PHARMACOKINETICS - ABSORPTION, DISTRIBUTION, METABOLISM AND

EXCRETION OF NITROSAMINES(NDMA) IN DRINKING WATER: A REVIEW

N-DBPs are formed when nitrogen-containing compounds react with certain

oxidants/disinfectants. These N-DBPs include nitrosamines, nitriles, and hydrazine. They can
sometimes be found in water distribution systems.

A nationwide assessment of nitrosamine occurrence found that approximately 1 in 10 samples in

the data from the Second Unregulated Contaminant Monitoring Rule (UCMR2) contained N-
nitrosodimethylamine (NDMA).

The study found that NDMA formation is more significant in chloraminated water systems with
long con- tact times of precursors with chloramines and without the benefit of a free chlorine (or
ozone) oxidation step (Russell et al. 2012).

N-DBPs are being researched for potential health risks, and some of these compounds are one to
two orders of magnitude more toxic than the regulated DBPs (Plewa and Wagner 2009).

Although federal rules for N-DBPs have not yet been established, California and Massachusetts
have set regulatory levels for NDMA. As part of its new Drinking Water Strategy, the EPA may
regulate six nitrosamines, including NDMA.

References:

Plewa, M., and E. Wagner. 2009. Mammalian Cell Cytotoxicity and Genotoxicity of Disinfection
By-Products. Project #3089. Denver, Colo.: Water Research Foundation.

Russell, C. G., N. K. Blute, S. Via, X. Wu, and Z. Chowdhury. 2012. “Nationwide assessment of
nitrosamine occurrence and trends.” Jour. AWWA, 104(3): E205– E217.
doi:10.5942/jawwa.2012.104.0037.

Currently, five nitrosamines are included in the Contaminant Candidate List 3 (CCL 3) by the U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency (U.S. EPA): N-nitrosodimethylamine (NDMA), N-
nitrosodiethylamine (NDEA), N-nitroso-di-n-propylamine (NDPA), N-nitrosodiphenylamine
(NDPhA), and N-nitrosopyrrolidine (NPYR).

U.S. EPA. Contaminant Candidate List 3-CCL;

2012, http://water.epa.gov/scitech/drinkingwater/dws/ccl/ccl3.cfm. [Ref list]
Nitrosamines are contaminants of emerging concern frequently detected in U.S. water resources.

Krasner S. W.; Mitch W. A.; McCurry D. L.; Hanigan D.; Westerhoff P. Formation, Precursors,
Control, and Occurrence of Nitrosamines in Drinking Water: A Review. Water Res. 2013, 47,
4433–4450.

To date, the number of reported DBPs is more than 600.

S.D.Richardson,M.J.Plewa,E.D.Wagner,R.Schoeny,D.M.DeMarini,Occurrence, genotoxicity,
and carcinogenicity of regulated and emerging disinfection by-pro- ducts in drinking water: a
review and roadmap for research, Mutat. Res. 636 (2007) 178–242,
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.mrrev.2007.09.001.

Among the unregulated DBPs, NDMA is one of the four which displays some or all of the
toxicological characteristics of human carcinogens; NDMA occurs at low to moderate levels (low
ng/L to sub g/L levels). It is a trans-species carcinogen and induces tumors in a variety of organs
via various route of exposure. It is genotoxic in every category of test such as Gene Mutation,
Chrom. Mutation and DNA Damage.

Richardson SD, et al. Occurrence, genotoxicity, and carcinogenicity of regulated and emerging
disinfection by-products in drinking water: a review and roadmap for research. Mutation
Res. 2007;636(1–3):178–242. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.mrrev.2007.09.001 [PubMed]

Millions of people worldwide receive quality drinking water every day from their public drinking
water systems. However, chemical disinfection has also raised a public health issue: the potential
for cancer and reproductive/developmental effects associated with chemical disinfection by-
products (DBP’s). Chemical disinfectants are effective for killing harmful microorganisms in
drinking water, but they are also powerful oxidants, oxidizing the organic matter, anthropogenic
contaminants, and bromide/iodide naturally present in most source water.

S.D. Richardson, Drinking water disinfection by-products, Encyclopedia Environ. Anal. Remed. 3
(1998) 1398-1421.