F E A T U R E A R T I C L E

Measurement of Leakage Current

for Monitoring the Performance
of Outdoor Insulators
in Polluted Environments
Key words: insulators, pollution, leakage current, diagnostic techniques, flashover risk

Introduction Isaias Ramirez, Ramiro Hernández,

The measurement of leakage current is used for monitoring
the performance of insulators to minimize system outages attrib-
utable to pollution [1]. The technique is applied to transmission
lines exposed to severe and varying conditions of pollution [2].
According to this technique, preventative maintenance is initi-
ated when a critical level of current is reached on polluted insu-
lators. However, the technique requires continuous supervision
to analyze the condition of the monitored insulators.
Important differences in the severity of pollution between
sites can be detected by measuring the leakage current. In some
sites, the severity of pollution can cause high leakage current ac-
tivity in a short time, whereas in others, a longer time is needed
and monitoring at different sites is necessary to determine the
best insulator profile for each site. With the selection of the best
insulator profile for each site, maintenance can be scheduled ac-
cordingly, thereby minimizing pollution flashover outages.
Since 1995, the Mexican Electrical Research Institute (In-
stituto de Investigaciones Eléctricas), together with the Mexi-
can electric utility (Comision Federal de Electricidad), has had
several projects for online measurement of leakage current that
have been applied to various designs of insulators in an attempt
to minimize pollution flashovers on transmission lines [3]. To
date, the Comision Federal de Electricidad has had 44 leakage
current monitoring systems installed on several transmission
lines [4].
These projects have provided a much broader perspective
on the performance of outdoor insulators for various pollution
zones, and based on laboratory tests, critical leakage current
magnitudes have been determined for various insulator profiles
[5]. Although the maximum permissible levels of leakage cur-
rent are considerably different for each profile, this does not
necessarily indicate that insulators that permit a lower leakage
current will have the best operating performance because the
and Gerardo Montoya
Instituto de Investigaciones Eléctricas,
Cuernavaca, Morelos, México 62490
Measurement of leakage current can
be an effective method for minimiz-
ing the pollution flashover of insu-
lators on transmission lines, but to
be useful, the technique requires ad-
ditional information from measure-
ments and analysis of the pollution.
profiles themselves will permit the accumulation of pollutants,
which defines their pollution performance. Furthermore, a leak-
age current may be sporadic, continuous, periodic, or increasing
with time, all of which are factors in the preventive maintenance
of insulator outages resulting from pollution.
This article presents an analysis of the monitoring of various
types of insulators, namely, porcelain, room temperature vulca-
nizing silicone (RTV)-coated porcelain, toughened glass, and
nonceramic insulators installed on transmission lines close to
the Villa de Garcia Substation, in the metropolitan area of Mon-
terrey, Mexico. On one occasion during heavy fog, pollution
caused outages on 400- and 230-kV transmission lines, resulting

July/August — Vol. 28, No. 4 0883-7554/12/$31/©2012/IEEE 29

 Table 1. Leakage Current Classifications.
Range Leakage current magnitude (mA)
1 50–150
2 150–250
3 250–350
4 350–450
5 450–707
in a very serious event in which 6.8 MW of load was dropped for
15 minutes and 5 MW of load was dropped for 1 minute.
Leakage Current Monitoring
The monitoring system classifies leakage current peaks in five
ranges, as shown in Table 1, and the microprocessor monitors all
leakage current pulses in each half cycle (8.33 milliseconds) for
all three phases and provides a data summary every 9 hours. The
data contain the maximum leakage current pulses, have the ac-
cumulated peaks classified into each of the five ranges, and have
autonomy for 6 months, after which the data need to be down-
loaded and the system reset to begin a new monitoring period.
Table 2 outlines the basic parameters of the insulators moni-
tored. The insulators are porcelain, glass, and silicone rubber
nonceramic insulators (NCI). The critical leakage current for
flashover as determined in the laboratory is also shown in the
table. Table 3 shows the transmission line voltage and the string
configurations monitored.
Example of Leakage Current Measurements
During a period of severe fog lasting 2 days, leakage cur-
rent activity was monitored on insulator strings; the results for
insulators on tower 59 are shown as examples (Table 4). The
leakage current on nonceramic insulator NCI-2 on phase A,
shown in Figure 1(a), reached peaks of 38 and 44 mA during the
event. During the same event, RTV-coated superfog insulators
on phase C showed higher leakage current activity, reaching lev-
els up to 215 mA. The Vee-string configuration on phase B with
type NCI-2 insulators showed leakage currents of 35 and 60 mA
on each leg of the Vee string, respectively. The NCI on phases A
and B showed lower leakage currents compared with the RTV-
coated superfog insulators on phase C on the same tower.
Table 4 summarizes the highest magnitude of leakage cur-
rent registered by the monitoring systems. No leakage current
levels above the critical ones, as determined in the laboratory
(Table 2), were recorded for the operating conditions of this site.
Therefore, no pollution flashover should have taken place. To
understand the reason for flashovers, several of the flashed insu-
lators were removed from the site for laboratory flashover tests
and chemical analysis of the pollutant.
Laboratory Tests
Insulator strings on line A3450, tower 59, and A3720, tower
58, which showed the highest leakage currents during the 2-day
fog event (Table 4), were removed for flashover tests in a clean
fog chamber. These tests were done following the rapid flash-
over method in IEC-60507 [6]. The removed strings were made
into shorter strings of four units and tested, obtaining an average
flashover per unit of 10.9 kVrms. Because this flashover is close
to the nominal voltage per insulator (10.5 kVrms) on the transmis-

Table 2. Basic Parameters of the Insulators Monitored.

Leakage Critical leakage

Insulator Rated strength Units × spacing Shed diameter distance per current for
designation Material Insulator type (kN) (mm) (mm) unit (mm) flashover (mA)

27SV111C Glass Standard 111 22 × 146 270 1 × 292 250

28SV111C Glass Fog 111 22 × 146 280 1 × 445 350

29SP111C Porcelain Fog 111 22 × 146 290 1 × 489 450

32SP111C Porcelain Superfog 111 22 × 146 321 1 × 612 700

32SV111C Glass Superfog 111 22 × 146 321 1 × 612 700

32SV160C Glass Fog 160 22 × 171 321 1 × 540 700

135 major
NCI-11 Silicone rubber NCI 130 1 × 3,550 1 × 10,420  
100 minor

141 major
NCI-2 Silicone rubber NCI 130 1 × 1,928 1 × 6,121  
102 minor

172 major
NCI-3 Silicone rubber NCI 133 1 × 3,475 1 × 14,408  
142 minor
1
NCI = silicone rubber nonceramic insulator.

30 IEEE Electrical Insulation Magazine

 Table 3. Transmission Line Designation, Tower Number, Line Voltage, and String Configurations Monitored.1

Transmission line, tower number

and line voltage Phase A Phase B Phase C

A3450, tower 67, 400 kV 32SP111C—I string   32SP111C—I string

A3450, tower 98, 400 kV 28SV111C—I string — 28SV111C—I string

A3D60, tower 5, 400 kV 32SV111C—I string — 32SV111C—I string

A3450, tower 7, 400 kV 32SV160C—Vee string RTV-coated 29SP111C—I string NCI-1—I string
32SV160C—Vee string

93130, tower 59, 230 kV NCI-2—I string NCI-2—Vee string RTV-coated 32SP111CS—I string

A3G20, tower 551, 400 kV — NCI-3—Vee string NCI-3—Vee string

A3720, tower 58, 400 kV 28SV111C—I string 29SP111C—Vee string RTV-coated 29SP111C—I string

1
RTV = room temperature vulcanizing silicone; NCI = silicone rubber nonceramic insulator.

sion lines, it was demonstrated that the pollutant on the insula-
tors was indeed the cause of the flashovers.
The pollution level in terms of equivalent salt deposit density
according to IEC 60815 [7] and chemical analysis of the pollut-
ant were determined. These results are shown in Table 5. The
pollutant level corresponds to pollution class III (high pollution)
in IEC 60815.
The pollutant was analyzed by X-ray diffraction using a Sie-
mens D500 diffractometer with filtered Cu radiation. To identify
the pollutant crystalline components, a diffraction pattern file
was used [Mineral Powder Diffraction File, Joint Committee on
Powder Diffraction Standards (JCPDS), Newtown Square, PA,
1980]. The crystalline compounds identified for this pollutant
type and the equivalent salt deposit density values are shown in
Table 5.
As indicated in Table 5, gibbsite was found on insulators at
tower 65 and at tower 14, but gibbsite was not found in an earlier
analysis of the pollutant in this area [8]. It was concluded that the
source of the pollutant must be very near the affected insulators.
Because gibbsite contains aluminum, a review of the manufac-
turing facilities in the area identified an aluminum automobile
engine block manufacturing facility as the probable emitter of
aluminum, and gibbsite is formed from aluminum under specific
environmental conditions. Under certain conditions of moisture,
gibbsite crystals on insulators can result in sufficient leakage
current for flashover, and this was thought to be the reason for

Table 4. Leakage Current During the Period Analyzed.1

Maximum leakage current during the period analyzed (mA)

Tower Channel 1 Insulator Channel 2 Insulator Channel 3 Insulator Channel 4 Insulator

67 33 32SP111C 41 32SP111C — — — —

98 — — — — 1.38 28SV111C 1.38 28SV111C

5 — — — — 16 32SV111C 69 32SV111C

7 13 32SV160C 24 32SV160C 138 RTV-coated 5 NCI-1

29SP111C

59 44 NCI-2 215 RTV-coated 35 NCI-2 60 NCI-2

32SP111C

551 5 NCI-3 2 NCI-3 2 NCI-3 0 NCI-3

58 35 28SV111C 22 29SP111C 13 29SP111C 93 RTV-coated

29SP111C
1
A dash (—) indicates channel not installed. RTV = room temperature vulcanizing silicone; NCI = silicone rubber nonceramic insulator.

July/August — Vol. 28, No. 4 31

 Figure 1. Leakage currents recorded on insulators on tower 59 (Table 3) during a period of severe fog: (a) nonceramic insulator
(NCI)-2 on phase A; (b) room temperature vulcanizing silicone (RTV)-coated superfog insulators on phase C; (c) one leg of the
NCI-2 Vee-string insulator on phase B; (d) other leg of the NCI-2 Vee-string insulator.

the high leakage current [up to 215 mA in Figure 1(b)] at tower
59 of the 230-kV 93130 transmission line.
Table 6 shows the elemental analysis by atomic absorption
spectrometry of the solid constituents of the pollutant layer; it
showed a large weight percentage of aluminum, with the top
surface showing 3.5 to 6.4 times higher level than the bottom
surface. This implies that the mechanism of deposition of alumi-
num on the insulator was likely precipitation. The higher levels
of calcium and sulfates on the bottom of the insulator were asso-
ciated with the formation of gypsum [9]. Because of its chemi-
cal properties and solubility, as well as the shape and design of
the insulator, this pollution tends to accumulate on the bottom
surface of the insulators. Gypsum is a product of the reaction
of calcite-dolomite in the soil and SO2 from the atmosphere,
the latter generated mainly by the combustion of hydrocarbon
fuels. [9]. Dihydrate CaSO4 is a compound with low solubility
that presents a high water absorption capacity, which aids in the
flashover process.
RTV-Coated Insulators
To simulate the field pollutant for laboratory tests, a mixture
of 600 g of kaolin, 200 g of CaSO4, and 5 g of NaCl (common
salt) per liter of water was made and applied to various types of
insulators for clean-fog flashover tests. For these tests, the con-
taminant layer was applied to the top, bottom, or entire surface
of the insulators [10]. These results showed that when the entire
surface of the insulator was coated, the flashover voltage was
the highest, whereas coating only the bottom surface resulted in
only a slight reduction in the flashover, as illustrated in Figure 2.
Su et al. [11] indicated that RTV-coated insulators could op-
erate longer than 6 years without preventive maintenance in sub-
tropical climates. However, in another study reported by Su et al.

Table 5. Pollutant Equivalent Salt Deposit Density (ESDD) and Crystalline Components.

ESDD (mg/cm2) Crystalline components

Insulator Top surface Bottom surface   Top surface Bottom surface

String 1, line A3450, tower 14 0.06 0.52   Gibbsite [Al(OH)3], quartz (SiO2) Calcite (CaCO3), quartz (SiO2), gypsum
(CaSO4∙2H2O)

String 2, line A3720, tower 65 0.07 0.43   Calcite (CaCO3), quartz (SiO2), gibbsite Calcite (CaCO3), quartz (SiO2)
[Al(OH)3]

32 IEEE Electrical Insulation Magazine

 Table 6. Elemental Analysis of the Solid Part of the Contaminant Layer from the Affected Insulators.1

Weight %

Item Top of insulator C1 Top of insulator C2 Bottom of insulator C1 Bottom of insulator C2

Element        

  Magnesium (Mg) 0.50 0.55 0.44 0.57

  Calcium (Ca) 3.63 7.23 16.95 17.55

  Sodium (Na) 0.20 0.24 0.15 0.14

  Potassium (K) 0.22 0.36 0.21 0.35

  Aluminum (Al)2 9.71 8.20 1.50 2.29

  Silicon (Si) 0.26 0.08 0.01 0.01

  Iron (Fe) 2.92 3.53 1.84 1.70

  Sulfate (SO4=) 10.44 11.80 16.54 16.95

  Chlorine (mg/L) ND ND 0.14 0.11

Weight of the solid (g) 0.50 0.50 29.0 17.94

1
The content of metals was analyzed by atomic absorption spectrometry following standard ASTM E-1024-97. Calibration of equipment to determine pH was performed
according to standard ASTM D1293-99 using at least two reference buffer solutions traceable to the National Institute of Standards and Technology. The determination of total
chlorine was carried out according to standard ASTM C 114-2000. Sulfates were obtained following standard NMX-AA-074-1981. Acidity and alkalinity were determined as
specified in standard NMX-AA-036-SCFI-2001. ND = not determined.
2
Please indicate what the boldface line in the table represents.

[12] on insulator performance on a 220-kV transmission line in

a coastal environment, in which heavy contamination accumu-
lated when rain was sparse, high leakage current and continuous
partial discharge activity contributed to the drop in hydrophobic-
ity, increasing the likelihood of flashover. However, fully coated
insulators were installed in the Monterrey area, even though the
cost of this preventive solution was considered too high.
According to the leakage current measurements on the 230-
kV circuit 93130 at tower 59 and flashovers on the 400-kV cir-
cuit A3450 at tower 14, RTV-coated fog-type insulators could
operate reliably for 9 years in this environment without flash-
overs (insulators installed in 1995). As a comparison, nonce-
ramic insulators that were installed at the same time and in the
same location as the RTV-coated fog-type insulators on tower 7
could operate for at least 5 more years, which was estimated by
taking into consideration the very low leakage current and good
condition of the insulators.

Conclusions
Monitoring of leakage currents on various types of insulators,
in the field and in laboratory tests, has provided a much broader
perspective on the performance of outdoor insulators in various
pollution zones. The technique can be effective for corrective
maintenance of transmission lines, provided the type of pollut-
ant and the critical leakage currents are analyzed periodically. A
leakage current that is continuous, periodic, or increasing with
time is one consideration in the performance of insulators in pol- Figure 2. Clean-fog flashover tests of room temperature vulca-
lution zones, whereas the maximum permissible levels of leak- nizing silicone (RTV)-coated insulators for no coating, coated
age current at flashover, which is considerably different for each on the upper side, coated on the lower side, and fully coated.

July/August — Vol. 28, No. 4 33

 insulator profile, is another consideration. What this means is Isaias Ramirez-Vazquez (S’05) received
that insulators showing lower leakage currents will not neces- the BS degree from the Facultad de Ingeni-
sarily have the best operating performance. The insulator profile ería Mecánica Eléctrica y Electrónica (FI-
affects the accumulation of pollutants, which defines their pol- MEE), Salamanca, Guanajuato, México, in
lution performance, and control of the leakage current by the 1990, the MS degree from FIMEE in 1999,
insulator design depends largely on the type of pollutant. As a and the PhD in electrical and computer
result, there is no unique solution, and leakage current values engineering from the University of Water-
with flashover risk from laboratory tests for various types of in- loo, Ontario, Canada. He is a researcher at
sulators must be determined by using the type of pollutant in the the Instituto de Investigaciones Eléctricas
field. This combination of strategies will provide an effective (Electrical Research Institute) in Cuernavaca, Morelos, México.
means of ensuring reliable transmission line operation in pollu- His current research interests include nano materials for outdoor
tion zones. insulation, insulation coordination, and electromagnetic tran-
sients in power systems.
Acknowledgment
The authors thank M. C. Georgina Blass Amador, and María Ramiro Hernández-Corona was born in
Guadalupe Cruz González, personnel from Comision Federal de Cuernavaca, Morelos, México, on Septem-
Electricidad-Coordinacion de Transmision y Transformacion, ber 17, 1966. He received the BS degree
Mexico, for their invaluable help with this project. in electrical engineering from the Univer-
sity of Morelos in 1991. In the same year,
References he joined the Instituto de Investigaciones
[1] J. Y. Li, C. X., Sun, W. X. Sima, and Q. J. Yang, “Stage pre-warning Eléctricas (Electrical Research Institute)
based on leakage current characteristics before contamination flashover located in Cuernavaca, Morelos, México.
of porcelain and glass insulators,” IET Gener., Transm., Distrib., vol. 3, In 1995, he received an MS degree in elec-
no. 3, pp. 605–615, 2009.
[2] A. J. Carreira, “Condition detection of non-ceramic insulators for live line
trical engineering from the University of Salford, UK. He is cur-
work at electric utilities,” INMR, vol. 17, no. 84, pp. 26–35, 2009. rently a researcher of the Transmission and Distribution Depart-
[3] G. Montoya-Tena, R. Hernández-Corona, and I. Ramírez Vázquez, ment. He has been working in activities of pollution flashover on
“Experiences on pollution level measurement in Mexico,” Electr. Power external insulation and of lightning protection in transmission
Syst. Res., vol. 76, pp. 58–66, 2005.
[4] Montoya, G., Ramirez, I., and Hernandez, R., “The leakage current as a
and distribution lines.
diagnostic tool for outdoor insulation,” in Proc. IEEE/PES Transmission
and Distribution Conference and Exposition: Latin America, Bogota, Gerardo Montoya-Tena was born in
Colombia, Aug. 2008, pp. 1–4. México City, México, on April 27, 1962.
[5] Isaías Ramírez-Vázquez, José Luis Fierro-Chávez, “Criteria for the
diagnostic of polluted ceramic insulators based on the leakage current
He received the BS degree in electronic
monitoring technique,” in 1999 IEEE Conf. Electrical Insulation and and communications engineering from the
Dielectric Phenomena, Austin, TX, 1999, pp. 715–718. Instituto Politécnico Nacional (National
[6] Artificial Pollution Tests on High-Voltage Insulators to Be Used on A.C. Polytechnic Institute). In 1990, he received
Systems, IEC 60507, 2nd ed., Apr. 1991.
[7] Guide for the Selection of Insulators in Respect of Polluted Conditions,
a MS degree with honors in electrical en-
IEC 60815, Ed. 1.0, 2008. gineering from the Universidad Nacional
[8] G. N. Ramos, M. T. Campillo, and K. Naito, “A study on the Autónoma de México (Autonomy Na-
characteristics of various conductive contaminants accumulated on tional University of Mexico). In 1986, he joined the Instituto de
high-voltage insulators,” IEEE Trans. Power Del., vol. 8, no. 4, pp.
1842–1850, 1993.
InvestigacionesEléctricas (Electrical Research Institute) located
[9] R. T. Campillo, “Characterization of pollutant in outdoor insulators of in Cuernavaca, Morelos, México. He is currently a researcher in
the industrial area of Monterrey, N.L.,” Classification IIE/30/31/RP- the Transmission and Distribution Department. He is author of
001/5261/1993, Instituto de Investigaciones Eléctricas, Cuernavaca, several papers about external insulation and overhead transmis-
Morelos, Mexico, Mar. 3, 1993.
[10] B. Segura Bahena, “Evaluation of electrical Insulators for transmission
sion lines. He has been working on activities around pollution
lines with pollution problems,” B.S. Thesis, Faculty of Chemical flashover on external insulation in transmission and distribution
Sciences and Engineering, Cuernavaca, Morelos, Mexico, Mar. 1995. lines. He is member of specialists committee of the Mexican
[11] H. Su, Z. Jia, Zhicheng Guan, “Durability of RTV-coated Insulators Used utility.
in Subtropical Areas,” IEEE Trans. Dielectr. Electr. Insul., vol. 18, no. 3,
pp. 767–774, June 2011.
[12] Huafeng Su, Zhidong Jia, Zhicheng Guan, and Licheng Li, “Mechanism
of Contaminant Accumulation and Flashover of Insulator in Heavily
Polluted Coastal Area,” IEEE Transactions on Dielectrics and Electrical
Insulation, Vol. 17, No. 5; pp. 1635-1641, October 2010.

34 IEEE Electrical Insulation Magazine