too soft then there is a possibility that the pulse will be absorbed or attenuated.
False Echoes: May occur in deep water if the echo sounder is incorrectly set. The returning echo will be received after the stylus has
completed one complete revolution showing a false bottom.
Compasses and Care of Compasses
Gyro Compass
Limitations
Polar Navigation
Speed/ Latitude
Precession
Gimballing
Electrical Power
Magnetic Compass
Errors/ Limitations
Variation
Deviation
Construction
Heavy Steel or Iron Objects
Electrically Induced Magnetic Fields
Correctors
ECDIS
GPS
24 Operational satellites, 6 orbital planes, 55° inclination to the Equator at altitudes of 11000 miles. Configuration ensures a minimum of 4
satellites with suitable elevations are visible to a receiver, anywhere on the Earths surface, however there is poorer coverage in the Polar
regions.
A GPS Fix is obtained from measuring the ranges from a series of selected satellites to a receiver and the ranges are determined by
measuring the propagation times of satellite data transmissions. The ranges measured are not ‘true’ ranges but are termed ‘pseudo ranges’
and contain a receiver clock offset error. For a 2-D fix on the Earths surface at least 3 pseudo ranges are required.
Multipath Errors
Caused by: Reflections of the signal off surfaces near the receiver. Instead of following a straight path to the receiver’s antenna it is
bounced off various local obstructions which increase the length of the signal. These signals confuse the receiver’s calculations and cause a
wave interference with the direct signal which produces a confused or ghosting effect.
Errors in Position; Undetermined but good quality receivers can minimize the problem.
Solar Activity
Caused by: Solar activity, eruptions and storms etc can have a dramatic effect on the transmission of the GPS signal. The disturbances are
known as Coronal Mass Ejections (CMEs). Sun’s activity varies on 11 year cycle – next maximum cycle expected 2012.
Errors in Position: Anything from negligible distances to total loss of signal.
Datum Errors
Caused by: GPS system being designed to work on one datum only, WGS84. Although many GPS receivers have the ability to switch
between the range of datum’s available, it is recommended that WGS84 is maintained. This is further compounded by nautical charts since
some charts are not constructed with reference to WGS84 datum and thus plotting a WGS84 GPS position onto the chart could prove
detrimental. Navigators should read chart notes and identify what datum the chart is constructed on before plotting positions.
Selective Availability
Caused by: Intentional degradation of GPS signal by adding random noise into the clock data thereby degrading the timing signals.
Errors in position: Up to 100m
Source ALRS Vol 2
Improvement of Accuracy
DGPS
DGPS compares the position of a fixed point (reference station) with a position obtained from the GPS receiver at that point. It calculates a
2-D or 3-D geographical co-ordinate offset (position differential) or series of corrections to the satellite range data (pseudorange differential).
The data is calculated and corrections are broadcast to GPS receivers by radio; thus an MSK radiobeacon receiver and GPS receiver
capable of incorporating DGPS correction data is required by the user.
Signals broadcast by SBAS are totally compatible and do not interfere with GPS/ GLONASS reception. No set up or subscription fees and
standard SBAS receivers do not require any additional equipment. Positions reduced to between 1 – 5 metres.