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Dictionary of Marine Technology PDF
Dictionary of Marine Technology PDF
OF MARINE
TECHNOLOGY
By
CYRIL HUGHES, C.Eng., M.I.Mar.E.
LLP Limited
Legal & Business Publishing Division
69-77 Paul Street
London EC2A 4LQ
ISBN 1-85978-136-5
Whilst every effort has been made to ensure that the information.
contained in this book is correct neither the author nor LLP
Limited can accept any responsibility for any errors or omissions
or for any consequences resulting therefrom.
c.B.
List of Acronyms and Abbreviations
CA Controlled Atmosphere
CAD Computer Aided Design
CAES Canadian Atmospheric Environment Service·
CAP Condition Assessment Programme
CCA Chemical Carriers Association
CCAI Calculated Carbon Aromacity Index
CESS Committee for the Elimination of Substandard
Ships
CFC Chlorofluorocarbon
cn Cetane Indicated Index
CLT Contracted and Loaded Tip Propeller
CM Construction Monitoring
CODAD Combined Diesel and Diesel
CODELAG Combined Diesel Electric and Gas Turbine
CODOC Combined Diesel or Gas Turbine
COFR Certificate of Financial Responsibility
cas Chamber of Shipping
COW Crude Oil Washing
CO2 Carbon Dioxide
CPP Controllable Pitch Propeller
CRINE Cost Reduction Initiative for the New Era
CRIS Common Rail Injection System
CRP Contra Rotating Propeller
CRS Corporate Research for Ships
CSA Canada Shipping Act
CSC Convention for Safe Containers
CSR Continuous Service Rating
CST Centis tokes
CV Calorific Value
CYMERA Cyprus Marine Environmental Protection
Association
DC Direct Current
DFT Dry Film Thickness
DIN Deutsche Industrienormen
vii
List of Acronyms and Abbreviations
EC Engineering Council
ECCTO European Chemical Coastal Tanker Owners
E MAIL Electronic Mail
EPA Environmental Protection Agency
EPIRB Emergency Position Indicating Radio Beacon
ESP Enhanced Survey Programme
ETS Emergency Towing System
EU European Union
GA General Average
GESAMP Group of Experts-Scientific Aspects of Marine
Pollution
GL Germanischer Lloyd
GMDSS Global Marine Distress and Safety System
GMT Greenwich Mean Time
GPS Global Positioning System
GRP Glass Reinforced Plastic
GT Gross Tonnage
HP Horse Power
HSC High Speed Craft
HSS High Sea-Service Speed
HTS High Tensile Steel
HVF High Viscosity Fuel
H2S Hydrogen Sulphide
QA Quality Assurance
QMS Quality Management System
QRA Quality Risk Assessment
QS Quality Standards
xiv
DICTIONARY
OF MARINE
TECHNOLOGY
Ablative paint Ablative or self-polishing paint was especially for-
mulated to be applied to the underwater surfaces of the hulls of those
ships employed in trades where performance is critical. It is applied
with a greater film thickness than that used with conventional under-
water paints and a typical thickness would be perhaps 850 microns,
against 650 microns for a conventional paint. It has various toxic
ingredients dispersed in its formulation, and as the vessel proceeds
through the water the friction at the boundary layer slowly abrades
the paint surface, thus exposing fresh toxic ingredients to any possible
organisms intending to attach themselves. Ablative paint also has the
property of becoming smoother as the paint surface is slowly abraded
away, and the joint action of this coupled with its anti-fouling property
is ideal in both extending drydock intervals and reducing fuel con-
sumption. Ablative paint containing tributyltin (which see) is subject
to environmental control.
Abrasive particles These are occasionally found in bunker fuels and
exist in various forms, the most important being those associated with
catalyst fines. These fines are used in the oil refining process and
consist mainly of aluminium silicon. It is not unknown for these
extremely abrasive particles to be carried over in the fuel from the
refinery and to be delivered along with the bunker fuel. Sand, rust,
iron and scale are other abrasive particles sometimes delivered along
with the bunker fuel, and it is very important that all these potentially
harmful substances are removed from the fuel oil by purification and
filtration methods before they reach the engine. It has been found that
abrasive particles are very difficult to remove from fuel oil containing
used automotive lubricating oil surreptitiously dumped in the fuel by
dubious suppliers as.a convenient means of disposal.
Accelerometer An accelerometer is a device used to measure the
force exerted on a body by virtue of its acceleration. The emphasis on
1
Accelerometer
ship safety has recently been highlighted and means to measure the
effect that severe weather has on the ship's structure have formed part
of an ongoing investigation, mainly on account of the large number
of vessels disappearing whilst in heavy weather. The use of acceler-
ometers plays an important part in this investigation, and they are
useful in determining such information as slamming forces at the fore
end. Force is the product of mass and acceleration, and knowing the
acceleration makes it possible to determine the actual force. In the case
of large vessels having the bridge located aft it is difficult for the bridge
watchkeepers to judge the effect that heavy seas are having at the bow
area, and the use of accelerometers is seen as a useful tool in giving
them such information.
Acceptance sea trials Before a new vessel is delivered to its owner
it is normal practice for sea trials to take place at a sheltered location
near to the shipyard which built the vessel. The following tests are
then carried out usually with a classification surveyor in attendance:
Progressive speed trials;
Endurance test, including fuel consumption;
Crash stop astern;
Number of air starts for main engine;
Turning circle trials;
Minimum RPM of main engine;
Steering gear test;
Unmanned engineroom endurance test;
Vibration measurement of structure;
Torsional vibration measurement of engine;
Noise measurement;
Anchoring tests.
Depending on the type of vessel other tests may also be undertaken.
The progressive speed trials are arguably the most important from the
owner's point of view and results obtained usually form part of the
shipbuilding contract (MOA), a document which defines the ships
contractural speed.
Access to tank spaces Access to tank spaces has recently become an
important factor, mairily so that the usually voluminous areas
involved can be kept under close scrutiny. In the case of large tankers
of VLCC size, not forgetting that many of these are now built with a
double hull, the areas to be kept under close inspection are not only
large but extremely difficult to access. Because of this it is now a
classification recommendation to provide both fixed and portable
2
Acid attack
come into direct contact with the cargo. Sulphur is present in most
crude oils carried as cargo and in certain circumstances this can also
become acidic. The practice of inerting cargo oil tanks has allegedly
contributed to steelwork corrosion within the cargo tanks especially
on horizontal surfaces where water, oil and sulphur deposits can lie
leading to the development of a corrosive compound.
4
Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA)
more frequently used in the US. The European market tends to use
either ISO (International Standards Organisation) or IP (Institute of
Petroleum) test methods, if available.
Amidships This is a nautical term which refers to the longitudinal
centreline of a ship. In the days when a helmsman was positioned at
the steering wheel, amidships was a command given to him to place
the rudder in line with the longitudinal centreline of the ship so that
the ship steered a straight course. In ship construction terms amidships
was the longitudinal centreline where what was called the change of
frames took place.
Ammonia Is a refrigerant gas making a comeback into marine
refrigeration and air conditioning plants mainly on account of restric-
tions imposed on other refrigerants by both the Montreal Protocol and
the EC (European Community). Ammonia (NH3) is not classified as
ozone depletive and is therefore outside the bans shortly to be intro-
duced on such substances. It is classified as R717 and is rather toxic;
under certain conditions it can also become inflammable. In spite of
these disadvantages ammonia is a more efficient refrigerant than any
other currently available and has an additional advantage in that it is
not miscible with lubricating oil and can tolerate small amounts of
water. Rather importantly it is also much cheaper than alternative
acceptable refrigerants presently under review.
Anchors The system used to anchor ships has barely changed over
many decades and little development work in this overlooked area
appears to be taking place, although dynamic positioning (DP) equip-
ment has recently been provided on a cruise liner as an alternative to
anchoring whilst off port limits. The weight or mass of anchors and
the diameter of anchor cables are determined by a vessel's Equipment
Number which is derived by the classification society from a formula
using the dimensions and displacement tonnage of the vessel con-
cerned. Nowadays stockless anchors of the High Holding Power
(HHP) type are frequently used and, providing they have been tested
at sea, a 25 per cent reduction in weight (mass) is allowed by Lloyd's
Register for vessels classed by them.
Anemometers Are propeller driven devices used to measure wind
speed and direction relative to that of the ship. Todecide the true wind
speed and direction it is necessary to take into account the ships
heading and speed. They are very useful when berthing high-sided
ships in windy conditions, which in turn can decide the number of
tugs thought necessary.
15
Angle of repose
Angle of repose The angle of repose is the angle between the hori-
zontal and the slope which a stockpile of a dry substance will assume
when being formed, and in the shipping industry it specifically refers
to dry cargoes such as grain when chute loaded into the holds of a
bulk carrier. Each type of dry cargo has its own natural angle of repose
which is a function of its internal frictional resistance, which can be
affected by the presence of moisture. Cargoes with angles of repose
thought to be conducive to cargo shift in severe weather conditions
are usually trimmed to form a horizontal surface, so that the angle of
repose is not then a factor affecting the stability of the ship.
Aniline point The aniline point of a fuel oil is defined as the lowest
temperature at which it is completely miscible when homogeneously
mixed with the organic liquid, aniline. It is an important factor in
determining what is called the diesel index of an oil, itself an indication
of a diesel oil's ignition quality. The diesel index is a calculated value
having a similar relationship to that of the cetane number when defin-
ing the ignition quality of essentially distillate fuels. The trend away
from distillate fuels in the marine industry has made the aniline point
of only academic value nowadays.
Anti-corrosive paint (AC) Most, if not all, paints could be described
as being anti-corrosive but in the marine environment the term is
usually reserved for the paint coating applied to the underwater sur-
faces of the hull in order to combat the acidic nature of seawater.
Modern paint formulations have improved over the years and a typical
paint system underneath the anti-fouling (AF) paint would nowadays
comprise the following paint system: complete blasting of the steel to
Sa 2! standard and the application of a 15 micron inorganic zinc silicate
shop primer. This is intended to protect the steel during storage prior
to erection at the berth. At the berth any damaged area of primer
would be repaired and a 200 micron coat of tar epoxy applied, followed
by 100 coat of vinyl tar paint. This is normally considered to be an
adequate base for the application of the AF paint. It is important that
ambient conditions are checked during paint application and any salts
found present between coatings are washed away with fresh water.
The AC system described would adequately protect the underwater
hull against corrosion between drydockings.
Anti-fouling paint (AF) This is applied over the anti-corrosive paint
system mentioned earlier, the prime object of AF paints being to
dissuade the attachment of marine organisms onto the underwater
surfaces which would have a dramatic effect on a ship's performance
16
Anti-pollution measures
enge pumps or blowers were also driven by the engine prior to the
arrival of the exhaust gas turbocharger. Nowadays only auxiliary
diesel engines supplying electricity are provided with attached pumps
and then usually only for lubricating oil.
Auris Reputed to be the first merchant ship in the world powered
by a gas turbine the Shell tanker, Auris was originally built with four
diesel engines providing the power for the electric propulsion motor.
In 1951 one of her four diesel engines was replaced by a gas turbine
of similar output for experimental purposes which were adjudged to
be satisfactory. Then in 1958 all the existing machinery was removed
and a 5,500 horsepower gas turbine provided in its place. The per-
formance of the gas turbine when operating on residual fuel oil was
not considered to be satisfactory and for a combination of technical
and commercial reasons it only operated for around 5,000hours before
the ship was scrapped.
Australian hold ladders Are angled ladders introduced many years
ago at the insistence of the Australian Waterfront Workers' Union
whose members objected to the increasing lengths of vertical hold
ladders as the size of ships increased. The vertical lengths of hold
ladders between rest platforms are now limited, leading to much safer
operation for those whose occupations require them to enter hold
spaces. If not arranged properly they can be damaged when discharge
grab operations are taking place.
Australian Maritime Engineering Cooperative Research Centre
(AMECRC) An organisation whose prime aim is to improve the
safety both of existing ships and future designs. A recent project
concerned Capesize bulk carriers, many of which visit Australian
ports. AMECRC are involved with classification societies, ship-
builders, terminal operators and shipowners in a joint research pro-
gramme relating to structural overload of vessels on account of faulty
loading techniques at terminals and operational practices at sea. A
cargo weight and hull stress monitoring system forms part of this
programme which will give ship's staff guidance as to the stresses
placed on the structure during cargo operations and whilst in heavy
weather at sea.
Australian Marine Safety Agency (AMSA) AMSA is the Australian
agency charged with conducting port state control (which see) inspec-
tions aboard non-Australian flag ships when visiting Australian ports
for loading or unloading cargo. AMSA has the authority to detain any
ship found to have faulty safety equipment, structural or mechanical
20
Automatic radar plotting aids (ARPA)
a modern ship and the tank valves are provided with remote operation
using hydraulic controls especially on the larger sized ships.
Baltic and International Maritime Council (BIMCO) BIMCO is a
commercial shipping trade organisation headquarted in Copenhagen
with members drawn from over 100 countries, and it is truly Inter-
national in its many spheres of operation. Its members include ship-
owners, ship managers, brokers, agents and many others with interests
in the shipping sector. BIMCO is represented on many of the com-
mittees of the International Maritime Organisation (IMO) and it also
publishes various booklets on practical issues affecting ship operation,
impending legislation and other such matters of valuable use to those
in the shipping industry. Charterparty documents are also included
in BIMCO's many activities.
Bar Is a unit of pressure used extensively in the marine industry and
is equal to a column of mercury in vacua of 750 mm. For the convenient
measurement of atmospheric pressure the bar is split into 1,000 mil-
libars making it more suitable to identify isobars on weather charts.
The bar is not an approved SI (Systeme International) unit of pressure
and will eventually be replaced with, for example, Kgf/ cm2 to take
into account gravitational acceleration, although this is hardly appro-
priate in marine activities.
Barge The barge in marine terminology is usually a non-propelled
craft towed or pushed by a tug, either singly or in groups. In certain
parts of the world, for example the Mississippi and Rhine rivers,
barges are still used extensively. Ocean-going barge-carrying ships
such as the See bee (which see) and Lash have been developed in recent
years, as also has the Integrated Tug Barge System (which see).
Barge stern Is only one of a new range of sterns aimed primarily at
improving the flow of water into a propeller. The concept is aimed
at the enhancement of propulsive efficiency without the need for
expensive additions to the end structure by avoiding the cost of pro-
viding such items as fins, ducts or any other expensive appurtenances.
The barge stern is an extremely simple but effective design as befitting
its original choice for the stern end of river barges.
Barograph An instrument usually located in a vessel's wheelhouse
which gives a continuous trace of the prevailing atmospheric pressure
on a clockwork driven drum normally revolving at one revolution per
week. The mean atmospheric pressure is adjudged to be around 1,015
millibars and deviations from this figure can easily be obsetyed by
24
Beam knees
studying the trace from the barograph, and therefore future weather
predictions can more easily be ascertained by those so trained in the
art of meteorology.
Barred speed range When the torsional vibration stresses and
torques of the main propulsion shafting system are found to exceed
classification rule limits at certain revolutions of the main engine it
is usual to place a restriction against running the engine at these
revolutions. This is called the barred speed or critical speed range
which has to be clearly marked in red on the revolution tachomet~rs.
Notice-boards must also be provided at each main engine control
station drawing attention to the barred speed range and stating that
the engine must not be run continuously between the limiting rev-
olutions. A well-designed shafting system will have the barred speed
range at revolutions above that at which the engine is normally run.
Bauer Wach Bauer Wach was a German propriety system of utilising
the energy contained in the exhaust steam leaving the low pressure
(LP) stage of a reciprocating steam engine by passing it through a
steam turbine. The steam turbine was connected to the propeller shaft
via a hydraulic clutch arrangement, thereby allowing it to be dis-
connected during low speed operations when the steam supply was
insufficient to drive the turbine. Gains in thermal efficiency were
claimed to be in the region of 5 per cent by using the Bauer Wach
turbine, but neither it nor the reciprocating engine could survive the
onslaught of the diesel engine when it arrived on the scene.
Beam The beam of a ship is a measurement of its width. It can
be measured either as extreme (overall) or moulded, which is the
measurement taken over the shell frames. Beam is an important par-
ameter when conducting strength calculations for classification pur-
poses and also when the trading patterns of a ship are under
consideration. One of the most important and often used references
to beam is that of the Panama Canal which has a beam restriction of
closely 32.2metres. Beam is also a term used to describe the supporting
structural members attached to the underside of decks and which are
then known as deck beams.
Beam knees Are one of the most versatile structural components
used both in the shipbuilding and the steel fabrication industries and
are of a triangular plate design. Beam knees were used primarily to join
side transverse frames to deck beams in order to increase transverse
strength and reduce the possibility of racking mainly in general cargo
ships. Current construction techniques and modem ship design pre-
25
Beam knees
elude wholesale use of beam knees, and they are only infrequently
used nowadays, mainly in sub-structures.
Bearing pads Bearing pads are used partially to support the weight
of hatch covers and prevent their full weight from resting on the rather
soft packing material forming the watertight joint between the cargo
holds and the open deck. The pads are located at fixed positions
around the perimeters of the hatch covers and consist of rectangular
steel blocks welded to the hatch cover skirt which align and are in
contact with similar blocks welded to the hatch coaming. Bearing
pads are particularly useful on container ships carrying heavy ondeck
containers and are instrumental in preventing contact between the
cover skirt plating and the coaming.
The Beaufort scale is still in general use over 100 years after its incep-
tion.
wave piercing catamaran (WPC) primarily built for this purpose which
held it by achieving an eastbound speed of around 37.5 knots in
June 1990. More recently it was held by Destriero, a fast streamlined
monohull ship.
Boilers Oil fired boilers are the standard means of supplying steam
aboard the majority of ships, the alternative being a small group of
vessels with thermal oil heating systems whereby heated oil at low
pressure fulfils the duty of the somewhat higher pressure steam. Large
oil tankers of VLCC size usually have extremely large capacity boilers
to drive the steam driven cargo pumps having total installed horse-
powers approaching 10,000 in certain instances. Conversely the steam
boilers on an average bulk carrier will have only a low capacity suf-
ficient to supply the heating needs of fuel oil and accommodation
heating. On these vessels the steam demand at sea is met with an
economiser (which see) and the oil fired boiler is either shut down or
simply used as a steam reservoir for the economiser depending on the
system installed. Smaller capacity boilers are usually of cylindrical
design whereas the larger boilers are invariably of the watertube type.
Boil off gas Is a gas generated by heat leaking through the cargo
tank containment insulation of gas tankers. In the case of LNG (Liquid
Natural Gas) tankers this gas is led to the furnaces of the steam boilers
and used as fuel to supply steam for the propulsion turbines. On LPG
(Liquid Petroleum Gas) tankers it is not allowed to use boil off gas as
fuel and it is re-liquified and led back to the cargo tanks in liquid form.
Islands in January 1993 and lost her 84,500 tonnes of crude oil cargo.
The incident which led to the grounding was caused by a complete
loss of power, itself caused by seawater entering the fuel oil service
tanks via an air vent pipe damaged by an unsecured piece of equip-
ment breaking loose on deck in bad weather. The loss of oil was so
large that the UK government set up an enquiry led by Lord Donaldson
which published in May 1994the Safer Ships Cleaner Seas report (which
see).
Brake horsepower (BHP) The power of a diesel engine when mea-
sured with a dynamometer or water ,brake at a position immediately
adjacent to the crankshaft flywheel is referred to as the brake horse-
power, BHP is usually measured, during shop trials of a newly con-
structed engine using the enginebuilder's equipment although some
engines have their own torsionmeters mounted on the thrust or inter-
mediate shaft enabling the BHP to be derived from the degree of
shaft torsion so measured in service. Horsepower is not a 51(5ysteme
International) unit and is gradually being replaced by the Kilowatt
(KW), one kilowatt being equal to approximately 1.36 horsepower.
Breakwater Breakwaters are fabricated steel structures usually pro-
vided on large vessels having somewhat reduced freeboards and large
open deck spaces, for example tankers and bulk carriers. They are
located on the upper deck towards the forward end and run athwart-
ships but in a slightly angled direction, so that seas breaking over the
bow are directed towards the gunwhale scuppers. They are extremely
useful in giving protection to crew members working on the open
deck during inclement weather conditions.
Breathing apparatus There are several types of breathing apparatus
used aboard ships mainly to assist firefighting operations, but also to
enter a space containing insufficient oxygen to support life. The main
breathing apparatus is that using compressed air usually referred to
as compressed air breathing apparatus (CABA) in which cylinders of
highly compressed air are strapped to the crew member's back and
reduced pressure air fed via a flexible hose to a face mask. The other
breathing apparatus is the smoke helmet, which consists of a light-
weight hood fed with air from either a bellows-type air pump of
compressed air supply via a flexible hose from outside the space filled
with smoke. Each type has its advantages depending on the location
and evaluation of the hazard involved.
Bridge officer of watch (OOW) A term applied to the watchkeeping
officer in charge of the bridge during his allocated period at sea,
34
Brinelling
niques using finite plate element analysis have largely eliminated the
buckling problem mainly by the simple expedient of increasing the
plate thickness.
Bulbous bow There are many types of bulbous bow in general use
and the majority of cargo ships are nowadays provided with one.
The function of a bulbous bow is to increase buoyancy forward and
therefore reduce pitching motion in periods of bad weather. It also
reduces the size of the bow wave and therefore lowers the resistance
from this source. It also increases the area of the underwater hull
which leads to increased frictional resistance.
Building docks Most shipyards, especially those building the larger
ships, now construct them in building docks, a large excavated area
lined with concrete, where completed prefabricated blocks are
assembled in the dock. The building docks are served by massive
cranes capable of handling the completed blocks and lowering the
main engine into position, and crane capacities of 1,000tonnes are not
uncommon. The blocks are prefabricated in covered assembly halls
unaffected by prevailing weather conditions, leaving only the joining
together operation to be completed in the usually uncovered building
dock.
Bulk Cargo (BC) Code This is more properly the Code of Safe Prac-
tice for Solid Bulk Cargoes and is published by the International
Maritime Organisation (IMO). It is recommended by IMO that the BC
code is used as a guide for national administrations, shipowners and
ships' masters as to the standards which should be applied for the
safe stowage and carriage of solid bulk cargoes. Grain is not included
as it is covered in the International Grain Code (which see), but other
bulk cargoes posing dangers, such as becoming liquified when wet or
possessing chemical hazards, are included. Also included are test
procedures to determine the characteristics of the cargoes included in
the code.
Bulk Chemical Code (BCH) The full title of this IMO (International
Maritime Organisation) code is the Code for the Construction and
Equipment of Ships Carrying Dangerous Chemicals in Bulk and the
code was first published in 1971.The BCH code applies to all chemical
tankers built before 1986 and it recommends design criteria for the
construction and safe operation of these vessels regardless of size. A
list of chemicals which can be carried is included in the code giving
the appropriate ship type, tank type and other vital safety information
appropriate to the dangers involved in their carriage.
37
Bunker "c"
Bulkheads Bulkheads are steel structures used to separate com-
partments aboard a ship. The number of transverse watertight bulk-
heads required on ships is governed by both classification rules and
also Safety of Life at Sea regulations. All ships have to be provided
with a collision bulkhead (which see) and a bulkhead at each end of the
machinery compartment. The number of transverse bulkheads within
the cargo space depends on the ship's length, and ideally they should
be s-paced at reasonably uniform intervals to enhance longitudinal
strength. The number of transverse bulkheads is also governed by
subdivision and stability requirements, and in the case of tankers also
by the Marine Pollution (MARPOL) Convention.
Bulkhead. penetration Bulkheads have an important function in
separating the adjacent watertight compartments of a ship, and it is
occasionally necessary for various pipes and electric cables to pass
through these bulkheads. In order to maintain the integrity of a water-
tight bulkhead the penetrations made through them for the passage
of pipes or cables must be approved by the relevant classification
society. Methods used include spool pieces, sleeves and cable glands,
and if watertight decks also have to be pierced then similar arrange-
ments must be provided.
Bulwarks Bulwarks are primarily used to prevent personnel who
are present or who are working on the upper deck from being swept
overboard whilst a ship is at sea. They are usually made from com-
paratively thin steel plate and are connected to the upper deck by
brackets so arranged that any stress cannot be transmitted between
the upper deck and the brackets. As an alternative to bulwarks open
guard rails can be provided to serve the same purpose. Plated bul-
warks must be provided with freeing ports (which see) to prevent water
from accumulating on the upper deck. In general bulwarks and guard
rails are around one metre high, and bulwarks are stiffened where
fairleads are attached to them.
Bunker "c" Bunker "C" was the standard fuel oil used by oil
burning steamships and it formed the major product of the ships'
bunker industry prior to the arrival of the diesel propelled ship.
Bunker "C" had few, if any, limiting specifications, as it was generally
accepted that marine boilers could tolerate fuel oil of the poorest
quality. Although it was standard practice to drain off free water and
pass the fuel oil through a strainer or filter, no other form of treatment
was carried out onboard and all the contaminants which were anath-
ema to diesel engines were simply digested by the boilers. On rare
38
Butterfly valves
Butterfly valves Butterfly valves are used aboard ship in such appli-
cations as cooler control and flow regulation. They are ideally suited
for this as they offer minimum resistance to flow and require little
effort to operate. They consist of a cylindrical flap housed in a short
bobbin-shaped body into which is fitted a circular disc centrally
mounted on a spindle. When the spindle is rotated through 90 degrees
39
Butterfly valves
on the decks and to induce it to flow to the scuppers (which see) where
it is drained overboard. The degree of camber is measured as the
vertical distance that the centreline of the deck is above that at the
side shell. A modern ship will have a deck camber of perhaps 200
millimetres, and the tendency is to make it as a flat rather than a
curved surface to reduce construction costs.
Camshaft drive There are two main types of camshaft drive in use
on modern diesel engines, the camshaft being a line of shafting on
which cams for driving the fuel pumps and cylinder valves are
mounted. The drive mechanism is by either gears or chains and each
manufacturer has his own preference. There are disadvantages in both
systems, the chains being susceptible to stretch and with it an incorrect
timing function and gears are vulnerable to damage if small loose
particles are allowed to enter between the teeth. In the foreseeable
future it is expected that electronic controls will take over the function
of the camshaft, and several engines are already provided with elec-
tronic valve and fuel pump actuation (see Electronic controls).
Canada Shipping Act (CSA) This Act applies to all ships operating
in Canadian territorial waters and is administered by the Canadian
coastguard. In general terms the CSA follows IMO (International Mari-
time Organisation) SOlAS and MARPOl conventions with the excep-
tion that it has followed the USCG (United States Coast Guard) in
allowing only double hull designs for new tankers and will not con-
sider equivalent designs as allowed for in MARPOl regulations.
Canadian Atmospheric Environment Service (CAES) A Canadian
Government agency which monitors weather conditions by appoint-
ing weather observational ships who send in regular weather reports
on a voluntary basis.
Canberra Canberra was arguably the first large prestigious passenger
liner to move away from the then standard arrangement of placing
the propulsion machinery amidships. Canberra had her machinery
located aft which then made the midship spaces available to fare-
paying passengers and their needs. This arrangement was sub-
sequently followed by the majority of passenger ships and cruise
liners. Canberra is one of the last remaining passenger ships still using
steam propulsion machinery and is due to retire in 1997after 36 years'
cruise and liner service, including valuable duties during the Falkland
war.
Capstan A Capstan is a piece of deck machinery used for mooring a
41
Capstan
Tanker and are used to discharge the cargo. They are by-passed when
loading the cargo as this is accomplished by either gravity or external
pressure from the shore. A typical large crude oil tanker will have four
main cargo oil pumps located in a separate pumproom. The steam
turbines driving the cargo pumps will be located in the engineroom
and their drive shafts will pass through glands in the divisional bulk-
head. Smaller oil or chemical tankers and gas tankers will usually be
provided with a deepwell pump (which see) located in each cargo tank.
The pumps themselves can either be centrifugal or screw-type to
match the characteristics of the intended cargoes.
Cargo securing manual All dry cargo ships which carry cargoes
other than those traditionally carried by bulk carriers when employed
in the dry bulk trades will have to be provided with a cargo securing
manual under forthcoming amendments to the Safety of Life at Sea
Convention (SaLAS). The cargo securing manual will cover the
loading, stowage and securing of all non-bulk cargoes such as con-
tainers, vehicles and general cargo. It is estimated that around 30,000
ships on a worldwide basis will be involved, and the anticipated
regulations are expected to enter force in 1997. Each ship type will
have to be provided with a manual suitable for the cargoes expected
to be carried and the production of such manuals is seen as a major
task.
satisfy liability claims for removal costs and damages in the event of
oil pollution.
Certificate of fitness Chemical tankers built before 1986 must
possess a Certificate of Fitness for the carriage of dangerous chemicals
in bulk. Chemical tankers built after 1986 must also possess such a
certificate, but in this case the certificate is prefixed International to
identify it with the IBC (International Bulk Chemical) Code. The cer-
tificate is usually issued by the flag state and contains full details of
the cargoes which have been approved for carriage by virtue of the
ship type and equipment provided. Prior to the certificate of fitness
initially being issued an examination of the ship is carried out to
ensure it complies with all aspects of the mc code.
Cetane Indicated Index (CII) Was devised for similar reasons as
CCAI and also uses only the density and viscosity figures to arrive at
the cn. The numerical values of cn are somewhat lower than those
of CCAI and instead of using 840 and 870 as the determining figures
29 and 37 should be substituted. Thus, a cn of 29 and below is a good
reading and 37 and above a poor reading. Again some engine builders
give recommended values of cn for fuel to be used in engines of
their manufacture. The formula for deriving cn is: CCI = (270.795 +
0.1038T) - 0.2545650 + 23.708Log Log (Vk + 0.7) where 0 = density
at 15 degrees C and Vk = viscosity in cst at T C.
Cetane number A method used to determine the ignition properties
of a distillate fuel oil by measuring its ignition delay. It is carried out
in a laboratory test engine in which a reference fuel with a known
ignition delay is compared with the fuel being tested. The results
obtained from the test are converted into a cetane number between 0
and 100 using published data. Because of the time and expense taken
for this test it has been superseded by the Cetane Index, a calculated
value determined from known particulars of the fuel which gives
similar numerical values to the Cetane number. A typical Cetane
number/index for a good quality distillate fuel would be about 60.
The minimum recommended value given by CIMAC is 35 for the
heaviest grade distillate.
Chain locker The chain locker is located at the forward end of the
ship, usually within the forecastle space abaft the collision bulkhead,
and its purpose is to house the anchor cables (chains). It is a watertight
divided compartment and its capacity must be such that there is
sufficient space to permit a direct lead for the cables to enter the
spurling pipes at the upper end of the locker. Access and drainage
47
Chain locker
Coamings are also used around many other openings, for example
see).
access hatches serving cargo tanks and rope lockers.
Code of Practice for Safe Loading and Unloading Bulk Carriers
(BCLU) The BCLU code is expected to be introduced by the Inter-
national Maritime Organisation (IMO) in 1997 and it is primarily
aimed at avoiding problems during in port periods when a ship is
loading or discharging bulk cargoes. Loading plans and discharge
patterns are addressed in the Code and the need for close liaison
between ship's staff and the terminal operators is given emphasis.
Improper loading and discharge procedures can lead to excessive
stresses being imposed on the ship's hull and the Code gives useful
advice on how to prevent this. The separate responsibilities of ship's
staff and terminal operators are addressed and a model ship/shore
safety checklist is included.
Code of Safe Working Practices Is a document issued by the UK's
Department of Trade (DOT) specifically aimed at merchant seamen,
more specifically those employed on UK registered ships. It covers all
aspects of ship operations and the dangers it poses to ship's personnel
when being carried out. The International Labour Office (ILO) also
publishes a similar document focused on accident prevention aboard
ships applicable to all ships whatever their port of registry.
Cofferdam Is a void space arranged between vulnerable com-
partments on a ship to serve as a protective barrier mainly to prevent
explosion or fire. Probably the best known application of a cofferdam
is on oil tankers, where they are provided at the forward and aft ends
of the cargo tank section. Cofferdams are also required between cargo
oil tanks and any adjacent accommodation spaces or compartments
containing electrical equipment. Pumprooms, ballast tanks and oil fuel
tanks are usually accepted in lieu of cofferdams by most classification
societies.
Collision bulkhead A large number of marine accidents causing
structural damage are as a result of a collision with another ship
invariably involving the bow area of one of the ships involved. It is
for this very reason that every ship must have a collision bulkhead,
usually but not necessarily the forepeak tank bulkhead. The collision
bulkhead is so positioned that in the event of bow damage the free-
board deck will not become submerged or result in unacceptable loss
of stability. On passenger ships having lengthy superstructures the
collision bulkhead is usually extended upwards above the freeboard
deck to next weathertight deck.
52
Combined diesel electric and gas turbine (CODELAG)
and the exhaust gas section comprises a bank of tubes through which
the hot exhaust gas passes. The oil fired section is used in port and the
exhaust gas section at sea when the main engine is running. It is usual
to provide an exhaust gas by-pass pipe with the composite boiler
arrangement for safety reasons.
Compressed air systems On diesel engme-propelled ships the com-
pressed air system is primarily for starting the main engine. Most
classification societies ask for a total of 12consecutive starts of the main
engine in alternate directions (ahead and astern). This requirement
determines the volume of the compressed air reservoirs of which two
are usually required. It is also a classification requirement that these
reservoirs can be recharged from atmospheric pressure to designed
operating pressure within one hour. This requirement determines the
capacity of the starting air compressors of which there must be at least
two. An initial start arrangement must also be provided, so that from
a dead ship situation compressed air can be provided from an inde-
pendent power source to start a diesel alternator.
Computer aided design (CAD) CAD techniques are used exten-
sively in all the many aspects of ship and machinery design. In the
case of classification societies most of those in the lACS (International
Association of Classification Societies) group use such applications
as three-dimensional finite element techniques as standard. Fatigue
performance of a ship's structure under operational conditions can
also be achieved using CAD which gives an insight into high stress
areas. Shipbuilders also make extensive use of CAD for all the many
calculations involved in ship construction, not forgetting that in
general terms no two ships are completely alike and a simple change
in design can involve many calculations made easy by CAD. Diesel
engine designers also make extensive use of CAD techniques in the
development of their engines and such ancillary equipment as turbo-
chargers.
Computers aboard ship Most ships now make extensive use of
computers to perform a variety of tasks previously undertaken by
laborious manual methods. Communications is one area in which
messages can be sent using a PC (personal computer). Other appli-
cations for which computers are ideally suited include planned main-
tenance, condition monitoring, stock control, crew lists, ship
performance and, of course, word processing. Most ships have a dedi-
cated loading computer as required under classification regulations,
and it is possible to use other programs in this infrequently used
56
Condition monitoring (CM)
Control of discharged oil The control of oil discharged into the sea
from ships for operational reasons is strictly regulated by MARPOL
1973/8 Annex I of the IMO (International Maritime Organisation)
Convention. Oily water mixtures retained in engineroom bilges can
only be pumped into the sea outside special sea areas if they have an
oil content of less than 15 ppm (parts per million). Oil in other spaces,
mainly relating to the cargo and ballast tanks of oil tankers, can only
be pumped into the sea with a limit of 30 litres per nautical mile
steamed. The equipment needed to control the discharge at this limit
is extremely complicated and not altogether reliable. In the ca:s~. of
special sea areas such as the Baltic, Mediterranean and Red Seas it is
prohibited to pump any oil into the sea.
Deck cranes Deck cranes are used to load and discharge cargo and
they have largely replaced conventional derrick systems for cargo
handling duties on general cargo ships, and so-called geared bulk
carriers usually of the smaller deadweight sizes. A typical deck crane
of the jib type will slew by mean of a toothed ring on which the cab
and crane structure is mounted. Hoisting and jib luffing or topping
operation are accomplished by means of hydraulic motors driving
drum mounted wires. Various types of deck crane are available apart
from the standard fixed jib type, for example traversing gantry cranes,
twin cranes and team cranes.
Deep tanks Deep tanks are those tanks which extend from the
bottom of the ship to a height usually level with a tweep. deck, if fitted,
or somewhere below the main deck on a single deck ship. They can
be used for the carriage of fuel oil bunkers, cargo oil, dry cargo or even
ballast water depending on the type of ship. Nowadays one of their
prime functions is for use as fuel oil bunkers and they are preferred to
double-bottom tanks which can prove troublesome when used for this
purpose. Multi-purpose ships (which see) often use deep tanks for the
carriage of small parcels of vegetable oils and they can also be used
for dry cargo if large hatch openings are provided.
Deepwell pumps Deepwell pumps are usually associated with
parcel tankers, chemical carriers and gas tankers where separation
between cargo grades is very important. In a typical installation each
cargo tank will have its own deepwell pump located with its suction
in a well set into the tank top so that stripping the tank of most of its
cargo is achievable. Deepwell pumps are usually driven by either
hydraulic motors or flame proof electric motors located on the upper
deck.
Deltic engine The Napier Deltic diesel engine was very popular
69
Deltic engine
course for which permission has not been granted then problems may
be encountered over the recovery of costs.
Dew point corrosion Is a phenomenon caused by the condensation
of acidic laden vapour present in flue and exhaust gases as a result of
its being in contact with a relatively cold surface. One of the main
sources of dew point corrosive attack occurs on the surfaces of econ-
omiser tubes when an engine is operating at low output and exhaust
temperatures fall to a level below the dew point. Dew point corrosion
can also occur on diesel engine cylinder liner walls if jacket water
temperatures are at too low a level, compounded if the engine is
operating at low output. When steam propelled ships were popular
the air preheaters were also liable to corrosive attack, mainly in areas
of high rainfall when rain water reacted with the sulphurous vapours
in the flue gas.
Dezincification Is a galvanic action between the copper and zinc
particles in alloys from which these metals are made, notably brass,
and the zinc is simply eaten away. The reaction between these particles
was exacerbated when the brass was immersed in seawater which
formed the electrolyte leading to the classical form of galvanic action
when dissimilar metals are present. Nowadays brass is never used in
such applications and the problem has largely disappeared.
Diagnostic techniques These are in the main directed at the early
detection of incipient faults in a diesel engine by monitoring pressures
and temperatures known to be sensitive to the development of such
faults. The diagnostic computer program will have predetermined
limits for these parameters inputted and deviations will be screened
with a selection of options known to give the symptoms based on
artificial intelligence techniques. Typical examples of the program
would be to diagnose a choked air cooler when the pressure drop
across the cooler exceeded the predetermined limit, or a faulty fuel
valve if the exhaust exit temperature from an individual cylinder fell
when compared with the other cylinders.
Diaphragm In this context a diaphragm is the division between the
scavenge belt and crankcase of a two-stroke crosshead type diesel
engine. It is a horizontal fabricated plate holding the piston rod scraper
box whose main purpose is to ensure that no acidic products likely to
be present in the scavenge can enter the crankcase and attack the
highly polished crankpins and journals. The diaphragm is one of
the main distinctive features of the two-stroke crosshead engine not
shared with the medium speed four-stroke engine. The lack of a dla-
73
Diaphragm
Distillate fuels Distillate fuels are those which have been through
the refinery's distillation process and have had many impurities
removed during their passage. Distillate fuels have their own separate
specifications as laid down in the International Standards Organ-
isation 8217 (ISO 8217), which has four grades listed namely DMX,
DMA, DMB and DMC. These have a range of recommended vis-
cosities, densities and levels of impurities which in general are aimed
for use in those auxiliary engines aboard ship which do not have th,e
necessary equipment installed to bum residual fuels.
Doppler logs These are extremely accurate speed logs used aboard
ships when precise speed measurement is essential. Large laden vessels
approaching a jetty at too fast a speed can cause considerable damage
and Doppler logs are very useful in circumstances such as these. They
work on the doppler effect principle in which the wave lengths of
moving objects appear to shift in relation to the observer. This shift can
be converted to speed thereby giving a very accurate result.
76
Douglass scale
state and swell in a similar fashion to that of the Beaufort scale used
to measure wind force. With respect to sea state the Douglass scale is
in the numerical range of 0 to 9 with 0 being a clam sea, 4 relating to
a rough sea with a wave height of 5-9 feet and 8 being a precipitous
sea with a wave height of over 36 feet. Swell is also represented in
numerical fashion, with 0 being no swell and 8 a heavy long swell. In
both cases (see State and swell) 9 relates to a confused sea and swell
respectively.
Down flooding angle The down flooding angle is a term used to
describe the progressive flooding of a ship when its angle of heel
exceeds 40 degrees. All openings in the hull, superstructure or deck-
houses which would be immersed if the angle of heel exceeded 40
degrees or less must be provided with a means of watertight enclosure,
or alternatively must be repositioned so that progressive flooding
cannot occur. It is usual when defining the down flooding angle to
consider that the ship is at its summer load waterline.
Doxford engine The Doxford diesel engine was one of the world's
leading crosshead type diesel engines in the 1950sbut had completely
disappeared by 1980.The Doxford engine was unique in that it oper-
ated on the opposed piston principle, which needed a rather com-
plicated three-throw crank for each cylinder unit. This feature led to
problems with the crankshaft and several suffered from premature
failure. The Doxford engine was much longer than its competitors. of
equal output, and because it used lower combustion pressures it was
also at a disadvantage with its competitors. Doxford engines were
extremely well balanced and rather popular during their heyday but
could not compete with conventional designs having superior thermal
efficiencies.
Draught Is the distance from the keel of a ship to the waterline.
Draught marks are provided at the forward and aft ends of a ship and
also amidships. It is of course very important accurately to know the
draught of a ship, especially when operating in shallow waters and
the underkeel clearance is critical. Knowing the draught of a ship
enables the displacement tonnage and deadweight to be calculated by
reference to the deadweight scale, a drawing provided on all ships.
Draw cards Draw cards are superimposed on an indicator diagram
(see Indicated horsepower) and are taken out of phase to the main
diagram. The object of the draw card is closely to observe that part of
the combustion cycle which takes place prior to and immediately after
fuel injection takes place. The draw card clearly shows the magnitude
78
Dry film thickness (DFT)
well known that the higher the P Max when compared with the mean
effective pressure (P Mean) so the thermal efficiency is improved and
the economy fuel pump does just this. An extension of the economy
fuel pump concept is the VIT (variable injection timing) system now
used by most two-stroke diesel engine licensors.
Ekranoplans This is a Russian so-called surface plane which has
apparently been under development for many years. It is similar in its
concept to the Wing in Ground and Loflyte projects (both of which see)
under development elsewhere in the world. These novel craft skim
over the surface of the water at extremely high speeds, and their
commercial introduction would revolutionise passenger transport and
perhaps recapture much of this business lost to the airlines starting in
the 1950s.
Electric propulsion There are various means of propelling a ship by
electricity and many of the first such applications were related to
icebreakers, naval ships and passenger ships. One of the most popular
examples of electric propulsion was the T2 tanker, built in numbers
during the Second World War (1939-1945). Either diesel or steam
turbine alternators are the usual methods of providing the electric
power to drive the propulsion motors attached to either conventional
or controllable pitch propellers. In recent times electrically propelled
passenger ships have been becoming popular which use four or more
medium speed diesel engines as the propulsive power. There is also
under development a direct electro magnetic propulsion system (which
see).
Electro-hydraulic systems Electro-hydraulic systems are increas-
ingly being used as power sources aboard ships for various systems.
In the first instance they offer an exceedingly good measure of speed
or output control when compared with alternating current control
systems usually at a lower total cost. Steering systems, deck machinery
and cargo oil pumps are all examples where electro-hydraulic systems
have overtaken the previously used steam or electric power source.
Electrolytic action When two dissimilar metals or alloys are
immersed in an acidic liquid an electric current flows through the
liquid from the metal with the lower electrochemical value to that
with the higher. In this typical example of electrolytic action seawater
becomes the acidic liquid normally referred to as the electrolyte. The
metal or alloy with the lower electrochemical value becomes the anode
and that with the higher value the cathode. During electrolytic action
the material forming the anode is transferred to the cathode and this
83
Electrolytic action
are occasionally located in the focsle area, the means of accessing this
space in the event of extremely bad weather conditions should be
taken into consideration.
Emergency position indicating radio beacon (EPIRB) EPIRBs are a
float-off device used for locating the position of a stricken ship to a
search and rescue team. The EPIRB transmits a radio signal picked up
by the COSPAS-SARSAT polar orbiting satellite operating on the 406
Mhz (Megahertz) and 121.5 Mhz frequency bands. It is now a require-
ment under the global marine distress and safety system (GMDSS)
that every ship has to be provided with an EPIRB.
Emergency towing system (ETS) All new tankers (oil, chemical and
gas) above 20,000 DWT must now be provided with an ETS and
existing tankers of this size so provided by 1999. ETS has been intro-
duced to facilitate salvage and emergency towage arrangements pri-
marily to reduce the magnitude of pollution when a tanker is in serious
trouble. The ETS equipment must be provided both forward and aft
ends of a tanker and it comprises various components such as pick up
gear, towing pennants, fairleads and a so-called strong point. The
working strength of the ETS equipment is specified as being 1000 KN
(Kilo Newton) for tankers between 20,000 and 50,000 DWT, and 2000
KN for tankers above 50,000 DWT. ETS is now included in an amend-
ment to SOLAS 74.
Emulsified fuel oil The use of emulsified fuel oil for marine diesel
engines has been practised over the years but is has not proved to be
very popular. Before being burnt in the engine the fuel is first purified
and then emulsified and homogenised, with the appropriate amount
of fresh water added to form a stable emulsion. The amount of water
added can be as much as 15 per cent of the fuel oil and it is primarily
intended to improve the cleanliness within the combustion space and
therefore extend the TBO (time between overhaul). It is claimed the
use of emulsified fuel oil will reduce NO (Nitrous Oxide) emission, a
pollutant presently being investigated by IMO (International Maritime
Organisation). It has also been claimed that the use of emulsified fuel
will reduce the specific fuel consumption (SFC).
Enclosed lifeboats Enclosed lifeboats are a SOLAS (Safety of Life at
Sea) requirement for ships carrying dangerous cargoes, for example
chemical tankers. Many shipowners now specify enclosed lifeboats,
especially if trading to inhospitable areas such as the North Atlantic
where survival is greatly improved by protecting crew members
against the prevailing weather conditions as offered by the enclosed
86
Engine types
lines do not foul parts of the ship's structure when securing a ship
alongside a berth and exert a direct pull. Also, because of the large
differences in ships' draught or in the water level of tidal harbours the
lines have to be led in such a way that this does not cause a snag.
Multi-angled fairleads are one such device used to prevent this, and
they consist of both vertical and horizontal rollers, mounted in a frame,
which guide the wires. Panama fairleads are fixed devices having
heavily radiused openings through which the mooring lines are
passed. Other fairleads in general use include roller pedestal and deck
mounted roller types. (See Mooring equipment.)
Fastship project Is an ambitious US project aimed at wresting away
high value time sensitive cargoes from airfreight and conventional
container ship operators. The Fastship project relates to a 1360 TEU
(twenty-foot equivalent unit) container ship operating on the SPMH
(semi-planing monohull) principle which creates partial lift at service
speed. Propulsion is by gas turbine-driven water jets which the design-
ers hope will give a service speed of around 42 knots. The project calls
for loading and unloading the containers by air cushion pallets rather
than the conventional lift on-lift off crane operation in a move to speed
up port time.
Father and son concept This relates to a main engine propulsion
system whereby diesel engines of identical type but with different
numbers of cylinder units are used. A typical example will have an
eight cylinder and a six cylinder engine attached to a common gearbox
so connected that either or both engines can be used as the propulsive
power. The concept was devised to enable part load operation to be
carried out by choosing the engine having a service rating close to
that required to meet the vessel's speed which could then operate at
optimum efficiency. Several large cruise liners have employed the
father and son concept but in their case a total of four engines were
provided one of each type being connected to each of two gearboxes.
Fatigue Fatigue could be described as the failure of material due to
a continuous fluctuating or reversing load usually at a level well below
that which the material could withstand under steady load conditions.
The fatigue life of a material is largely controlled by the number of
alternating stress cycles. Fatigue stress can be greatly reduced by
designing a ship's structure so that the levels of stress are minimised.
Also the alignment of critical components during erection and the
level of workmanship employed must be of the highest standard if
fatigue failure is to be avoided. Fatigue usually manifests itself by the
92
Feeder container ship
Feeder container ship These are used to collect containers from such
places as outlying ports and river berths and then deliver them to a
major container terminal where they can be transferred to a large
ocean-going container ship. Feeder Container Ships vary in size from
between 100 TEU (see TEU) to 2000 TEU capacity and at the lower end
could even be constructed as a Rhine river barge. At the upper size
range these feeder ships would match the capacity of tl.1esecond
generation ocean going container ships built in the 1970s, such is the
rate of growth in this industry.
93
Ferric oxide
Ferric oxide Ferric oxide is the chemical term used to describe rust,
arguably the process having the most influential effect on a ship's
commercial life. In order for rust to form, three essential ingredients
must be present namely moisture, oxygen and a difference in potential
on the surface of the metal concerned. In the case of steel which forms
the structure of the vast majority of ships all these ingredients are
invariably present, especially if the protective coating is damaged or
non-existent. Ferric oxide will continue to be produced as long as
moisture and oxygen are present, and the addition of sodium chloride
(salt) into the equation will accelerate the rusting process. If not dealt
with, ferric oxide will continue to form layers and becomes many
times bulkier that the steel from which it was formed.
Filters Filters are mechanical devices usually with a gauze element
which form the basic means of removing unwelcome particles from
the various systems used aboard ship. The filters can be rather coarse,
as in the case of strainers placed in the main seawater cooling inlets
simply to keep out small fish and molluscs. Finer filters are provided
in the fuel and lubricating oil systems mainly to supplement the more
efficient centrifugal separators used as the primary means of particle
removal. More sophisticated filters, such as magnetic, auto-cleaning
and back-flushing types are also provided to meet specific require-
ments. Filters usually of felt material are also provided on the air
intakes of main and auxiliary turbochargers, air compressors and air
conditioning systems to prevent air laden particles from entering these
systems.
Fineness ratio This is a method used to give an indication of the
fineness of a ship's underwater hull. It is also called the
Length/Displacement ratio and is defined as the ratio between a ship's
waterline length and the length of a hypothetical cube having a volume
equal to that of the displacement volume. For large bulk carriers and
tankers the fineness ratio is in the range 5.1 to 5.3 and for fine lined
ships such as container ships it is usually around 5.8 to 5.9.
Finite element analysis (FEA) Finite element analysis in this context
relates to a three-dimensional computerised graphical illustration of
a ship's structure which clearly shows the distribution of stress
throughout critical areas of the hull. When used in conjunction with
classification society service records relating to the actual diminution
of the various plates and their supporting structure due to wastage,
fatigue or corrosion the system clearly indicates those areas under
high stress and likely to fail if appropriate action is not taken.
94
Fire doors
Fire doors All passenger ships have to be provided with fire doors
95
Fire doors
Examples of the code are the flag for A or Alpha which signifies "I
have a diver down, keep well clear at slow speed" through to Z or Zulu
"I require a tug". Most eventualities are covered by an appropriate flag
signal.
Flag state administration This refers to the administrations of IMO
(International Maritime Organisation) member states charged with
regulating the activities of ships registered in their countries and flying
their flags. In the case of the United Kingdom this is the Department
of Transport (DTp) through its Marine Safety Agency (MSA) and in
the United States of America it is the United States Coast Guard
(USCG). All countries which are signatories to the IMO Conventions
have similar arrangements, and their representatives attend the
various IMO meetings. The flag state administrations introduce the
requirements of the IMO Conventions and other instruments into their
national administration rules and regulations, and they are at liberty
to add specific requirements depending how they interpret the IMO
Conventions.
Flame arresters Every fuel oil tank and cargo tank certified for the
carriage of flammable liquids must be provided with a flame arrester
or flame screen fitted in the tank vent. This is to prevent the passage
of flame into or out of the tank, therefore limiting the explosion risk.
Flame arresters are usually made of incorrodable wire gauze dia-
phragms easily removable for cleaning. Care must be taken if chemical
cargoes whose vapours are likely to condense onto and block the
gauze are being carried, also care ~ust be taken not to over pressurise
a tank when it is being vented with a blocked gauze. The crankcases
of diesel engines must also be provided with a flame arrester on the
relief valves to prevent the passage of flame in the event of a crankcase
explosion.
Flare In this instance flare refers to the curvature of a ship's bow
introduced to deflect seawater when a ship is proceeding through the
water. Large tankers and bulk carriers are usually built with a much
reduced flare appropriate to their low ship's speed. Passenger ships
and other high speed ships usually have pronounced flares both for
ascetic and wave-piercing reasons. The strengthening of the bow
section of a ship with a pronounced flare angle requires to be specially
considered and classification rules cover this aspect.
Flash point There are various methods used to determine the flash
point of a fuel oil but the Pensky-Martens closed cup ISO 2719
(International Standards Organisation) method is most frequently
98
Floatcoat
used for marine fuels. The flash point of a fuel oil is the lowest tem-
perature at which ignition of its vapours in a closed cup can take place
when a flame is passed over the surface. The flash point of fuels aboard
ship must not be below 60 degrees centigrade, except for fuel used in
such applications as emergency fire pumps when a flash point of not
less than 43 degrees may be allowed. In general the temperature of
fuel oil in the ship's storage tanks must not exceed 10 degrees centi-
grade below its flash point unless special precautions are introduced.
Fleet age statistics The average of the world's fleet for self-propelled
merchant ships of 100 gross tonnes (GT) and above has steadily
increased over recent years, which is a cause for concern to many
interested parties, for example insurance underwriters. It has been
established as would be expected that the loss rate for the older ships,
especially bulk carriers, is rather high when a comparison is made
with newer models having increased scantlings. The current average
age of the world's fleet is currently around 18years and it has steadily
increased since 1980when it was pitched at the 13-year level.
Fleet size statistics The size of the world's fleet when broken down
into the shipowner's nationality is only one of many statistics
produced on an annual basis by, for example, Lloyd's Maritime. When
nationality is considered the picture is completely different from that
when the ship's registry is used as a comparison. For example Panama
heads the list when considering the country of registry but does not
figure in the leading table of shipowners. Recent figures indicate that
the top shipowning nations are Greece, Japan, United States, Norway
and the United Kingdom. The top five registries are Panama, Liberia,
Greece, Cyprus and the Bahamas. The total world fleet as at 31
December 1994 was around 476 million gross tonnes comprising
80,700ships.
would not include the type of coating applied by the floatcoat prin-
ciple.
Floating docks These are essentially drydocks and are used for the
periodic inspection of a ship's hull or to effect underwater repairs.
They consist of a series of integrated watertight tanks which provide
the necessary buoyancy force to lift and then support the weight of a
ship under repair. To undock the ship the tanks are gradually flooded
and the ship floated out when the dock is partially submerged. They
offer an improved feature over fixed excavated drydocks in that they
are cheaper to construct and. can be towed to another location if
commercial reasons dictate such a course of action.
leading to further (down) flooding and this aspect must be taken into
account in the calculations.
countries relax axle load limits on their roads and the economy of scale
concept of using the largest possible containment is adopted. The
heights of containers are also increasing, starting with a standard
eight-foot high container they now can reach 9.5 feet in certain
instances.
Forward perpendicular (FP) The forward perpendicular is the point
at which the summer load waterline crosses the stem of a ship. It is
used in conjunction with the aft perpendicular (AP) (which see) to
determine the length between perpendiculars (LBP)of a ship. LBP is
used in many calculations involving classification and IMO
(International Maritime Organisation) rules relating to the strength
and safety of a ship.
Fractionating columns A fractionating column, or tower, is one of
the main components in a crude oil refinery complex. At the refinery
the crude oil is first heated in a pipe still and fed into the lower end of
the fractionating column. The column contains a series of what are
called fractionating plates at various levels, and as the hot oil vapours
rise up the column they are condensed and partially re-evaporate in
what is a continuing process as they pass through each plate. Each time
the vapours condense and re-evaporate their composition changes and
the eventual concentr(,ltionof hydrocarbon products is that the lighter
fractions such as gas and petrol are led off from the top of the column.
Heavy products such as fuel oil, asphalt and petcoke are collected at
the bottom. Intermediate products are removed from the column at
various heights depending on their boiling point temperature.
Frames Frames are in effect the rib cage of a ship onto which the
plates are affixed, nowadays by welding but previously by rivets.
Ships were from time immemorial built with transverse or cross
frames, but in recent years longitudinal or lengthways frames have
been increasingly used and a combination of the two is now very
common. Steel frames are made in various sections which include
symmetrical or asymmetrical web, bulb, rolled angle and channel, to
name but a few. They can be made of shipbuilding quality steel or
high tensile steel and their scantlings and strength are laid down in
classification rules as is the distance between them. Deep frames of
increased strength are also used in various locations on a ship.
Freeboard Is defined as the distance from the waterline to what is
called the freeboard deck, this being the uppermost continuous deck
exposed to the weather and sea having watertight means of closure
on all the openings located thereon. There are several categories of
104
Free piston engine
Free flow system Is a cargo pumping system used aboard crude oil
tankers to reduce the length of cargo suction piping required in the
cargo tanks. In the free flow system a bulkhead valve allows cargo to
flow from a cargo tank without a suction line to an adjacent cargo tank
provided with a suction line. The free flow system is not suitable for
tankers intending to carry different cargo grades and the idea does
not appear to have many supporters.
Free piston engine The free piston engine was installed on a limited
number of merchant ships in the 1960s, but it did not prove to be a
commercial success. It consisted of a free piston reciprocating section
which acted as a gasifier and produced no useful power, but it did
provide the combustion gases for the gas turbine section itself geared
to the propulsion shafting.
105
Free surface
Free surface Any commodity with the ability to flow in its free state
will do so if a force is applied. Aboard ship this is achieved when a tank
or compartment partially full of seawater or a cargo space partially full
of liquid cargo is subject to the rolling action of a ship in a seaway.
This causes the substance to flow in the direction of roll, and this
action can introduce stability problems. A recent example of this is the
free surface effect of seawater entering the vehicle deck of the Herald
of Free Enterprise which caused the ship to capsize. In the case of ballast
and cargo tanks they are invariably kept full to minimise the free
surface effect.
Freon Freon is the archetypal refrigerant gas used aboard ships since
the 1930s although it has existed in several forms. It was first intro-
duced as R12 (dichlorodifluoromethane), and as such was identified
as a chlorofluorocarbon (CFC) which has a rather high ozone depletive
potential (ODP) and is now banned under the terms of the Montreal
Protocol (which see). The latest form of freon IS R22
(chlorodifluoromethane) which is defined as an HCFC and it does
have a somewhat lower ODP than F12 and can there£ore be used until
the year 2000 under the terms of the Montreal Protocol.
Fresh water generators These are an alternative method of pro-
ducing fresh water aboard ship to the reverse osmosis method (which
see). Fresh water generators are typically cylindrical heat exchangers
which evaporate seawater by using the heat contained in the main
engine jacket water system and achieve the necessary evaporation
temperature by creating a partial vacuum in the evaporation chamber.
Because the fresh water so produced has not reached a sufficiently
high temperature to kill many known germs originating in estuarial
waters it is prohibited to use the equipment close to the shore.
Fretting corrosion Is a form of corrosive wear usually identified as
occurring between mating steel surfaces if they are not in firm contact,
compounded if local vibration is being experienced. The vibration sets
up a relative motion between the surfaces, and eventually they pit and
corrode, especially if moisture is present and excessive wear can then
occur.
Friction Is a measure of resistance to motion when two surfaces slide
or roll over each other. It is usual to define friction in terms of the
coefficient of friction, a ratio of the force needed to move a certain
load. In the marine sector friction is mainly related to that associated
with bearings within main and auxiliary engines and the propulsion
shafting system. The coefficient of friction is greatly reduced by
106
Fuel oil classification
Fuel oil classification The classification of marine fuel oils has only
quite recently been the subject of an in-depth study. Previously only
three basic classes were in general use, namely, gas oil, diesel oil and
heavy oil. The British Standards Institute (BS1)produced the first
recognised fuel oil standard in 1982, which has now been expanded
and incorporated into the more internationally accepted ISO8217.This
gives 12classifications for residual fuel oils and four classifications for
107
Fuel oil classification
bulk cargoes. It is not inconceivable that all bulk carriers may have to
be built in a similar double hull form sometime in the future, due to
the high loss rate of conventional single hull bulkers when carrying
high density cargoes such as iron ore.
Funnel The funnel of a ship is primarily used to lead the gases from
the various uptakes and pipes from the engineroom to the open deck
clear of the ship. It is a fabricated steel structure and can be a round,
oval or square section depending on the shipbuilder's practice. Most
shipowners place their distinctive housemarks and colours on the
funnel as a form of free advertising. Many cargo ships now locate
the funnel away from the accommodation block to reduce the fire
risk.
Fusible plugs These are provided on such items of equipment as air
receivers or reservoirs. They are made of a low melting point material
and are designed so that at a certain temperature, typically 150degrees
centigrade, they melt, so allowing the contents of the air vessel to
discharge into the atmosphere. Their main purpose is to prevent
serious structural damage to the air receiver in the event of a machin-
ery space fire. Such an incident could overheat the material of the
receiver and cause serious distortion due to the internal air pressure.
When a CO2 fire extinguishing system is installed in the machinery
space it is recommended that the discharge from the fusible plug is
piped to the open deck.
Galley Is a compartment aboard ship where all the cooking activities
take place. A modern galley is provided with many labour saving
devices and a typical selection would be;
Cooking Range;
Baking Oven;
Soup Boiler;
Slicing Machine;
Potato Peeler;
Mixing Machine;
Dish Washer;
Waste Disposer;
Water Boiler;
Refrigerator.
Because of the heat generated in the galley and also the fire risk
involved special precautions are taken. Ventilation is usually inde-
pendent of the main system (see galley exhausts) and fire precautions
109
Galley
vided on new ships but not required on existing ships under current
regulations. Certain safety items have already been retrospectively
enacted, for example GMDSS (global marine safety and distress
system).
Graphitisation A phenomenon associated with ordinary grade cast
iron when it is exposed to seawater for lengthy periods. Most castings
made in cast iron suffered from graphitisation and had to be replaced
at regular intervals when in effect the original metal was replaced by
much weaker graphite. In recent years spheroidal or nodular cast iron
has replaced ordinary grade cast iron in many applications. Castings
used for arduous duties are generally made in cast steel, and wherever
possible fabricated steel, lined with a neoprene coating if appropriate,
has replaced all forms of castings for many duties aboard ship.
Graving dock Another name for a dry dock, a graving dock is an
excavated area lined with concrete in which ships are placed for per-
iodic examination of the underwater parts or to effect major repairs to
the underwater hull. Nowadays mOstships are constructed in a build-
ing dock, which is identical in many respects to the graving dock
except that craneage facilities at building docks have a somewhat
increased lifting capability. Floating dry docks are still in use in certain
parts of the world and have the added capability of being moved to
another location if trade dictates.
Great circle A system of navigation adopted to enable the shortest
distance to be steamed between two ports on certain routes usually in
an east/west or west/east direction. Typical of such routes where
great circle navigational techniques are in general use are the North
Atlantic and North Pacific, where hundreds of miles can be saved on a
transocean passage. In practice a rhumb line route is usually employed
which reduces the great circle into a number of short straight courses
to assist the ship's navigator.
Greenwich mean time (GMT) Is the basis of all navigational
measurements of time and is also widely used in other services, for
example in communications. It is based on the international accept-
ance of Greenwich near London as the so-called prime meridian of
longitude way back in 1880. Prior to this date each major maritime
country had its own prime meridian which obviously led to confusion
on many occasions.
Grim wheel Is a propulsion arrangement whereby a freely rotating
vane wheel is placed immediately behind the engine driven con-
116
Gunwale
ventional propeller. It was named after its inventor, and the Grim
wheel enjoyed only limited success. The theory involved is based on
the assumption that the freely rotating vane wheel will recapture
some of the tangential energy in the wake stream and convert it
into additional thrust. The mechanical attachment of such a large
appendage is not without its problems and is a potential danger to its
successful operation.
Gross tonnage (GT) Gross tonnage is only one of several tonnage
measurements for ships in general use, and it plays an important part
in calculating various fees and dues relating to pilotage, harbour and
lighthouse services. Gross tonnage is now controlled by the Inter-
national Convention on tonnage Measurement which entered force in
1982 as part of IMO (International Maritime Organisation). Gross
tonnage is a measurement of the underdeck spaces using a com-
prehensive formula in which exempted and deducted spaces are given
due consideration. The end result is a figure which bears no relation
to the actual carrying capacity of a ship.
Group of Experts-Scientific Aspects of Marine Pollution
(GESAMP) GESAMP are part of IMO's (International Maritime
Organisation) Bulk Chemical Code (BCH) sub-committee. They are
responsible for evaluating the safety and pollution aspects both of
existing and newly introduced bulk chemicals before they are allowed
to be carried aboard a chemical tanker. They also issue provisional
evaluations for the numerous noxious substances forever being
developed by the chemical industry.
Guarantee period This is the period starting from delivery of a
newly built ship to the shipowner, and usually lasts for a period of 12
months. A guarantee engineer is sometimes appointed to serve aboard
the ship for this period to record any defects found. The guarantee
engineer can be an experienced technician from the shipyard or engine
builder, more recently the ship's own chief engineer has fulfilled the
role. The terms of the shipbuilding contract specify what can be
claimed as a guarantee defect, and many shipyards include a clause
limiting the cost of repairing the defect to that which it would cost if
undertaken at the shipyard. This is seen as a convenient means of
limiting their exposure to high cost repairs undertaken elsewhere, not
forgetting that many ships do not subsequently trade in the area of
the shipyard in which they were built.
Gunwale The gunwale (pronounced gunnel) is that part of the upper
deck of a ship which adjoins the upper end of the side she~l at the
117
Gunwale
sheer strake (which see). There are various forms of gunwale in general
use, but these could be broadly categorised into either square or
rounded. In the square type of gunwale the sheer strake of plating
extends above the upper deck to form a lip. The rounded or whale-
back gunwale presents a well rounded profile by rolling the sheer
strake plating over to meet the upper deck plating. The gunwale
area is highly stressed and the workmanship has to receive careful
attention.
Gyro compass Is an electrically driven gyroscopic disc spinning at
extremely high speed which maintains its relative axis in relation to
space. The gyro compass is constructed so that it always points to the
North Pole, unlike the magnetic compass which points to the magnetic
north and requires constant correction. The gyro compass is nowadays
connected to the auto-pilot and course recorder and it usually operates
repeater compasses throughout the navigation area.
Hales Trophy In 1935 Harold Hales, the British MP for Hanley,
donated a magnificent trophy to be awarded to the holder of the Blue
Riband, itself presented to the passenger carrying 'ship making the
fastest North Atlantic crossing in either direction eastbound and
westbound. The French passenger ship Normandie was the first ship
to hold the Hales trophy and the Normandie and Queen Mary alternately
held the trophy prior to the outbreak of the Second World War (1939-
1945). (See also Blue Riband.)
Halon Is a gas that was used as a fire extinguishing medium, but
because of its rather high Ozone Depletive Properties (ODP) it is now
banned on newbuildings under the terms of the Montreal Protocol.
Halon is classified as a halogenated hydrocarbon and as such has a
high ODP even though in its function as a fire extinguishing medium
it is only rarely introduced into the atmosphere. Replacement fire
extinguishing mediums for halon include carbon dioxide (C02) gas
and water fog/mist systems and like halon they are generally used
for extinguishing machinery space fires.
Hatch coamings Hatch coamings are made of fabricated steel and
are provided on bulk carriers, container ships and general cargo ships
to provide a supporting structure for the hatch covers and also to
compensate for the loss of strength by virtue of cutting the hatch
opening into the main strength or freeboard deck. It is important that
the openings in the deck are properly radiused at each corner to avoid
propagation of fractures into the coaming proper. The basic design
of hatch coamings has barely changed over the years, one possible
118
Hazardous and noxious substances (HNS) convention
major commodity which comes under this heading, but there are other
ores and also such cargoes as scrap steel. The technical problems
that the carriage of heavy cargoes have on a ship's structure as a
consequence of the increased shear forces and bending moments intro-
duced are presently under review by both the International Maritime
Organisation (IMO) and the International Association of Classification
Societies (IACS).
Heavy fuel oil (HFO) Is the fuel oil now used on the majority of
ocean going ships, although it is variously referred to as heavy vis-
cos~ty fuel (HVF) or residual fuel oil. A further complication is that
the ISO (International Standards Organisation) 8217 fuel classification
and the CIMAC method for classifying fuels use different type des-
ignations for various grades of fuel oil. Heavy fuel oil could be said to
refer to fuel oils having viscosities at 50 degrees centigrade of 180 cst
(centistokes) and above. Fuel oil below this viscosity down to say 80
cst are usually referred to as intermediate fuel oil, and below 80 cst as
light fuel oil although it is safer to use the ISO or CIMAC designations.
Heavy lift ships These very special ships have an important part to
play, although it must be said that their trading patterns are usually
of an irregular nature. There are three basic types of heavy lift ship in
service, namely those provided with derricks, with cranes and those
using their own buoyancy to lift the load. The derrick or crane type of
heavy lift ship is usually employed to transport such items as oil
refinery items and power station modules, and it uses its own equip-
ment to both load and discharge its loads. The really heavy cargoes
are transported using the semi-submersible method, whereby the
heavy lift ship is partially submerged, the cargo floated over to its
correct position and the ship then raised to support the load by
pumping out ballast water.
Helicopter landing and pick up area The International Maritime
Organisation (IMO) has recently introduced a new regulation in the
Safety of Life at Sea (SOLAS)Convention which is applicable to all ro-
ro passenger ships. This concerns a helicopter landing and pick up
area, and all new such ships have to be so provided. Existing ro-ro
passenger ships built before July 1997 have to be provided with an
approved helicopter landing area at the first special survey after this
date. Many other ships are provided with helicopter landing areas
mainly to facilitate pilot embarkation and disembarkation operations.
High expansion foam High expansion foam is a fire fighting
medium which has proved to be effective in fighting fires aboard ship
121
High expansion foam
High Speed Craft (HSC) HSC is the official description of the recent
breed of High Sea-service Speed (HSS) ships and other ships who fall
into the fomula laid down by the International Maritime Organisation
(IMO) and adopted by its Marine Safety Committee (MSC). A HSC is
defined as a craft capable of a maximum speed in metres per second
equal to or exceeding 3.7 V 0.1667 where V equals displacement cor-
responding to the waterline in cubic metres. Ships falling into this
category must conform to the HSC code developed by IMO. The HSC
code applies to such safety equipment as radars for high speed ship
operation, fire restricting materials and life saving equipment. The
code also lowers the tonnage requirements for the introduction of the
International Safety Management code (which see) to embrace these
ships.
High tensile steel (HTS) The partial use of high tensile steel for ship
construction has become more or less standard practice in recent years
in spite of some reservations over its use. The main object of using
HTS is to reduce both the steelweight and cost of a newbuilding. In
general terms the thickness of shell plates and the scantlings of the
supporting structure can be somewhat reduced by using HTS when
compared with standard shipbuilding quality steel. The corrosion
rates for each of these types of steel is broadly similar and a reduction
in thickness due to corrosion or wastage will have a more serious
effect from a strength point of view on a ship constructed with HTS.
High tensile steel receives its additional strength by adding various
metals such as vanadium, chromium, nickel and niobium.
High velocity vents Are used in order to increase the velocity of the
escaping vapours to at least 30 metres per second. Thus, they ensure
that vapours do not pose a threat to personnel and cannot be drawn
into accommodation in-take openings. High velocity vent valves are
used in conjunction with what is called a controlled venting system
under SOLAS regulations. The use of high velocity vents makes it
possible to reduce the height of the vent outlets above the upper deck.
High viscosity fuel oil The trend in recent years has been to design
fuel systems for diesel engines capable of handling fuel with viscosities
of up to 700 cst (centistokes) at SO°Cin anticipation of fuel oil with
this high viscosity appearing in the market place. For many years, the
upper viscosity limit of fuel oil intended for marine die~el engines
was 380 cst at SO°c. Fuel oil intended for steam turbine propelled
ships does not normally have an upper viscosity limit.
Hogging Hogging is a deformation of a ship's hull in still water
123
Hogging
Hoistable car decks Are used aboard many Ro-Ro passenger ferries
to maximise carrying capacity by introducing additional car deck
space. They are either electrically or hydraulically operated and can
be stowed against the deckhead when not required. They were also
used on conventional cargo ships as a means of carrying new cars
from factory to sales outlets prior to the introduction of the Pure
Car Carrier (which see). The International Maritime Organisation is
presently formulating sub-division requirements for Ro-Ro passenger
ferries, and the future of hoistable car decks may well be in jeopardy.
Holds Holds are the spaces situated below the shIp's upper deck
which are used for the stowage of dry cargo. They are accessible
through large openings made watertight by the provision of hatch
covers (which see) located on the upper deck and through which the
cargo is loaded or discharged. The shape of cargo holds varies accord-
ing to ship type. A modern bulk carrier will have holds incorporating
sloping boundaries located at the upper and lower ends to present a
self-trimming and stable surface to the cargo. Fully open bulk carriers
(which see) usually have completely squared off hold spaces making
them suitable for the carriage of packaged type cargoes. The holds of
container ships are also squared off and additionally incorporate a cell
guide (which see) system.
Hydrofoil Hydrofoils are high speed craft which lift out of the water
at service speed due to the hydrodynamic effect of the foils, or planes,
fitted to the underwater hull. There are two basic types of hydrofoil,
the conventional in which 30 per cent of the ship's weight is supported
by the aft set of foils. The other hydrofoil is the canard type in which
70 per cent is supported by the aft foils. The canard hydrofoil rides
128
Hydrostatic balance
Ice belt The ice belt is that part of a ship classed to operate in ice
whose side shell is exposed to ice pressure. In order to define the depth
of the ice belt it is first necessary to define the ice load waterline which,
. in the case of Lloyd's Register of Shipping (LRS),is that corresponding
to the fresh water summer loadline. The ice light waterline is defined
as that corresponding to the lightest draught the ship is expected to
navigate under. From these deepest and lightest draughts the ice belt
is extended above and below at a distance which varies according to
the ice class notation, but is in the range of 400mm to 750rnrn.
Icebreaker Is a ship specially designed to keep ports and their
approaches subject to extremely low temperatures clear of ice in the
winter months and therefore make them accessible to ice strengthened
cargo ships. Canada and Russia are countries which rely on icebreakers
to keep their vulnerable ports accessible. Icebreakers are extremely
high powered ships and several Russian icebreakers were built with
nuclear propulsion such were their power and endurance needs.
Classification rules relating to the structural strength of icebreakers
and of their underwater parts in contact with ice are somewhat higher
than those applied to ice strengthened cargo ships, and they are
invariably operated by government departments.
Ice class notation Most of the major classification societies have
notations which are issued to ships when they are in compliance with
their published rules for operating in ice conditions of varying degrees
of severity. In addition to classification notations certain countries
have their own ice class notations, and Canada, Finland and Sweden
corne into this category. In the case of Lloyd's Register of Shipping
(LRS),five different ice class notations are available, namely lAS, lA,
lB, lC and 10. Ice class lAS is the most severe, and the increased
strength requirements should enable a ship so classed to operate in
first year ice up to one metre thick. Conversely the requirements for
ice class 10 will enable a ship only to deal with light first year ice.
When it is intended to operate a ship in multi-year ice the notation
assumes an "icebreaking" prefix and the following notations are avail-
able: ACl, AC1.5, AC2 and AC3. In these cases the figures represent
the thickness in metres of the unbroken multi-year ice.
Ice operations In addition to classification notations for operation
in ice conditions it is essential that certain other provisions are made
to deal with the extremely low temperatures encountered. One of the
most important is an arrangement for circulating cooling water in the
event of the seawater inlets being choked with slush ice. Adequate
130
Impressed current cathodic protection
in that the heat produced when burning the waste can be converted
to useful steam.
Inclining experiment Each new ship, or existing ship which has
been structurally altered, must undertake an inclining experiment
before being issued with a certificate of classification. The purpose of
the inclining experiment is essentially to fix the centre of gravity of
the ship. The inclining experiment is accomplished by placing weights
at alternate sides of the upper deck and carefully measuring the result-
ing angle of heel. From the inclining experiment results all manner of
preliminary calculations can be verified such as intact stability, trim
and stabi~ity calculations and lightship weight.
Independent tanks Independent tanks are usually associated with
chemical tankers, although offshore supply ships also use them. An
independent tank is defined as one which is completely separate from
the hull structure and does not form part of the calculations affecting
the strength of the ship. They are usually located on the upper deck
and are generally used to transport small parcels of usually specialised
high density high temperature cargoes such as molten sulphur. Inde-
pendent tanks can rather easily be designed to withstand high pres-
sures, which gives access to the carriage of high density cargoes not
normally allowed to be carried in the ship's integral tanks. Such fuel
oil tanks used for daily service and settling duties are also in many
cases constructed as independent tanks.
Indicated horse power (IHP) All reciprocating heat engines have
the possibility of calculating their IHP always providing the necessary
mechanical drive gear has been installed. IHP is usually only cal-
culated on slow speed engines, either steam or diesel driven, although
steam reciprocating engines have long since disappeared. IHP is cal-
culated from what is called an indicator diagram, a banana shaped
trace with a vertical axis representing the pressure developed in the
engine cylinders and a horizontal axis the stroke or swept volume of
the engine. The area of the diagram represents the work done, and it
can rather easily be converted to IHP. The indicator itself can either be
a conventional drum-type connected to the combustion space and
operated by an engine driven earn. More recently cathode ray tube
(CRT) indicators have been developed. It is necessary to know the
mechanical efficiency of the engine in order to calculate the brake
horsepower (BHP). A modern diesel engine will have a mechanical
efficiency of around 93 per cent.
Inert gas (IG) All tankers have to be provided with an IG plant
133
Inert gas (IG)
essential to the structural completeness of the ship's hull. Most oil and
chemical tankers are built wholly with integral tanks but gas tankers
in many cases are built otherwise. Some chemical tankers in addition
to integral tanks forming the hull structure also have independent
tanks (which see). Most oil fuel tanks aboard the majority of ships are
integral with the hull, the exception being daily service and settling
tanks which can be independent to suit the layout of the engineroom.
Integrated bridge systems (IBS) Integrated bridge systems have
been developed to satisfy the currently fashionable trend towards one-
man bridge operation combined with unmanned machinery spaces,
so that in clear weather conditions one man can control both bridge
and engineroom functions. In the IBS system the OOW (officer on
watch) is usually seated at a console with a cockpit style layout. All
the various supervisory items of equipment are readily accessible, and
also included is a dead man alarm which must be operated at regular
preset intervals by the OOW in case he suffers a heart attack or some
serious accident. The various navigational positioning devices, com-
munication facilities and machinery monitoring equipment are all
ergonomically arranged to facilitate the single OOW approach.
Integrated fire protection systems (IFP) The IFP system is a Lloyd's
Register of Shipping (LRS) system and its use is over and above the
fire protection requirements included in the SOLAS (Safety of Life at
Sea) Convention. In order to obtain the IFP classification notation
various items of equipment have to be installed. The main provision
is that of an integrated fire control station located on the navigating
bridge or other suitable position. The operational control and moni-
toring of all active fire protection and fire fighting systems are located
in this integrated control station. Communication systems, alternative
power sources and means of control are all included and compliance
with relevant SOLAS regulations is also an essential requirement.
Integrated radio communication system (IRCS) This is a system
designed to integrate all the various radio communication methods
installed aboard a modern ship into a single basic user-friendly work-
station, with a duplicate workstation provided if necessary. Items
connected to the IRCSworkstation include a VHF with digital selective
calling (DSC) facility, medium/high frequency radio-telex also with
DSC, Inmarsat, GMDSS and the various supplementary equipment
needed, for example the printers, emergency power source and any
other communication networks required depending on the expected
radio traffic density.
136
Intermediate surveys
International Bulk Chemical Code (IBC) The IBC code is the Inter-
national Maritime Organisation (IMO) document used in the design
and construction of chemical tankers and their associated equipment
and it is now incorporated as an amendment to the Safety of Life at
Sea (SOLAS)Convention. The IBC code covers all aspects relating to
the safe construction of chemical tankers, for example the location of
cargo tanks and damage survivability in the event of damage affecting
the integrity of the hull. Safety and pollution hazard identification of
the numerous chemical cargoes likely to be carried aboard chemical
tankers is evaluated with respect to health hazard definitions. The
special requirements of chemical tankers with regard to classification
and flag state surveys are listed, as are details of the international
certification of fitness relating to those cargoes approved for carriage
having regard to the type of tanker, i.e. I, II or III.
provided with this standard connection so that any fire brigade in the
world can quickly connect its appliances into the ship's firemain. It is
installed in a prominent position on the open deck and is in the form
of a flange.
International Standards Organisation (ISO) The emergence of ISO
was an attempt to rationalise the numerous national standards auth-
orities in existence throughout the world. It was common practice
for each major manufacturing nation or industry to have its own
standards, for example British Standards Institute (BSI), Japanese
Industrial Standards (JIS) and Institute of Petroleum OP). Although
these standards still exist the move in the shipping sector is to use the
International Standards Organisation (50). Recent examples are ISO
8217 fuel oil, and the ISO 9000 series of management systems.
International Tanker Owners Pollution Federation (lTOPF) ITOPF
administers TOVALOP (Tanker Owners' Voluntary Agreement con-
cerning Liability for Oil Pollution) and it is funded by annual sub-
scriptions from its tanker owner members who represent around 96
per cent of the world's tanker tonnage. ITOPF is a non-profit-making
organisation and its activities are mainly concerned with the inves-
tigation of incidents involving substantial spillage of oil into the sea.
ITOPF also arranges expert attendance at the scene of the pollution
incident in order to mitigate damage. It also publishes details of all
reported oil pollution incidents on an annual basis.
International Transport Workers' Federation (lTF) The ITF is an
association of trade unions and trade union federations concerned
with all aspects of the transportation industry. In the case of maritime
transportation both union and employers pay contributions to both
the ITF and its welfare fund. The ITF is opposed to so-called flag of
convenience (FOC) operations and is often involved in efforts to secure
unpaid wages for FOC crew members or to improve their working
conditions. The ITF definition of FOC is simply one which allows
ships beneficially owned elsewhere to fly its flag. Owners who accept
the ITF collective agreement on its terms and conditions are awarded
a blue certificate which exempts them from industrial action from this
source.
In-water surveys In-water surveys are an arrangement whereby the
interval between the scheduled classification drydockings of a ship
can be extended to a maximum period of five years subject to various
provisions. It is normal practice in order to satisfy classification regu-
lations to have two drydockings per five-year special survey period.
145
In-water surveys
hatch covers and watertight doors are usually tested by using a high
pressure hose held close to the part being tested.
Legionnaires disease This is a comparatively rare disease not par-
ticularly related to the shipping industry but all the ingredients are
present in some shipboard installations. In shore-based establishments
air conditioning cooling towers and hot water calorifiers were found
to be major sources of the legionella bacteria. It was found that the staff
aboard some ships were collecting water drained from air conditioning
units and placing it in the storage tanks as a water conservation
measure. This procedure is extremely dangerous and should not be
practised on board in view of the risk of spreading the legionnella
bacteria.
Length between perpendiculars (LBP) This is the length of a ship
that the classification societies use when applying various criteria into
formulae concerning the strength of a ship and is sometimes referred
to as the Rule Length. It is the distance in metres on the summer
waterline from the forward side of the stem (which see) to the after side
of the rudder post. If there is no rudder post (see Open Water Stern)
then this is taken as the centreline of the rudder stock.
Length breadth ratio (LIB) One of the most important parameters
affecting ship performance is that of the L/B ratio. The larger this ratio
the better is the performance of the ship within practical limits, of
course, not forgetting that a ship with an L/B ratio of over 8 would in
all probability have a serious stability problem. Length is the most
expensive dimension to increase when designing a ship, so it is always
a compromise to choose between the capital cost of a ship or its
performance. A long thin ship is a good performer and a short thick
ship rather cheaper than the good performer.
Letter of compliance (LOC) A letter of compliance inspection is a
United States Coast Guard (USCG) requirement that relates mainly to
chemical tankers which have to demonstrate that their certificate of
fitness is in accordance with the cargoes being carried. LOC inspec-
tions are held by USCG surveyors at two-year intervals, and until
the ship inspection has been passed the tanker can neither load nor
discharge its cargo.
Liberty ships During the Second World War (1939-1945) close to
3,000 Liberty ships were built at US shipyards, in many cases specially
built for the purpose. Liberty ships were five holds/hatch tween-
deckers with a set of steam winches and union purchase derricks.
152
Lifeboats
life of a modern lifeboat will nowadays match the life of the ship
which was not always the case previously. Gravity davits allowing a
single crew member to lower a lifeboat at a safe speed are now stan-
dard, and lifeboat recovery usually by air driven motors also a one man
operation. Survival equipment provided in lifeboats is also covered
by the International Maritime Organisation (IMO). See also Free fall
lifeboats.
Life extension schemes Life extension schemes generally relate to
the structure of a ship, although the scheme could equally apply to the
machinery installation. Special surveys undertaken by classification
society surveyors are held with the prime purpose of ensuring that
the structure of a ship can satisfactorily function for a further five years
without the need for major remedial work. Life extension schemes are
aimed at longer periods than five years, which can give the shipowner
a good idea of what repair expenditure he may be faced with over the
period he has in mind. Life extension schemes are usually conducted
by classification societies and involve a detailed examination of the
ship's structure and assessing the likely onset of problems due to
fatigue or corrosion and then recommending counter measures.
Lifejacket The lifejacket represents the basic lifesaving appliance
when used on an individual basis. Each crew member and passenger
is allocated a lifejacket the location of which is clearly indicated on
board. The design of lifejackets is usually left to individual National
Administrations although the basic concepts are controlled by the
International Maritime Organisation (IMO) through the Safety of Life
at Sea (SOLAS) Convention. Modern lifejackets are usually of the air
inflatable type which can also be inflated automatically by means of a
CO2 cylinder.
Liferafts Liferafts of the self-inflating type are now provided aboard
all ships to supplement the capacity of the statutory lifeboats. On large
passenger ships or ro:-ro ferries the use of inflatable liferafts greatly
reduces the need for the considerable amount of deck space needed
for lifeboats, in that they can be located more or less at any convenient
space instead of along the ship's side as is the case of davit mounted
lifeboats. In the case of large ships an inflatable liferaft mounted on
the forecastle would save valuable time if a sudden accident occurred,
giving personnel in the vicinity immediate means of abandoning the
ship rather than making the long trek to the embarkation deck aft.
Life saving appliances (LSA) The main LSA aboard a ship is the
lifeboat, which in recent years has seen important changes in design.
154
Lignum vitae
staff input the cargo, ballast, fuel oil and other known weights into
the loading instrument, which then calculates the shear forces and
bending moments usually as a percentage of their allowable values.
The original loading instruments were mechanical devices but modern
instruments are in the form of a computer.
Loading manual All ships whose longitudinal strength has to be
satisfactorily demonstrated to meet classification requirements have
to be provided with a loading manual approved by the relevant classi-
fication society. Actual and permissible still water bending moments
and shear forces are included in the manual, as also are allowable local
loadings on hatch covers, decks and double bottoms. Restrictions on
minimum draught forward and sea conditions are included, as also is
the allowable weight of grabs used when discharging bulk cargoes.
Load line rules The load line rules decide the minimum freeboard a
ship is assigned and they are based on the International Load Line
Convention (ILLC) introduced by the International Maritime Organ-
isation (IMO) in 1966 and periodically amended. The freeboard is
defined as the distance from the waterline amidships to the freeboard
deck. The assignment of the load line is essentially to ensure that the
ship has sufficient reserve buoyancy, and it is based on the main
dimensions of the ship, also its type. The allowable draughts are
indicated by the load line markings on the side shell amidships. The
summer load line is generally used as a basis, and deeper draughts
are allowable when operating in tropical or fresh water and lesser
draughts when operating in winter or North Atlantic conditions.
Load line zones Load line zones are seasonable in nature and give
guidance to the owners and master of a ship on the allowable
maximum load line the ship must not exceed in various geographical
areas. The world is divided into eight basic seasonal areas comprising
three seasonal winter zones, one summer zone, one tropical zone, one
seasonal tropical zone, a Mediterranean/Black Sea zone and a Sea of
Japan zone. These are all clearly indicated on the appropriate hydro-
graphic charts, which also give the effective dates defining winter and
summer having regard to the north and south hemispheres.
Load on top (LOT) The load on top procedure was adopted many
years ago as a measure to reduce the then horrific oil pollution caused
by tank cleaning operations from crude oil tankers. In those days cargo
tanks were cleaned by hot water Butterworth tank cleaning machines
after cargo was discharged. The heavily oil contaminated cleaning
water was allowed to settle and then pumped overboard. Just before
158
Log carriers
the mainly oil residues reached the pump suctions they were diverted
to the slop tanks and the next cargo loaded on top of this noxious
mixture. The LOT procedure has been superseded by the crude oil
washing (which see) system.
Load and resistance factor design concept (LRFD) The LRFD
concept is the current state of the art with respect to the design of
ships' structures which for many years were based on so-called pre-
scriptive rules which had no calculable relationship to the loads
imposed on the structure. LRFD is a direct calculation method which
does take into account actual induced loads, and as such is deemed to
be deterministic. This LRFD concept is being increasingly used in the
civil and offshore engineering industries. To address the problem of
the uncertainty surrounding actual loads and strengths it is normal to
apply such methods as, for example, limit state and partial safety
factors, and these are adopted by the LRTD concept in an endeavour
to improve th,estructural safety of ships.
LoFlyte LoFlyte is an acronym for low observable flight test exper-
iment and is a combined US Air Force and National Space Agency
(NASA) project primarily aimed towards military applications. The
project consists of a wedge shaped craft designed to surf in wave
riding fashion at hypersonic speeds in the 3,000 knots region. The
shock wave when passing through the sound barrier is dispersed
around the fuselage of the craft, and this greatly reduces the frictional
resistance at the hypersonic speeds proposed. If successful then the
project could possibly be adapted for commercial as well as military
applications.
Log books All ships registered in traditional maritime nations must
maintain an official log book in which all important events are
recorded, for example misdemeanours of the crew, and physical
damage to the ship. Ships also maintain a deck log book, also an
engineroom log book in which are recorded all the many parameters
regarding weather conditions, fuel consumption, speed, revolutions,
course steered etc. From these log books a passage summary or voyage
report is compiled and these documents are used in negotiations with
charterers over such matters as performance warranties and damage
claims against underwriters when extracts covering the time of the
casualty are taken from the log books and presented to the surveyor.
Log carriers Log carriers fill an important niche in the timber trade
and are generally employed to circumvent restrictions on the import
of sawn timber into certain countries, particularly those on the Pacific
159
Log carriers
Rim. Because of the weight and size of many of the logs carried,
coupled with their often frequent and lengthy immersion in seawater
prior to loading, they pose certain dangers when carried. Apart from
physical damage caused by contact with the ship's structure whilst
being handled, they also contribute to the extremely humid conditions
within the hold. This can result in severe corrosion to parts already
damaged by the logs, and a suitable paint system is recommended.
The loss rate of log carriers is reported as being rather high, no doubt
as a result of the aforementioned dangers.
Logs (speed) The accurate determination of ships' speed has been
the subject of much development over the years, and in the early stages
primitive methods involving knotted lengths of rope and hourglasses
were used. The next step was the Walker log based on a towed rotating
sensor, sending signals to an onboard indicator. Logs protruding
beneath the ship's hull were the pitot, Chernikeef and electromagnetic,
last being the most popular and most accurate of those introduced in
recent years. Doppler logs, based on the shift in the electromagnetic
spectrum, are also used when extreme accuracy is required. The
current use of extremely accurate celestial and terrestrial positional
fixing devices has rendered the use of speed logs of lesser importance.
London Dumping Convention (LDC) The LDC is also known as
the Inter-Governmental Conference on the Dumping of Wastes at Sea
and it entered force in 1975.The LDC regulates the dumping at sea of
not only wastes but other materials, including redundant offshore
structures. Certain wastes are pro~ibited from being dumped at sea
under any circumstances, and these include such dangerous sub-
stances as mercury, cadmium, plastics and high-level radioactive
waste. The LDC also regulates the incineration of wastes aboard ships
and nominates areas where incineration and dumping of approved
wastes can take place.
Longitudinal Centre of Buoyancy (LCB) The Longitudinal Centre
of Buoyancy (LCB) is a term used by ship designers to express the
distance that the centre of buoyancy is displaced from a mid-point
measured between the forward and aft perpendiculars (which see) in a
longitudinal direction. It is usually expressed as a positive or negative
percentage, positive if the centre of buoyancy is located forward of the
mid-point and negative if located aft of the mid-point. It is usual for
tankers and bulk carriers to be designed with a positive LCB and for
high speed container ships to have a negative LCB.The range of LCBs
is in the order of plus or minus 3 per cent.
160
Loran
systems such as GPS (which see) have largely relegated Loran and other
such terrestrial systems to that of a supplementary role.
Louisiana Offshore Oil Port See Loop terminal
Low location lighting (LLL) One of the recommendations made
by the International Maritime Organisation (IMO) following recent
serious passenger ship calamities was for low level lighting systems
to be installed, similar to those used in the commercial airline industry.
LLLsystems are used to provide evacuation route indication in emerg-
ency situations, and current systems use the latest available tech-
nologies to provide the necessary illumination. These include light
emitting diodes (LED) and other such methods, for example pho-
toluminescent material which stores light from normal sources and
then releases it when the normal source is interrupted, such as when
in an emergency situation.
Low viscous resistance fin Is yet another device introduced to
improve the hydrodynamic performance of a ship. The low viscous
resistance fin was developed by a major Japanese shipyard and con-
sists of a pair of horizontal triangular shaped fins attached to the hull
at a position just in front of the propeller. The fins are designed to
reduce vortex flow resistance which interferes with the uniform flow
of water into the propeller and results in an improved hydrodynamic
performance with an alleged 2 per cent improvement claimed.
Lubricating oil (LO) Lubricating oil plays a very important part in
the efficient running of a ship's machinery. Its primary function is to
reduce frictional resistance between the moving parts of the mech-
anical systems. Secondary functions include those used to combat the
effect of various contaminants which may find their way into the
lubricating oil, usually from the products of fuel combustion. In the
case of cylinder oils used to lubricate the cylinder liner I piston ring
interface, they also have to neutralise the high sulphurous acid levels
present occasioned by the high level of sulphur in most fuel oils. Each
system using lubricating oil has its own special requirements, for
example the low temperatures in refrigerating machinery, high tem-
peratures in hydraulic systems and extreme pressures in gear boxes
all solved by the choice of the requisite lubricating oiL
Lubricant quality scan (LQS) Lubricant Quality Scan (LQS) is an
analytical system which regularly issues reports on the condition of
lubricating oil samples submitted mainly from stem tube systems but
it can be extended to other lubricating oil systems for example those
162
Man/B&W
control (PSC), both of which see. The MSA was formed on 1 April 1994
as the successor to the surveyor general's organisation and is based in
Southampton.
Marine Safety Committee (MSC) The MSC is the principal com-
mittee of the International Maritime Organisation (IMO) and it is the
MSC which regulates all safety matters relating to marine operations
throughout the world. Included in the MSC's activities are such
diverse subjects as:
Navigation;
Radiocommunications;
Life saving appliances;
Training and watchkeeping;
Dangerous goods, solid cargoes and containers;
Ship design;
Fire protection;
Stability;
Containers;
Bulk liquids and gases;
Safety management.
Each of these specialised subjects is represented by a separate sub-
committee which reports back to the MSC with various rec-
ommendations which, if approved, will form amendments to the
SOLAS (Safety of Life at Sea) Convention, with which the MSC is
principally concerned.
Marine safety information systems (MSIS) This is a United States
Coast Guard (USCG) database which records vital information relat-
ing to ships visiting US ports with emphasis on safety and environ-
mental issues. The object of the MSIS is to remove sub-standard ships
from the system and of course prevent them from trading to the
United States. The USCG has made the MSIS database available to all
interested parties, and even the general public if used for legitimate
purposes.
Marine Society (The) The Marine Society is a UK organisation based
in London, and it was formed in 1756 by one Jonas Hanway. The
principal objects of the Marine Society are the encouragement of young
persons to take up a career at sea and the enhancement of the qualities
of life for those already serving at sea. Its services are directed to both
the Royal and merchant navies and also the fishing and offshore
sectors of the shipping industry. The Marine Society provides a library
167
Marine Society (The)
service for merchant ships and also operates the College of the Sea. It
publishes a quarterly magazine entitled The Seafarer and gives much
advice to seafarers in a quest to further their careers.
Marine Spill Response Corporation (MSCR) MSCR is an inde-
pendent non-profit-making organisation based in the United States
formed by the petroleum industry in the aftermath of the Exxon Valdez
incident and which is closely related to the US Oil Pollution Act 1990
(OPA90). The MSCR has access to all the various equipment needed
to deal with serious oil spills and this is located at various vulnerable
positions around the US coastline. The equipment includes such items
as response vessels, transfer pumps, booms and skimmers, all main-
tained in a state of readiness to deal with an oil spill.
Marine Technology Directorate (MTD) The Marine Technology
Directorate is a UK governmental agency charged with conducting
research into all manner of projects concerning the shipping and
related industries. One of its main current projects is that concerning
High Speed Craft (which see) in its many forms and it is expected that
the MTD will be actively involved in the future development of these
craft, especially with respect to innovative designs leading to
improved seakeeping qualities at high speed.
Maritime Information Society (MARIS) MARIS is a European
Union (EU) based society aimed primarily at promoting the intro-
ductionof information technology (IT) into marine related activities.
One of the research programmes instituted by MARIS concerns the
various safety and environmental issues involved following a serious
marine accident. Another MARIS programme is related to the cost
effectiveness of all marine transportation activities ranging from vessel
routing to port communications. Other MARIS programmes concern
the management of marine resources and the application of IT to the
manufacturing and engineering services within the marine industry.
Master The Master of a ship is in the case of UK ships the Captain,
although other shipping nations still retain the title of Captain. All
official documents relating to UK ships including professional quali-
fications use the term Master but as a matter of courtesy he is invariably
addressed as Captain.
Masts Masts are vertically mounted spars provided on a modern
ship primarily to house the navigational equipment, although some
general cargo ships still use mast-type structures to support the cargo
handling equipment (see Goal Post Masts). The foremast is nowadays
168
Mean indicated pressure (P Mean)
robiological problems. The first are bacteria of which there are numer-
ous species, the next are yeasts usually classified as being micro-fungi
and finally moulds, which are similar in structure to yeasts. One of the
main targets of microbiological attack is the main engine lubricating oil
system which can become infected with microbes especially if water
is present. In severe cases corrosion of the bearing journals and heavy
sludge deposits can occur. Biocides have proved to be successful in
many cases, but renewal of the complete oil charge is necessary on
occasions. Fuel oil and enclosed cooling water systems can also be
infected with microbes, generally with the result that either sludge
deposits or corrosion occurs.
Mid-deck tanker The mid-deck tanker was a Japanese proposal sub-
mitted as an alternative design to the double hull tanker insisted upon
by the United States Coast Guard (USCG) under the Oil Pollution Act
of 1990 (OPA90). The mid-deck tanker has a horizontal oil tight div-
ision between the upper and lower parts of the cargo tanks, and while
it is in effect a double hull design, it does not have a double bottom
ballast tank. The International Maritime Organisation (IMO) will
accept the mid-deck tanker design as conforming to the latest anti-
pollution regulations, but it is not acceptable to the USCG.
Midship section coefficient This is a term used to indicate the full-
ness of a ship at its immersed midship cross section. It is in effect the
ratio between this and a projected oblong shape having the full beam
and midship draught as its multiples. Bulk carriers and tankers of the
larger deadweight sizes will have the midship section coefficients of
between 0.98 to 0.99. A ship without any turn of bilge would of course
have a coefficient of 1.0.
Mineral acids Mineral acids are of the strong inorganic type which
includes sulphuric, hydrochloric, nitric and phosphoric. In the case of
marine operations the most common mineral acid met with is sul-
phuric, usually as a result of sulphur being present in either fuel oil,
crude oil when carried as cargo or bulk sulphur also when carried as
cargo. Under certain circumstances, usually in the presence of water,
this sulphur can be converted into sulphuric acid. It can then attack
such items as diesel engine bearings, cylinder liners, exhaust gas
uptakes and the cargo holds of bulk carriers used to carry sulphur.
MIL specifications MIL specifications are an abbreviation of US
Military Specifications which cover all the many fuel oils and lubri-
cants used by the US military. MIL specifications are also used in
commercial applications, particularly those which embrace both mili-
173
MIL specifications
tary and commercial applications, for example gas turbines and high
speed diesel engines.
Millibars The universally adopted method of measuring atmo-
spheric pressure is the millibar, equivalent to one thousandths part of
a Bar (which see). As a general guide the average atmospheric pressure
is around 1015 millibars, which is approximately equal to 30 inches
of mercury using the previous method of measuring atmospheric
pressure. The differences in recorded atmospheric pressure in mil-
libars present in a weather system are shown as isobars which clearly
indicate the strength of wind speed. The more tightly packed the
isobars the higher the wind speed in the weather system.
Mini-bore diesel engines Mini-bore marine diesel propulsion
engines are in this context those of the two-stroke crosshead type
which in recent years have encroached into territory previously the
domain of the medium speed trunk piston four-stroke engine. The
mini-bore two-stroke engine has several claimed advantages over a
trunk piston engine of equivalent output, the first being its ability to
deal with poorer quality fuel oil without the risk of contaminating the
lubricating oil system. The mini-bore engine also operates at lower
revolutions than the four-stroke engine, which permits the use of a
larger diameter propeller in certain circumstance, for example if direct
drive is proposed. The maintenance needs and therefore the mean
time between overhaul (MTBO)is allegedly less onerous on mini-bore
engines, although four-stroke proponents usually refute this.
Misalignment One of the most common reasons for premature
structural failure is misalignment between load carrying component
parts of a ship's hull. It has been found that structures using high
tensile steel are more vulnerable to failure if misalignment tolerances
previously thought acceptable for mild steel structures are used. Most
classification societies have reviewed their misalignment tolerances,
and their field surveyors nowadays pay careful attention to the fit up
and alignment during construction in the assembly halls and at the
berth.
Mitsubishi Mitsubishi is the only non-European designer of two-
stroke (cycle) slow speed marine diesel engines, and is located in
Japan. Its two-stroke engines operate on the uniflow scavenge prin-
ciple in similar fashion to the two remaining European designs of two
stroke. Except for fairly isolated instances Mitsubishi engines of its
own design have not penetrated into the European market and their
use is generally restricted to Japanese or Korean shipyards. Mitsubishi
174
Montreal Protocol
depletive substance. Both these substances are being phased out under
a time scale agreed by the Montreal Protocol which entered force in
1989.
Mooring equipment A typical ship is provided with an array of
mooring equipment to enable it to be secured alongside whilst in port.
Mooring lines made of rope, either natural or man made fibres, or
steel wire form the basis of a mooring system and they secure the ship
to bollards on the quay. Winches are used to provide the necessary
power to heave the ship alongside, and an assortment of fairleads
(which see) placed in various strategic positions ensures that the
mooring lines have a direct lead from winch to quay. When the ship
is in its final position the mooring lines are secured to bitts or bollards
onboard.
Morse Code Is a communication system first developed by Samuel
Morse in the mid-19th century. It was originally applied using hand
signal flags, then by flashing lights and finally by wireless telegraphy.
The Morse Code is based on a system of dots and dashes which
represent letters of the alphabet and numbers. It requires a certain
amount of skill to master the technique and needed a dedicated wire-
less operator onboard to transmit all the messages to and from a ship.
It is only c,omparatively recently that voice communication has largely
replaced the Morse Code using satellite communication systems
(Satcom).
Moulded dimensions The moulded dimensions of a ship have their
origins back in the time when ships were built with the aid of moulds
to define their lines. The moulded breadth and depth of a ship refer
to dimensions taken from within the side shell and bottom plating.
Most classification societies base their rules and regulations on the
moulded dimensions when determining the strength of a ship's struc-
ture.
Multi-hull designs The multi-hull design covers a collection of ships
generally of the High Sea-service Speed (HSS) type. They are then
referred to as high speed craft by the International Maritime Organ-
isation (IMO) and special service craft by Lloyd's Register of Shipping
(LRS), although not all such ships are of the multi-hull design.
Included in the multi-hull designs are catamarans, trimarans, wave
piercers and small waterplane twin hull ships (SWATHS).
Multi-purpose ships The multi-purpose ship plays a small but
important part in the overall scheme of things, and they were basically
176
National Research Council
culars are issued by the United States Coast Guard (USCG)as a means
of informing interested parties of any changes being introduced into
US legislation. NAVIC circulars are suffixed by an identifying number
followed by the year it was issued to assist recipients. For example
NAVIC 8-92 relates to the eighth circular issued in 1992, and this
particular NAVIC circular concerned the introduction of vessel
response plans (VRP) (which see).
Navigation bridge visibility Navigation bridge visibility has been
the cause for concern especially with respect to those ships with cargo
stowed above deck, for example container ships and ships carrying
timber cargoes. Ships provided with heavy lift derricks, with their
array of mast posts, cross ties and sophisticated rigging, can also
introduce restrictions on visibility from the bridge. Safety of Life at
Sea (SaLAS) regulations have recently been amended with the object
of improving visibility from the bridge, and in the case of ships opera-
ting with a single bridge watchkeeper the requirements for visibility
from the bridge are more comprehensive and include a facility for all
round visibility.
Navigation lights These are the lights that all ships must display
during the hours of darkness when under way. The actual position,
arc and colour of each light is laid down by the International Maritime
Organisation (IMO) in the Collision Regulations (which see). For ships
over 150 feet in length two white steaming lights must be displayed on
the mast one higher and further aft than the other. Port and starboard
sidelights (red and green) are displayed on the bridge wings and a
white overtaking light displayed at the stern. The position of these
lights allows trained observers to judge the speed and direction of
other ships. Various other lights are displayed for example when at
anchor, not under command and when carrying explosive cargoes.
Fishing vessels, tugs and sailing ships have their own layout of
Navigation Lights.
Navigator On most ships it is traditional practice to nominate one
of the deck officers, or mates as they are usually called, to be entrusted
with the navigation of a ship on its intended voyage. The navigator
lays out the course the ship will follow on the navigation charts and
plots the progress of the ship on a daily or less frequent basis if
appropriate. The navigator also attends to the task of correcting the
navigation charts as advised by various Notices to Mariners issued to
ships on a regular basis. The duties of a present-day navigator has
been lessened by the introduction of navigational aids such as Elec-
179
Navigator
chinen und Schiffbau and Fincantieri. New Sulzer Diesel designs both
slow speed two-stroke (cycle) and medium speed four-stroke engines
and has many versions of each basic type for both propulsion and
auxiliary power generation purposes. It has many licensees through-
out the world who manufacture its designs. It is based at Winterthur
in Switzerland and it has largely followed the Sulzer Brothers designs
with financial support from its new partners, although Fincantieri
also has its own four-stroke design based on the former Fiat stable.
MAN/B&W intended to take over Sulzer Brothers in 1990 but the
move was blocked by the German authorities. Following the demise
of Bremer Vulkan in 1996 New Sulzer Diesel has been acquired by
Metra Corporation, owners of Finland's Wartsila Diesel.
New York Produce Exchange (NYPE) The NYPE is pne of the most
commonly used and longest established charterparty documents in
the dry cargo sector. Most of its many clauses have been tested in the
courts and the acceptable speed and consumption tolerances allowed
in the NYPE charterparty are now well known. Weather conditions
are usually left blank for shipowner and charterer to agree what con-
stitutes good weather and then insert the appropriate Beaufort
number. The form,is updated from time to time, and the last significant
revision was in 1993.
Neutralisation number The neutralisation number is a method used
to determine the condition of a sample of lubricating oil taken from a
diesel engine's system. These lubricating oil systems tend to attract
acidic products from the combustion process especially those engines
of the trunk piston type. In chemical terms it is the number of milli-
grams of potassium hydroxide required to neutralise all acidic com-
pounds present in one gram of the oil sample. The result is expressed
as either the total acid number (TAN) or the strong acid number (SAN)
depending on the type of acid found.
Nitrogen oxide (NOJ Nitrogen is the largest component in a diesel
engine's exhaust gas emission and nitrous oxide is arguably the pol-
lutant having the most significant effect on the environment. Typical
NOx emissions from marine diesel engines are in the order of 15-20
g/KW /h (grams per kilowatt hour). It is thought that the International
Maritime Organisation (IMO) will introduce legislation to control the
permitted level of NOx emission by means of a new annex to the
Marine Pollution (MARPOL) Convention sometime in the future.
Selective Catalytic Reduction (which see) is a system which significantly
reduces NOx emissions. Other methods to reduce NOx include the use
181
Nitrogen oxide (NOX>
of water emulsified fuel oil and specially designed low NOx fuel valve
nozzles.
Node Node in this instance refers to the mode of hull vibration
deflections caused by either the machinery, propeller or in some
instances by a wave pattern. Each design of ship has its own natural
vibration frequency, and when this is excited by extraneous forces
such as those mentioned above it will assume a pattern of vibration
which can be illustrated by nodes. If we consider the ship's hull as
being represented by a straight horizontal line then the hull vibration
deflections could be illustrated by a superimposed sinusoidal or wave
shaped curve. Where this curve crosses the horizontal line a node is
formed and a typical ship will perhaps have a three node deflection
pattern.
Nodular cast iron Nodular or spheroidal cast iron is a grade of cast
iron with superior qualities to those possessed by conventional grey
cast iron especially with respect to its ductility. Nodular cast iron
valves and fittings can be used fo~ such purposes as ships' side con-
nections and also for other uses where comparatively low pressures
and temperatures exist. It can also be used for heat exchangers where
its superior resistance to cavitational erosion and graphitisation (which
see) is superior to that of grey cast iron previous used.
black balls are hoisted up the mast, and if in poor visibility the ship
sounds one long blast followed by two short blasts on the ship's
whistle or siren at regular intervals. During the hours of darkness two
all round red lights, one above the other, are hoisted having a visibility
of two miles and all other navigation lights are switched off.
Noxious liquid substances (NLS) NLS is the correct term for liquid
chemicals when they are carried aboard ship, usually a purpose built
chemical tanker. Safety issues relating to the carriage of NLSs are
included in the International Maritime Organisation (IMO) Bulk
Chemical Code (BCH) and International Bulk Chemical Code (IBC)
(both of which see). Environmental issues relating to the carriage of
NLSs are covered in the IMO's Annex II of the Marine Pollution
(MARPOL) Convention. There are literally hundreds of NLS carried
aboard ship and their safety and pollution hazaf(~.s are evaluated on a
regular basis by IMO's Group of Experts-Scientific Aspects of Marine
Pollution (GESAMP) (which see).
Nuclear propulsion There has only been a small number of nuclear
propelled merchant ships built and the only survivors are Russian
built icebreakers, although many naval vessels with nuclear pro-
pulsion are still in service. The Japanese built Matsu (which see) proved
to be a serious deterrent to nuclear propulsion and it would appear
unlikely that nuclear propelled ships operating under normal com-
mercial terms will appear in the short to medium term mainly because
of their high capital cost and the current comparatively low cost of
fossil fuels.
NUMAST NUMAST is a UK trade union and professional organ-
isation representing the interests of nearly 18,000masters, officers and
cadets employed in the British Merchant Navy. NUMAST is rep-
resented at numerous bodies relating to the activities of masters and
deck officers and their involvement particularly with respect to safety
issues. These include such organisations as the International Maritime
Organisation (IMO), Department of Transport (DOT) and the Mer-
chant Navy Training Board (MNTB), to name but a few. NUMAST
is committed to the furtherance and enhancement of its members'
professional interests.
Ocean leveller This is a proprietary ride-control system designed
for high speed ships, especially those carrying passengers. The system
consists of fin-shaped stabilisers fitted at the bow section oHhe ship
and flaps located at the stern. The movement of the fins and flaps is
controlled by computer and as well as increasing passenger comfort
185
Ocean leveller
occurred off the Alaskan coast in March 1989 and led to massive
oil pollution. The main effect of OPA90 was the introduction of a
requirement that any new oil tankers intending to trade to the United
States must have double hulls and the imposition of a time limit for
single hull tankers which wish to trade there. Another requirement
included in OPA90 is that all ships must have a vessel response plan
(VRP). Other OPA90 requirements concern financial liability and the
engagement of an approved oil spill removal organisation (OSRO)
while trading in US waters.
Oil Pollution Preparedness Response and Co-operation Treaty
(OPRC) The OPRC treaty was established by the International Mari-
time Organisation (IMO) following an international conference held
in November 1990. Its main purpose was to make signatories of the
Marine Pollution (MARPOL) Convention aware of their need to estab-
lish means for speedy and effective measures which have to be taken
after a major oil spill has occurred. International co-operation and
mutual assistance by member states are priority functions of OPRC
which are now in force. It was decided that shipboard oil spill removal
equipment was not to be insisted upon, and the main duty of ships'
staff was to alert the appropriate authorities immediately a danger of
oil pollution was recognised. Under the OPRC treaty every oil tanker
of 150 GT and over and every other ship of 400 GT and over must be
in possession of an Oil Pollution Emergency Plan (OPEP).
Oil record book Under regulation 20 of the International Maritime
Organisation (IMO) as included in Annex I of the Marine Pollution
(MARPOL) Convention every tanker of 150 GT and over and every
other ship of 400 GT and over must be in possession of an oil record
book. The form that this document must take is set out in the MARPOL
Convention and it must be completed whenever any operations likely
to involve accidental discharge of oil into the sea are carried out. These
include cargo, ballast and tank cleaning operations aboard oil tankers
and bilge pumping operations aboard all ships to which regulation 20
applies. The oil record book must be kept in a safe place and be
available for inspection by the relevant authorities at all times.
Oil Spill Response Ltd (OSRL) OSRL is a non-profit-making organ-
isation located in the United Kingdom which operates the Oil Spill
Service Centre (OSSC) also located in the United Kingdom. OSSC has
a large stockpile of the latest oil spill clean up equipment and a team
of experts available on a 24-hour basis with worldwide coverage
offered. It is registered with the US based Oil Spill Removal Associ-
188
Open registers
facilities. The main objection to the OBO and other combination car-
riers is seen by many as the labour intensive cleaning activity when
changing from dry to liquid cargoes and vice versa.
Otto Hahn The Otto Hahn, a nuclear propelled merchant ship named
in honour of the German physicist, was built at Kiel, Germany, in the
mid 1960s. Like the Savannah, the Otto Hahn did not prove to be
commercially sound or set a trend nor did it advance the prospects of
nuclear propulsion for merchant ships, and very little research is
currently being undertaken in this field.
Overflow pipes All fuel oil tanks which can be pumped up must be
provided with an overflow pipe led to a separate overflow tank or to
a storage tank with a permanently reserved space capable of accepting
an overflow. The overflow pipe must be provided with a sight glass
or overflow alarm to indicate that the tank is overflowing. The over-
flow tank must also be provided with a high level alarm so that it is
nowadays unlikely that a serious overflow will occur when oil tanks
are being pumped up.
Ozone depletive substances Ozone depletive substances are alleg-
edly responsible for the thinning of the ozone level in the stratosphere
above Antarctica. The main source of the ozone depletion is due
mainly to the release of chlorine, both natural and man-made, into the
atmosphere where it eventually will find its way into the stratosphere.
In marine applications this chlorine is present in refrigerants of the
freon type and fire extinguishing mediums such as halon. Under
the terms of the Montreal Protocol (which see) all ozone depletive
substances will eventually be banned. See also CFCs and Halon.
Paint Paint systems used in marine applications have improved
considerably in recent years and have also become less labour inten-
sive both to apply and to maintain. Most shipyards shot blast and
apply a coat of holding primer to all steel when it is delivered from
the steelworks. This primer protects the steel during its sometimes
lengthy storage periods prior to fabrication. Zinc or zinc silicate is
becoming popular as a primer but health standards generally limit
the zinc content. Ballast tank paint systems perform an extremely
important duty and high build tat free epoxy paint having a light
colour to help locate any breakdown is currently popular. Underwater
paint systems suffered a blow when Tributyltin (TBT)was banned for
ecological reasons and the search for an alternative anti-fouling paint
continues. Each part of a ship has its own particular paint requirements
and the number of available formulations can easily cater for their
needs.
Panamax A ship is referred to as being of Panamax size when its
limiting dimensions permit it to pass through the Panama canal. It is
usually based on the beam restriction of closely 32.2 metres although
other restrictions regarding -length and draught also apply but are
only infrequently mentioned. Panamax bulk carriers are in the 65,000
tonnes deadweight region and Panamax container ships have twenty
feet equivalent (TEU) capacities of around 3,500.
Panting Panting is the action of a ship's side shell fore end and bow
192
Passageways
at the side shell with the upper deck forming the deckhead and the
cargo hold the inboard bulkhead. Passageways can also be used to
locate various essential services for example the firemain, electric
cables and hydraulic pipes to keep these from the exposed upper deck.
Passenger details Mainly as a result of confusion following several
serious accidents to ro-ro passenger ferries it will shortly become a
requirement under Safety of Life at Sea (SOLAS) regulations for all
such vessels to record the total number and details of all passengers
prior to the ship's departure. These details will include the names and
genders of all passengers and classify them into adult, child or infant,
and state whether they suffer from any disability. These details will
be recorded onboard and also be held ashore and used in any search
and rescue operation. If this requirement is deemed to be impractical
by the flag state administration due to the exigencies of the service
then it may be waived.
Passenger ships So-called passenger ships are now enjoying a new
lease of life in the guise of cruise liners which cater for the seemingly
unending demand in this sector of the recreation industry. The tra-
ditional passenger ship carrying customers from port A to port B is
now almost exclusively dominated by the short sea ro-ro passenger
car ferry operating in such areas as the English Channel, the long
distance passenger having departed to the airlines many years ago.
Most passenger ships now operate in the cruise sector carrying pass-
engers from port A back to port A after calling at selected ports in a
carefully arranged itinerary.
Pentane insolubles Pentane is a solvent derived from the distillation
of light petroleum products and it is used for testing lubricating oil
taken from a diesel engine's system. In this so-called pentane insoluble
test a sample of used lubricating oil is washed under laboratory con-
ditions in pentane which dissolves most of the solid matter. The
amount of solid matter a detergency lubricating oil can tolerate is a
measure of its suitability for continued use, and the pentane insoluble
test gives such an indication.
Permeability Permeability is defined as the ratio of the volume of a
space aboard ship that could be occupied by water compared with the
total volume of that space. The permeability of spaces is an important
factor when calculating the damage stability and sub-division of each
ship type. In the case of cargo spaces the permeability depends on
whether or not the cargo is in liquid form or, if it is dry cargo, then its
density. The permeability of machinery spaces is generally assumed
194
Ph value
Power takeoff (PTO) Power take offs are usually provided on pro-
pulsion diesel engines as a means of supplying auxiliary power,
usually but not always as a source of electricity. A typical PTO will
consist of an alternator driven by gearing from the main propulsion
engine crankshaft or in some cases from the intermediate shafting.
There are certain advantages in using a PTO, the first being a reduction
in maintenance costs for the diesel generators which are only
infrequently used, for example when in port. The second advantage
is that auxiliary power is obtained using poor quality fuel as used by
the main engine. The down side is that the speed of the ship is reduced
in proportion to the power absorbed by the PTO.
industries which have a high level of risk involving safety and accident
exposure to equipment and personnel. The QRA system involves
closely examining every operation which takes place and determining
the degree of risk by assessing all eventualities ranging from system
or equipment failure to human error. The QRA system has not yet
been extended into the shipping sector, but the introduction of formal
safety assessment (which see) could possibly serve as a basis sometime
in the future.
Quantity audit In the marine industry a quantity audit scheme has
been used to determine the amount of fuel oil delivered to a ship as
bunkers and then comparing the result with the supplier's delivery
or receipt note. It involves engaging a surveyor carefully to check the
bunker tank soundings before and after the fuel has been delivered.
Bunkers are sold by weight, but tank soundings give only volumetric
readings and it is necessary to convert volume to weight. This requires
an accurate hydrometer and thermometer, and armed with these the
surveyor can make the necessary calculations and then make a com-
parison with the supplier's figures.
Queen Elizabeth II (QE2) QE2 is the prestigious UK passenger ship
built in 1969originally with steam turbine propulsion but subsequently
converted to diesel electric propulsion in a $100 million refit which took
place in a German shipyard, arguably the most expensive refit on a
commercial ship ever. QE2 often hits the headlines for all the wrong
reasons, and in one particular incident her owners were sued for
around $7 million after an alleged incomplete refit spoilt their trip.
More recently QE2 struck an alleged uncharted object off the US coast
causing considerable damage to the bottom shell, and her insurers are
suing the hydrographic department involved for the repair of the
damage.
Racking Racking is the term used to describe the transverse dis-
tortion a ship's structure suffers when rolling in a heavy seaway. The
usually rectangular midship section of the ship then has a tendency
to assume a parallelogram shape which is restrained by ensuring that
the transverse structural strength is adequate. Structural damage due
to racking, usually referred to as racking damage, affects those parts
of the structure provided to enhance transverse strength and this
would manifest itself in buckled or crimped transverse bulkheads as
a typical example.
Radar Radar is an acronym for radio direction and range and it was
first satisfactorily developed during the Second World War (1939-
209
Radar
members and walkie talkie radios are usually provided to avoid any
such problem arising. The ballast tanks of modem double hull tankers
are usually provided with fixed platforms so that surveyors can
examine the upper regions without recourse to a raft.
Raking Raking is the term used to describe the bottom damage
suffered by a ship when it strikes an underwater object such as a
submerged rock at speed. Raking damage can cause severe stability
problems because the sub-division is comprised by flooding between
two or more watertight compartments. It is this type of damage that
allegedly caused the Titanic to sink after it struck an iceberg in 1912.
Modem ships have to survive bottom raking damage of around 60
per cent of their length between perpendiculars (LBP)depending on
ship type.
Range The range of a ship is usually based on its bunker capacity
and is expressed as being so many miles. For ships having critical
cargo deadweight capacities it is usual to limit their range so that the
maximum weight of cargo can be carried. In the case of large sized
bulkers and tankers the cargo deadweight is not so important when
compared with the bunker capacity, and these vessels tend to have
ranges in the region of 20,000miles. Smaller vessels with cargo dead-
weight limitations tend to have a range much less than this, but the
availability of bunkering ports and fuel cost differentials must always
receive due consideration when considering bunker capacity.
Rapid evacuation system (RES) The rapid evacuation system con-
sists of an inflatable tubular chute, which can be provided with flame
retardant cover, into which those persons being evacuated from the
emergency stations aboard ship can descend onto an inflatable plat-
form. The inflatable liferafts associated with the RES system can be
positioned alongside the platform enabling the occupants to board
easily. The system is aimed for use primarily with passenger ships and
is considered to be faster than conventional davit launched lifeboats
and they are eminently suited for use on High Sea-service Speed (HSS)
ships where weight is a problem.
Reagglomeration Reagglomeration is the ability of a residual type
of fuel oil to reform into a sludge after it had previously been treated
by purification or even pulverisation techniques. Reagglomeration is
a time based process, and providing the fuel is used immediately after
first being treated then no problems should occur. It is only when the
treated fuel oil is stored for a period that reagglomeration can occur.
A test method referred to as the total sediment-aged test has been
211
Reagglomeration
tainer via a system of ducts passing through the container hold spaces
with suitable connections arranged for each container.
calculated from the area of the ship in profile and varies between 1.5-
1.7 per cent of this figure. The ratio of depth to width of a rudder is
also an important indication of its effectiveness, and this is in the
region of 2 to 1. Most rudders are now of double plate construction
with internal webs and arms supporting the plating. The scantlings of
the various components supporting the rudder such as stocks, pintles
and coupling bolts are given in classification rules and are a function
of ship's speed, rudder area and the lateral forces. When operating in
ice conditions the thickness of the rudder plating and the scantlings
of the supporting components have to be increased and an ice knife
provided to protect the rudder while a ship is backing into ice.
Rulefinder Rulefinder is a CD (compact disc) ROM (read only
memory) computer system introduced by Lloyd's Register of Shipping
(LRS) and gives those who subscribe to the system and have the
necessary computer hardware easy access to all the numerous classi-
fication rules and regulations. Also included on the disc are the various
codes issued by the International Maritime Organisation (IMO) and
many other items of a technical nature of use to shipowners, ship-
builders and other interested parties. Other classification societies also
have similar computer systems for accessing their rules and regu-
lations.
Rules of the road These are the navigational rules covered in the
collision regulations (which see) and include around 30 internationally
agreed rules covering the conduct of ships in open sea and inshore
movements. The rules cover operations in good visibility, fog and in
the hours of darkness. They also cover sailing procedures for ships
approaching each other or in close proximity and define which ship
has the right of way in these situations. Display of lights and fog
signals is also included in these very comprehensive instructions.
Running costs Most shipowners or their managers analyse the
running costs of the ships under their control into various categories
and then express these in terms of daily rates, usually as so many US
dollars per day to match the currency of the charter rates. Manning
costs are usually the single highest cost factor if we exclude capital
finance and fuel costs, which are usually dealt with separately. Also
included are maintenance and repair, spare gear and supplies, lub-
ricating oil, insurance and miscellaneous items, for example agency
fees and radio traffic. Each owner I manager will have his own system
of breaking down these costs depending on his inhouse accounting
system but they all share the common object of controlling costs.
221
SAFEHULL 96
IMO came into being in 1958, the SOLAS Convention has been
developed and extended, and now covers all aspects of marine safety
and is constantly updated and amended to meet challenges arising
from serious marine accidents. The SOLAS Convention is the responsi-
bility of the Marine Safety Committee (which see) at IMO and there are
presently 11 sub-committees dealing with all the varied aspeCts of
marine safety. The stability of ships is one of the main concerns of
SOLAS and this is currently under review with respect to bulk carriers
and ro-ro ferries.
Sailing ships Until the mid-19th century all ships were driven by
wind power captured by the use of sails, and it was only when first
steam, then diesel, power became popular that sailing ships dis-
appeared from the commercial scene. In recent years sail assisted ships
have reappeared, mainly as an energy conservation measure, but they
have not proved to be popular and only a handful were built. It would
appear unlikely that they would ever become a serious threat to a
modem diesel engine propelled ship even in a sail assist role. A small
number of sail rigged passenger ships were also built in recent years
which relied on sail power as their main propulsion needs but this
was only to capture the interest of those passengers with a romantic
view of this form of travel.
the geared bulker the equipment is not suitable for loading bulk
cargoes.
Self-polishing copolymer (SPC) SPC is a specially formulated anti-
fouling paint system applied to the underwater surfaces of a ship's
hull in order to discourage the attachment of marine growth in the
form of weed or crustaceans. SPC has the property of being slowly
abraded away by the action of the ship passing through the seawater,
and this exposes fresh toxins dispersed throughout its formulation.
As well as its anti-fouling properties SPC also presents a progressively
smoother interface between the hull and seawater, and this allegedly
improves the hydrodynamic performance of a ship. Toxicity levels of
underwater paints are subject to control in many parts of the world
and they will shortly be controlled by the International Maritime
Organisation (IMO). (See also Ablative paint.)
Self-tensioning winches Self-tensioning winches are provided on
the upper deck of a ship and were primarily developed as a labour
saving device when such activities first became popular three decades
or so ago. They work by the provision of a limiting device which
maintains the tension in the mooring wire or rope at a preset level.
This then allows the wire or rope to heave or payout without the
intervention of a crew member previously needed, especially when a
ship was moored in a port or harbour with large tidal fluctuations. In
certain circumstances the provision of self-tensioning winches can
cause a ship to walk along the quay unless preventive measures are
taken in the form of additional back springs, for example.
Semi-planing monohull (SPMH) The SPMH is only one of several
of the emergent breed of High Sea-service Speed (HSS) ships now
entering service. The SPMH is apparently not as popular as the twin
hull designs, but it does have its supporters. At speed the hull partially
lifts out of the water, thereby reducing the wetted area and with it
the frictional resistance. This leads to an improved hydrodynamic
performance and therefore much less propulsive power is required
than that needed on an equivalent sized conventional ship with what
might be called full immersion of the hull.
Sensitivity calculations These are resorted to when it is necessary
to judge the merit of a financial outlay. The financial outlay could
either be a labour saving or energy conservation measure to quote two
typical examples of making financial savings over a period of time.
There are several means of assessing the merits of such a financial
outlay one being the net present value (which see) approach and
231
Sensitivity calculations
all the various plates that make up the side and bottom shell of a ship
and is illustrated in an expanded projection. It is used primarily both
to identify and record any structural damage that the ship may suffer
to the shell or bottom as a result of a grounding, collision or by contact
with a quay. Shell plate thicknesses and the position and scantlings of
all supporting members are all clearly indicated, so that a repair
contractor and the underwriter's surveyor can quickly arrive at an
estimated cost of carrying out a repair.
Shifting boards Were used aboard general cargo tweendeckers
when they were used to transport cargoes likely to shift in heavy
weather, for example grain and phosphate. They were used on a
temporary basis, made from timber and when not in use, for example
on a ballast voyage, could be stowed in the tweendecks. Prior to
loading cargo a team of carpenters and riggers would erect and secure
the shifting boards on the longitudinal centreline in each lower hold
and another team would dismantle them after discharge of cargo.
The advent of the modern bulk carrier with its self-trimming hold
configuration has dispensed with the need for shifting boards.
Shipboard oil pollution emergency plan (SOPEP) SOPEP is an
International Maritime Organisation (IMO) requirement under regu-
lation 26 of Annex I to the Marine Pollution (MARPOL) Convention.
This regulation is now in force for both new and existing ships and
applies to tankers of 150gross tonnes and above and to all other ships
of 400 gross tonnes and above. The plan includes the procedures to be
followed in the event of an oil pollution incident and it also includes
a description of the action to be taken and various other items, mainly
of a procedural nature.
Shipbuilding Machinery and Marine Technology Exhibition
(SMM) This is almost certainly the world's largest exhibition
devoted to marine technology and its numerous sub-disciplines. It is
held at Hamburg, Germany, during the month of October every two
years, and well over 1,000 exhibitors from dozens of countries attend
to demonstrate their wares, ranging from mighty shipyards and major
engine manufacturers to the makers of the humble toilet. Concurrently
with the SMM exhibition various conferences take place within the
confines of the exhibition centre and its many exhibition halls, usually
on topical themes.
Ship design Ship design nowadays has dramatically changed since
the days when many shipowners produced their own design for ship-
builders to follow. Except possibly for cruise liners and car ferries, this
234
Ship inspection report (SIRE)
type is also included in the statistics and the oldest ship type is the
passenger / general cargo ship with an average age of a remarkable 28
years.
Ship types Ship types have broadly fallen into an acceptable pattern
usually forced on shipowners by the demands of the market place. In
the case of crude oil tankers these can be categorised in ascending
order of size as handy sized, Panamax, Aframax, Suezmax, very large
crude oil carrier (VLCC) and finally ultra large crude oil carrier
(ULCC), although it must be said that ULCCs are not currently
popular. Chemical and clean product tankers are usually in the handy
sized bracket, but many smaller and larger designs are available built
for specific business. Bulk carriers fall into several designated types
ranging from handy sized, Panamax, cape sized to very large bulk
carrier (VLBC).There are variations in both tanker and bulker types,
but the majority fall roughly into the above designations unless built
for a specific trade or charter. Shipyards find that producing different
designs is rather costly, and they prefer to market specific ship types.
Shuttle tanker This is a term used to describe an oil tanker engaged
in a ferry-type operation usually over a regular route but involving
short distances. A so-called mosquito fleet of tankers trading between
Venezuela and Aruba in the 1950s was probably the first example of
this type of operation. More recently shuttle tankers have been opera-
ting in the North Sea between offshore loading terminals and shore
refineries. They can vary greatly in size but 120,000tonnes deadweight
(DWT) seems a popular choice. They are equipped with either single
point mooring or submerged turret loading (both of which see) equip-
ment, and a recent development is the multi-purpose shuttle tanker
which is provided with such equipment as deck cranes and ondeck
storage facilities.
Side chocks Side chocks are used to prevent a main propulsion
engine moving in a lateral direction in the event of a collision or other
such incident, and they also take the strain off the holding down bolts
when a ship is pitching and rolling in heavy weather. They are typically
fabricated in the form of tapered steel blocks hammered into position
along the perimeter of the bed plate and secured with set pins. At
regular intervals or if the ship has been in extremely heavy weather
they are hardened up to compensate for the working of the engine.
More recently they have been made of resin and simply poured into
their allocated space around the perimeter of the engine bed plate.
Side loading cargo systems Side loading cargo systems are used to
237
Side loading cargo systems
economisers are of the expanded surface heat transfer type. This type
of economiser relies on fins or gills attached to the economiser cir-
culating tubes to extract more heat from the exhaust gas. The fins or
gills can also attract soot deposits, especially if gas velocities are low,
if running at iow speed for example. These soot particles can ignite
under certain circumstances, particularly when the main engine has
been shut down and water circulation through the economiser prema-
turely Curtailed, thus preventing the dissipation of residual heat in the
soot particles and the risk of fire.
Spare parts Most classification societies include a recommended list
of spare parts they suggest be carried aboard ship for the main engine
and other essential machinery. The philosophy relating to the number
of spare parts carried is that the ship should be able to make a port of
refuge in the event of most foreseeable component failures. Bearings,
cylinder liners, pistons and valves are included in the rec-
ommendations as are essential items such as packings, tools and equip-
ment. Spare parts for main propulsion machinery and auxiliary
machinery for essential purposes are included in the recommended
lists and ships operating on a restricted service have less onerous
recommendations than those with unrestricted service.
Special sea areas The International Maritime Organisation (IMO)
under the International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution
from Ships (MARPOL) designated certain sea areas being particularly
vulnerable in the event of pollution arising from oil, garbage and
chemicals. These are referred to as special sea areas and include the
Baltic, Black, Red and Mediterranean Seas. In these areas it is com-
pletely prohibited to pump any oil or chemicals into the sea or to
dispose of garbage overboard.
Special service craft (SSC) Special service craft in this instance is a
Lloyd's Register of Shipping (LRS) definition covering high speed
craft, light displacement craft, yachts greater than 24 metres in length
and service craft not covered elsewhere in its rules and regulations.
SSC rules and regulations relate to ships constructed in steel, alu-
minium alloys, composites and other materials. Ship types included
comprise catamarans, air cushion vehicles, foil assisted craft and many
other of the emerging breed of novel ships. Safety of Life at Sea
(SOLAS) regulations relating to high speed craft (HSC) are also
addressed.
Special surveys These are classification surveys which take place
at five-year intervals when all parts of the ship are examined by
242
Spot test
Electric steering then arrived on the scene, and this was either of the
Ward Leonard type (which see) or the electric hydraulic type. Most
steering gears now in use are of the electric hydraulic type which is
divided into either ram or rotary vane types. The former can either be
two or four ram types connected to the tiller by means of crossheads.
The rotary vane steering gear is directly connected to the rudder stock
and does not require a tiller. The rules for steering gear, especially
tankers, were updated by the International Maritime Organisation
(IMO) following the Amoco Cadiz incident in March 1978 and now
incorporate various redundancy factors, as well as other operational
features aimed at avoiding a complete loss of steering as occurred on
the Amoco Cadiz.
Steering flat This is the deck which houses the ship's steering gear
and is situated beneath the upper deck at the aft end of a ship. On
many ships the steering flat forms the crown (top) of the aft peak
tank (which see). This part of a ship is exposed to vibrational forces
emanating from the propeller located directly underneath, especially
if there is insufficient clearance between propeller tips and the hull.
The steering flat is strengthened against vibrational forces and also to
absorb the forces transmitted by the steering gear. A trunk is usually
provided between the steering flat and the open sea in which the
rudder stock is located.
Stem The stem of a ship is the foremost part of the shell where it
terminates. Stems can be constructed either in steel bar or plate form
or as a combination of both methods. Bar construction is usually
confined to that part of the stem below the load waterline and can be
either by way of steel castings or forgings. Fabricated plate stems are
nowadays more commonly used and their scantlings, together with
that of their supporting structure, is given in classification rules. The
plating is of increased thickness and must be supported with hori-
zontal diaphragm and breast hooks as befitting their vulnerable pos-
ition if involved in a collision.
Step In this context STEP is an International Standard Organisation
(ISO)standard devised to cover a wide range of engineering industries
which enables participating members to share technical information
via digital data exchange applications. One of the participating com-
panies in the STEPproject is Lloyd's Register of Shipping (LRS)which
uses STEP to exchange ships' plans and drawings with considerable
savings in the time taken compared with conventional means and at
much reduced cost. STEP is officially known as ISO 10303 and data
247
Step
Stulken derrick One of the first departures from the previously used
union purchase (which see) derrick system of handling cargo on dry
cargo ships was the German designed Stulken derrick. Primarily
developed for use with extremely heavy loads the Stulken derrick was
rather easily identified by its outwardly inclined, rather than vertical,
derrick posts of extremely heavy section. Stulken derricks are of the
so-called swinging type which permit accurate placement of the cargo
on ship or quayside and loads of up to 200 tonnes can easily be
accommodated.
Subdivision The sinking of the Titanic way back in 1912 first drew
attention to the need to subdivide a ship into watertight compartments
in order for it to survive such an accident. The International Maritime
Organisation (lMO) through the Safety of Life at Sea (SOLAS) Con-
vention, controls the subdivision of ships by designating the number
of flooded compartments a ship can survive. The subdivision of ro-ro
ferr~es and bulk carriers is presently under review by IMO in view of
recent calamities involving these ships.
extremely fine surface finish of perhaps six micro inches (six millionths
of an inch).
Surging In this context surging is a phenomenon experienced by
exhaust gas turbochargers which is usually identified by a loud cough-
ing-type noise emanating from the turbocharger air intake. It is usually
caused either by dirty deposits on the turbine blades, air impellers or
restrictions in the air filters or air intercoolers. It goes without saying
that the inherent stability of the turbocharger must be satisfactory as
demonstrated at the shop trial. Thermal overloading of the propulsion
engine can also lead to air starvation and the onset of surging.
Swim ends These are the simple bow and stern designs used for
craft not engaged in deep sea operations. They consist of an angled
shape which extends across the full width of the craft and have very
limited wave-piercing and seakeeping qualities. They are generally
employed on vessels engaged in inshore duties for example barges,
pontoons and other such craft.
Swinging derricks Swinging derricks are used to load and discharge
cargo and represent an intermediate or transitional stage between the
archetypal fixed derricks used in a union purchase (which see) mode
and the deck crane. The swinging derrick is seen as an improvement
over the union purchase method, in that only one derrick is needed
per cargo hold instead of two. As well as swinging, a topping or luffing
function is also incorporated so that all parts of the hold or quayside
are capable of being quickly spotted to a high degree of accuracy.
Many types of swinging derrick have been manufactured, for example
Stulken, VelIeand Thompson, to name but a few.
Switchboard A ship's main switchboard contains numerous items
of electrical equipment and is the nerve centre of the electrical supply
and distribution network. On a modern ship the switchboard is
usually located within the Machinery Control Room (which see).
Switchboards are usually self-supporting sheet steel structures with a
dead front so that no electrical connections are exposed. Circuit break-
ers for each alternator and each important feeder circuit are provided,
as are various ammeters, voltmeters and wattmeters. An emergency
switchboard is also required and this is usually located adjacent to
the emergency alternator (which see). It is usual to arrange a shore
connection so that whilst a ship is in drydock shore power can be
connected to the switchboard.
Syncroconverter A syncroconverter is one of several variable speed
258
Systeme International (SI)
water, ice and water vapour. Candela is the unit of luminous intensity
related to platinum. Finally, Mole is the unit of amount of substance
related to Carbon 12.
Tank cleaning Tank cleaning techniques, especially in the case of
tankers, have improved considerably over the years. Many years ago
it was standard practice to clean the cargo tanks of oil tankers by what
were called Butterworth machines which simply directed jets of hot
seawater over the tank surfaces in what was a time-consuming labour
intensive activity. The Butterworth tank cleaning machines were port-
able, and had to be manhandled from tank to tank and then connected
to portable flexible hoses. Cleaning oil with salt water was barely
effective and the whole operation most inefficient. By contrast, modern
tank cleahing techniques using crude oil washing (which see) tech-
niques are extremely effective and much less labour intensive.
Tank coatings Tank coatings are applied to protect the steel surfaces
of the tanks from corrosive or other forms of attack occasioned either
by the cargo being carried or from ballast water. Cargo tank coatings
must be chosen carefully having regard to the portfolio of possible
cargoes carried by oil product and chemical tankers. It is not possible
to apply one particular coating that will satisfactorily protect the steel-
work from all the many cargoes currently offered, and some sort of
compromise must be made. Ballast tank coatings only have to deal
with one identifiable attack mechanism in the form of seawater, but
even so there are many formulations available. Currently fashionable
coatings for cargo tanks include polyamine epoxies, polyamide
epoxies, epoxy phenolic and zinc silicate.
Tank drainage All double-bottom tanks must be provided with
adequate means to allow free passage of air and water from all parts
of the tanks to the air pipes and pump suctions. This is accomplished
by arranging sufficient air holes at the top and drain holes at the
bottom of all non-watertight structural members forming components
of these tanks. The combined area of these holes must exceed the
capacity of the filling and pumping arrangements.
Tankers The first purpose-built oil tankers which used the hull
envelope as the tank boundary were built in the United Kingdom
around 1886. Prior to this date most oil was transported aboard con-
ventional ships in barrels or casks but the rapid growth in oil con-
sumption made this impracticaL Early purpose-built tankers were
built with transverse shell framing in similar fashion to dry cargo
ships built at the time. In the early part of the 20th century longitudinal
260
Tank level gauging
the case of used lubricating oils. Fuel oil test kits usually incorporate
means for testing density, viscosity, water content, compatibility and
carbon residue and can give a reasonable indication of the fuel oil's
suitability. Test kits for use on used lubricating oils tend to be much
simpler and concentrate on the viscosity, water and insoluble content,
also the acidity of the sample.
Thermal efficiency The thermal efficiency of a heat engine could
quite simply be described as its ability to convert the heat contained
in the fuel into mechanical work. The mechanical equivalent of heat
was defined by Joule and it was he who illustrated that heat and work
are mutually convertible. So that, knowing what this conversion factor
is, it becomes a rather straightforward task to convert the heat value
in the fuel into mechanical work, and when comparing this with the
mechanical work actually produced by the heat engine we can arrive
at the thermal efficiency. '{he thermal efficiency of a modem steam
turbine is around 32 per cent and that of a modem two-stroke marine
diesel engine around 52 per cent.
Thermal oil systems Thermal oil heating systems have been
employed aboard several ships as an alternative to the more com-
monly used steam heating systems. In a thermal oil system the cir-
culating medium is oil, which is usually heated in an oil fired coil type
boiler and circulated around the consumers by means of a pump.
Several advantages over the traditional steam heating systems are
claimed, for example higher temperatures at corresponding lower
pressures to steam can be employed and thinner tubes or coils used
in the pipe systems and heat exchangers. The need for a condenser or
drains cooler is also eliminated. It must be said that thermal oil systems
are currently not as popular as steam heating systems.
Thermal overload Thermal overload on a marine diesel engine
occurs when the heat load cannot be satisfactorily removed by the
jacket or piston cooling system usually due to the introduction of a
mechanical overload. This can occur if the underwater hull is heavily
fouled or if the propeller has suffered mechanical damage. If insuf-
ficient combustion air is being supplied to the engine due to a fouled
turbocharger or air cooler, or if the quality of the fuel oil is poor,
then thermal overload can also occur. It manifests itself by fractured
cylinder liners or piston crowns in severe cases.
Thermodynamics The study of thermodynamics is concerned with
the relationship between heat, work and the properties of those sub-
stances used in the thermodynamic process, for example steam and
264
Threshold limit value (TLV)
air. There are two basic laws of thermodynamics, the first being that
heat and work are mutually convertible as postulated by Joule and
used to calculate the thermal efficiency (which see) of a heat engine.
The second law of thermodynamics states in simple terms that heat
cannot flow from a cold to a hot body and it must always be the
reverse. This second law inhibits the amount of ingenuity available to
increase the thermal efficiency of a heat engine, and it would appear
unlikely that further significant improvements can ever be made under
its constraints.
Thermo-mechanical controlled processing (TMCP) TMCP is a
method employed by Japanese steelmakers to manufacture high
tensile steel (HTS) as used in shipbuilding, and it differs from what
might be called conventional HTS. The carbon equivalent content of
TMCP high tensile steel is below 0.36 per cent, whereas the carbon
equivalent content of conventional high tensile shipbuilding steel is
between 0.39 and 0.43 per cent which contributes to giving TCMP
high tensile steel an increased toughness. The use of TMCP high
tensile steel is a comparatively recent development and problems have
allegedly been reported in service. These concern premature fractures
in the heat affected zone (HAZ) of welds connecting TMCP sections.
Thickness measurement This relates to the determination of plate
thicknesses in order to comply with the requirements of classification
societies during a ship's special survey. In the case of Lloyd's Register
of Shipping (LRS) and other classification societies the thickness
measurements are nowadays taken with ultrasonic test equipment,
usually by a specialised firm approved by the relevant society. Thick-
ness measurements vary in content and scope depending on the age
and type of ship involved, with tankers and combination carriers
having more onerous requirements than other ship types of similar
age. Prior to the acceptance of ultrasonic devices thickness deter-
mination was by a drill test whereby holes were drilled in the plates
under test.
Threshold limit value (TLV) The TLV is a reference used to deter-
mine the exposure levels capable of being tolerated by human beings
under controlled conditions. It is usually expressed as the con-
centration of a substance in air measured in parts per million (ppm),
or in milligrams per centimetre cubed, which must not be exceeded if
an eight-hour exposure over lengthy periods is experienced by the
persons involved. In the shipping industry TLVis used aboard chemi-
cal tankers which often carry substances posing dangers to ships'
265
Threshold limit value (TLV)
hull structure to which they are attached, as for example when working
cargo.
Topping winch In a traditional cargo handling derrick system
working in the union purchase mode (which see) a topping winch is
used to secure the position of the derricks relative to cargo hold or
quayside. The topping winch is permanently connected to the wire
(topping lift) itself attached to the derrick, and each time the derrick
is raised or lowered the topping winch is used, usually driven by a
wire attached to the cargo winch drum end. In a modem cargo system
the topping winch can be incorporated into the derrick slewing oper-
ation, and both these functions are power operated giving full control
of derrick movement with instantaneous response at all times.
Torsional vibration Torsional vibration is a phenomenon caused by
the oscillating forces acting on the crankshaft of an internal combustion
engine by the reciprocating masses. The stresses so induced can lead
to operational problems and the crankshafts of all marine diesel
engines are subject to torsional vibration calculations by the classi-
fication society involved, and in some cases these are verified by
taking torsiograph readings during sea trials. If the stresses induced
by torsional vibration exceed classification society limits a barred
speed range will be imposed restricting continuous operation of the
engine through the range of revolutions so effected. In severe cases it
has been found that the provision of a torsional vibration damper or
detuner will reduce torsional stresses to an acceptable level.
Torsion box girder Most container ships of modem design are con-
structed with what are called torsion box girders. Because of the
comparatively low level of structural steelwork members within the
container hold spaces to enhance carrying capacity torsion box girders
are provided at port and starboard sides of the hold space at freeboard
deck level. These box girders are integral with the hull and are typically
of rectangular cross section and can be used as access passageways to
the forward end of the ship if considered necessary. Their main
purpose is however to enhance the structural strength somewhat
depleted on these ships by having large hatch openings and wide
cargo holds.
Torsionmeters Torsionmeters are used to measure the power being
transmitted in the shafting, usually of a propulsion engine. They work
by measuring the angle of twist in the shaft which is directly pro-
portional to the power. The angle of twist is first converted to torque,
and when multiplied by the revolutions the transmitted power either
269
Torsionmeters
the sediment present, and if the samples are then washed in toluene
any asphaltenes present will be dissolved, leaving only comparatively
harmless inorganic sediment. More complicated total sediment tests
are now used to indicate whether asphaltenes present in the fuel have
the capability to precipitate out during prolonged storage aboard
or during treatment. Both of these undesirable features can lead to
operational problems.
Tovalop Tovalop is a voluntary scheme entered into by tanker
owners to provide them with cover in the event of liability if an
accident involving oil pollution were to occur. Tovalop is only one of
several schemes available to shipowners to protect their interests in
the event of oil pollution, and it is specifically aimed at meeting clean
up costs involved by a governmental department of the country whose
coastline or beaches are fouled. Tovalop does not cover oil pollution
from oil cargoes and only covers that resulting from oil being carried
as bunkers.
Traffic separation schemes (TSS) There are various traffic sep-
aration schemes in existence, usually in congested or restricted
stretches of water, posing a high risk of collision between passing
ships. Most of these schemes embody a central prohibited area which
can only be entered under carefully controlled regulations or in
extreme emergency. Typical high density areas in which TSS are
employed include the English Channel and the Straits of Istanbul, and
adjoining areas. The International Maritime Organisation (IMO) is
the authority controlling TSSs which formulates the various control
features necessary to ensure that safe navigational practices are avail-
able for all expected conditions.
Tramp Ship The tramp ship was a term applied to the numerous
ships employed in non-liner shipping activities and was typically a
10,000 tonne deadweight tween-decker provided with five holds/
hatches and a set of derricks. A whole range of cargoes could be
carried, although not as successfully as a purpose-built bulk carrier
which has largely replaced the tramp ship, and the term nowadays is
hardly ever used.
Transtainers Transtainers are a form of wheeled crane used to move
freight containers around a container terminal to and from their
stowed position in a row of containers to either a vehicle called a
straddle carrier or more recently a computer controlled trolley, and
thence to the portainer (which see) or to the road/rail transport vehicle.
They are designed so that they can readily pass along a high stack of
271
Transtainers
containers to seek out their target and then move it to its intended
position. They can be manufactured with either four, eight or sixteen
rubber tyred wheels or even be provided with wheels suitable for rail
tracks, depending on the arrangements at the container terminal.
Trim Trim is the forward and aft position a ship assumes in the water
on account of the distribution of weight relating to the cargo, ballast
or bunkers. If a ship has equal draughts forward and aft she is on an
even keel and therefore has no trim. Most ships tend to trim by the
stem for performance enhancement reasons and also to promote tank
drainage towards the pump suctions, always placed at the aft end of
a tank. Classification societies and national administrations specify
allowable limits of trim for stability and safety reasons.
routes fewer tugs than barges can be utilised leading to a cost effective
operation both with respect to capital cost and operating expenses.
TCS coupled with a softening in fuel oil costs have made them less
attractive.
T~bulent flow In simple terms water flow can be either uniform or
turbulent depending on its velocity having regard to the operating
conditions. In water pumping systems turbulent flow can be caused
by abrupt changes in piping sections or from using valves and fittings
having irre~larly shaped internal parts, and it is for this reason that
sluice valves are in general use. Water flow into a ship's propeller can
also be turbulent if the aft end geometry is poor. Turbulent flow here
represents a loss of energy and can also result in cavitational erosion
to propeller and rudder nose.
Turning circles The steering capabilities of a ship can be illustrated
with the use of turning circles. These are in graphic form and are
usually taken during acceptance sea trials of a newly built ship. They
are posted adjacent to the helm in the wheelhouse and are particularly
useful to pilots who are generally unfamiliar with all the varying
steering capabilities of the numerous ships they are asked to navigate
in and out of port. The speed of the ship and the diameter of the
turning circle are clearly shown in the graphic illustration.
Turn of bilge This is the radiused part of the bottom shell where it
joins the lower end of the side shell at port and starboard sides of a
ship, and is also known as the bilge radius. It is made this shape to
avoid any abrupt change in section at what is a highly stressed part of
the structure. It is at this part of the hull that the bilge keel (which see)
is attached.
Tween decks This is an abbreviation of between decks, so called
because they were placed between the upper deck and the tank top
which formed the lowermost deck of a ship. It was not uncommon for
large cargo liner type ships built for the carriage of general cargo to
have more than one tween deck, then referred to as the upper and
lower tween decks. This type of ship could then be built as open or
closed shelterdeckers which determined if the upper deck or the tween
deck was designated as the main strength, or freeboard, deck for
classification purposes. The open shelterdeck ship is not now per-
mitted to be built.
Twenty-foot equivalent unit (TEU) TED is the term used to describe
the standard size of container which is nominally 20 feet in length.
The width of the standard container is eight feet, but this is rarely
given when describing the size of containers. The height of containers
275
Twenty-foot equivalent unit (TEU)
can vary between eight feet and nine feet six inches, but whatever
their height they can still be located in the standard 20 by eight feet
cell guide arrangement onboard, albeit fewer of the maximum hei&ht
could be carried. Other lengths of container are in general use, for
example forty-foot equivalent unit (which see), and there are also
several non-standard lengths in use generally restricted to the North
American trade.
Two-cycle engine The two-cycle (stroke) diesel engine now reigns
supreme as the first choice of propulsion for the majority of medium
to large sized dry cargo ships and tankers and is also making inroads
into the smaller size ships. It owes its popularity to its high thermal
efficiency, ease of maintenance, mean time between overhaul (MTBO)
and the fact that it can be used as a direct drive and therefore does not
require a gearbox to reduce propeller revolutions. It is invariably of
crosshead design and has the ability to bum poor quality fuel oil
without the risk of contaminating the lubricating oil system.
Ullage In this connection ullage .refers to the space above the cargo
level in the tanks of oil or chemical tankers and it extends to the
underside of the deck. The ullage space on oil tankers contains highly
explosive gases, and for this reason it is filled with inert gas under the
International Maritime Organisation's (IMO) requirements relating to
the Safety of Life at Sea (SOLAS) Convention. The liquid contents of
tanks aboard oil and chemical tankers are usually determined by their
ullage reading rather than by sounding, as is the case on other ships.
This is probably on account of the comparatively short distance
between liquid level and tank top compared with the lengthy distance
between liquid level and tank bottom, making the measurement of
ullage that much easier.
Ultimate container carrier (UCC) The DCC is a term used to describe
the large post Panamax coverless container ships built in Japan for the
Dutch Nedlloyd group in the early 1990s. The main aim of the DCC
concept was to reduce inport times by virtually eliminating the hand-
ling and stowage of hatch covers. Hatch covers are provided on the
forward two holds so that hazardous cargoes can be carried in the
upperdeck containers. The lack of a horizontal division eliminated by
not having hatch covers on the other five holds enhances cargo plan-
ning and the ondeck cell guides eliminate the need for the numerous
container securing devices previously required.
Ultimate dream passenger ship The ultimate dream passenger ship
concept was the brainchild of Ravi TIkko who attempted to build such
276
Ultraviolet sterilisers
Variable injection timing (VIT) VIT has long been employed by the
designers of marine diesel engines in a joint attempt first to enhance
specific fuel consumption at part load, and secondly to improve the
engine's ability to deal with poorer quality fuel. VIT enables the critical
period of fuel injection relative to the position of the piston to be varied
either by mechanical or electronic means while the engine is running.
This allows the maximum combustion pressure (P Max) to be main-
tained at optimum value, a prerequisite in enhancing performance
from both a thermal efficiency and combustion efficiency point of
view.
Vee engines The majority of marine diesel engines are built in an
inline configuration whereby a single row of cylinders is served by a
single crankshaft. In a vee engine two banks of cylinders in a V
configuration drive a single crankshaft with opposing pistons in each
bank usually connected to a common crank throw. Veeengines permit
higher powers to be developed in a given machinery space volume,
and they are popular in small fast ferries and similar craft. They are
occasionally used on larger ships when a 16 cylinder engine is needed
to supply the powering requirements, a cylinder configuration not
feasible with an inline engine, mainly because of length restraints, but
often employed in vee engines.
Very large bulk carrier (VLBC) These ships are generally in the
200,000 to 250,000 tonnes deadweight range and are usually purpose
built for dedicated trades, typically iron ore or coal to Japan. They
have not proved to be commercially popular and uncertainty sur-
rounding the future design of bulk carriers, having regard to their loss
rate when carrying heavy cargoes, will not improve their chances.
Very large crude carriers (VLCC) These tankers are in the 250,000
to 300,000 tonnes deadweight range and they have had a somewhat
chequered career. They were first introduced in the mid-1960s after
the first closure of the Suez Canal prompted a move towards larger
and larger tankers. During the several depressions experienced in the
tanker business over recent years many VLCCs bore the brunt of the
effect by spending sometimes months at anchor in the Gulf awaiting
an upturn in rates. More recently VLCCs in the 300,000 tonnes dead-
weight region, many with double hulls, are being built, probably in
anticipation of the large number of aged single hull tankers being seen
as candidates for breaking up.
Very lights (pronounced veery) These are coloured pyrotechnic
lights fired from a starter-type of pistol. They are used as distress
286
Vibration analysers
purposes when due its periodical survey. Vibration analysers give the
acceptable range of vibration for the unit in question, and they can
give early indication of the onset of possible faults developing, for
example due to a worn bearing. If the results obtained are plotted over
a period on a time elapsed basis a clear picture of the units performance
will emerge.
Vibrorig This is a comparatively recent device used aboard bulk
carriers to dislodge any cargo that may have become lodged between
frames or stiffeners located within the cargo hold spaces. Some steve-
dores use pneumatic jack hammers to dislodge the cargo, and this
extreme course of action has led to physical damage to the hull struc-
ture in several instances. The Vibrorig is a portable device which
vibrates the hull structure adjacent to the lodged cargo without
causing any physical damage and is reportedly effective with even
wet cargoes. By locating the topside tank longitudinal stiffeners inside
the tanks instead of within the cargo hold greatly reduces the amount
of lodged cargo in the holds. If it is intended to carry cargo in the
topside tanks it is probably better to locate these stiffeners in the hold.
Victory ships Victory ships were built in comparatively large
numbers in US shipyards at the end of and immediately after the
Second World War (1939-45). They were built to replace the large
number of merchant ships lost during this war and were of a higher
standard than the Liberty ships (which see). Victory ships were built
with turbine propulsion and were provided with fully automatic wat-
ertube boilers with combustion control and they had a speed of around
16 knots compared with the 10 knots or so of the Liberty ship.
Virtual reality (VR) VR is a computer imaging device giving par-
ticipants a lifelike perception of direct involvement in whatever scen-
ario is being depicted. VR is ideally suited to simulating operating
conditions, for example as used in training techniques for aircraft
flightdeck and ship navigating or machinery control room procedures.
In the future VR is considered to be a suitable candidate for ship
design and production techniques already adopted in the aircraft
industry.
Visbreaker Is an abbreviation for a viscosity breaker, a piece of
equipment used in the oil refining industry. Its basic purpose is to
extract more light ends from the residual fuel oil emanating from
primary refining methods at the refinery. The introduction of vis-
breakers more or less coincided with a deterioration in the quality of
residual fuel oil as supplied for use in marine diesel engines. Vis-
288
Volatile organic compounds (VOC)
The speed of the seawater into the propeller is therefore less than the
speed of the ship over the ground. This difference in speed is known
as the wake fraction and is usually expressed in decimal form, and is
used by propeller designers. In general terms the higher the block
coefficient (which see) of the ship the higher the wake fraction, and it
can be estimated by using the expression: wake fraction = 0.5 block
coefficient minus 0.05.
Wake improvement duct A ship's wake has a somewhat random
chaotic motion which can interfere with the efficient working of the
propeller. In an attempt to improve the situation a wake improvement
duct was developed some time ago which smooths out irregularities
in the motion of the wake. It consists of a fabricated steel structure
made in halves and welded to the stern frame immediately in front of
the propeller. This forms a duct-like shape and it greatly improves the
wake pattern, especially on ships with a poor aft end geometry. Claims
in propulsive efficiency in the order of 6 per cent have been made.
Ward Leonard system Is an electrical system designed to regulate
the speed of motors by varying the voltage. Ward Leonard systems
were used to control such equipment as electric propulsion motors,
steering gear motors and any other electric motors driving equipment
requiring sensitive speed control. They are generally associated with
direct current (DC) systems, and in a modern ship would probably
only be used by converting the conventionally used alternating current
(AC) into DC current as several cruise liners have recently employed
for electric propulsion.
WcirtsiUidiesel Is a diesel engine manufacturer located at Vassa,
Finland, and is well known for its four-stroke (cycle) medium speed
diesel engines, referred to as the Vasa design. Wartsila was at the
forefront of the application of the use of heavy viscosity fuel in its
Vasa engines, which are generally of smaller cylinder bore than their
main rivals. In 1992 Wartsila took over Stork Werkspoor, the Dutch
based engine builder, and other diesel engine manufacturers have
been absorbed into the Wartsila group. More recently Wartsila has
taken over New Sulzer Diesel (which see). The current largest output
engine from the Wartsila stable is around 18,900 Kilowatts (25,300
Horsepower).
Waste disposal Waste disposal from ships is covered by Annex V of
the International Maritime Organisation's (lMO) Marine Pollution
(MARPOL)Convention which entered into force in 1988.The disposal
of waste overboard is now strictly controlled and many ships, for
291
Waste disposal
have superior what are called fire knock down qualities. They require
much smaller water quantities than conventional sprinklers and cause
much less damage to equipment and fittings in the surrounding area
of a fire. In the past many ships which caught fire capsized due to the
amount of water used to fight the fire and water mist systems make
this less likely.
Waterplane area coefficient This is a term used by ship designers to
demonstrate the ratio between a ship's waterplane area and the
product of its length and breadth at the waterline. It represents a
slightly different approach to that of the Block Coefficient (which see)
and invariably has a numerically higher number. For example a ship
with a Block Coefficient of 0.8 would probably have a Waterplane
Area Coefficient of 0.9.
Water sprinklers Water sprinkler fire extinguishing systems have
only recently been made compulsory on passenger ships, even though
their excellent fire extinguishing properties have been well known
both in shore based and shipboard applications for many years.
Sprinkler systems are brought into operation by the bursting of a
temperature sensitive bulb arranged in the sprinkler head located in
all vulnerable areas throughout the ship. This immediately operates
an alarm and automatically starts the sprinkler pump, and because of
this almost instantaneous action quenches the fire before it has a
chance to spread in most instances. In the unlikely event of the fire
spreading then further bulbs in adjacent areas would be automatically
brought into action, thereby containing the risk.
Watertight doors Watertight doors are vertically or horizontally
sliding doors of steel construction and they are used mainly aboard
passenger ships to subdivide working spaces beneath the freeboard
deck to meet damage stability criteria laid down by the Safety of Life
at Sea (SOLAS) Convention. They are needed mainly because quick
access between the working spaces is necessary at sea so that the
essential movement of stores and catering equipment can be carried
out. They are also used to subdivide the machinery spaces on pass-
enger ships with large compartmental facilities. In restricted coastal
waters and during periods of poor visibility the watertight doors
should be in the closed position. The location of local and remote door
operating controls and alarms are included in SOLAS regulations.
Water washing Water washing techniques are used to clean the
turbine blades of turbocharger rotors and nozzles while the machines
are still running, albeit at part-load output. Water is introduced into
293
Water washing
the turbocharger gas inlet casing using compressed air, then drained
at the lower end of the casing, bringing with it the removed carbon
particles. The air impeller side of the turbocharger can also be water
washed using a light detergent, but special precautions have to be
taken to avoid interfering with the cylinder liner lubricating oil film.
Even air coolers attached to the turbochargers can be water washed in
situ, also using a detergent. Water washing the tube banks of watertube
boilers has also been practised for many years.
Wave bending moments The hull of a ship in still water conditions
is subject to bending moments imposed on it by the distribution of
cargo, ballast and other weights, including of course the weight of the
ship itself. The allowable still water bending moments (SWBM) are
regulated by the relevant classification society which approves a
loading manual giving these limits which is issued to each ship. While
at sea especially in rough weather the support of the ship's hull
becomes somewhat unpredictable as a result of wave action, and the
bending moments are not so easily calculated. Classification societies
based on their experience therefore apply factors to convert SWBMs
into wave bending moments taking into account the sea state and
weather conditions expected in the area of operation.
Wave line theory When ships pass through the water they produce
waves due to the reaction of the sea to the motion of the hull. The bow
wave is the obvious example of this, and as the bow forces its way
through the water the bow wave is produced, and emanating from
this is a pattern of waves and troughs travelling along each side of the
ship and joining together at the stern to form the ship's wake. The
study of this phenomenon is embraced in the wave line theory, and
its effect on propulsive resistance was fully investigated by William
Proude in the last century. The relationship between wave and fric-
tional resistance at various ship speeds and with various hull forms
can all be explained using the wave line theory.
Wave piercing catamarans (WPC) Wave piercing catamarans are
only one of many in the emerging breed of High Sea-service Speed
(HSS) ships now entering service in ever increasing numbers. The
WPC owes its name to the unique bow shape of its twin hulls which
are designed to pierce through the waves when the catamaran is at
high speed. Because of their extremely fine lines WPCs have a tend-
ency to pitch in heavy weather and recent designs have incorporated
a central bow to dampen the pitching motion (see also Tricats).
Wave piercing propellers Wave or surface piercing propellers are
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Weather routing
route to be taken and then give regular updates if the original weather
predictions substantially change. The service also includes a post-
voyage analysis showing the difference between the recommended
route and that followed by the ship should this be different. Many
charterers weather route ships they have on charter and they also can
use the service to compare logged weather conditions with those
recorded by the weather routing service if there is a disputed per-
formance claim against the ship.
Web frames These are fabricated steel frames used to support the
side shell and various other parts of a ship. They are much deeper and
of heavier section than standard shell frames (which see) and are used
at increased span distances, probably one web frame for every five
standard shell frames. Web frames are used in vulnerable parts of the
ship subject to heavy loading, for example enginerooms and side cargo
tanks in oil tankers.
Weibull shape factor The Weibull shape factor can be used as a three-
dimensional graphic representation on a flat surface which shows the
relationship between three variables in grid form. In the case of ships'
structures it has been used to illustrate the sensitivity of possible
fatigue damage due to stress using a maximum lifetime load approach
with a 20-year North Atlantic service period as a basis.
Welding Welding is now the only method used to join metal com-
ponent parts of a ship together and it took over from fully and part
riveted construction many years ago. All welding techniques
employed in ship constructioh are approved by the relevant classi-
fication society and closely controlled by it. Most of the numerous
welded seams and connections made during ship construction are
nowadays carried out by automatic welding machines, with human
intervention needed only at start up and stop. Overhead welds are
notoriously difficult to perform in a satisfactory manner and modern
construction techniques using assembly halls more or less eliminate
the need for such welds except for certain block joining seams at the
berth. It is exceedingly rare for a modern welded connection to fail
during the ship's life.
Welding institute The Welding Institute is a UK organisation based
in Cambridge which is at the forefront of research and development
into all the numerous types of welding now in general use. Not only
is electric arc welding included in its activities but also all types of gas
welding, and more recently the properties of Laser welding (which
see).
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Williamson turn
the ship the helm is placed hard over in the port direction for a
specified period of time. It is then placed hard over in the starboard
direction for another specified period. The ship should then return to
the position it was in when the "man overboard" manreuvre was
initiated.
Windlass The windlass is a mechanical device located on the focsle
and is used to recover the anchors from the seabed before a ship
departs from its anchorage. The basic design of the windlass has
barely changed over the years and normally consists of an electric or
hydraulic motor driving a cable lifter so arranged that they engage
snugly with the links forming the anchor cables (chains). In order
rapidly to lower the anchor clutches are provided to disengage the
cable lifters from the drive mechanism. Large brakes are also provided
with a joint function of adjusting the lowering speed and then securing
the anchor cables in their final position. Cable stoppers are also incor-
porated to take the strain in the cables while a ship is riding at anchor
and so ease the strain on the brakes.
Wing in ground effect The wing in ground effect project is a type of
futuristic craft which travels just above the surface of the sea at speeds
more akin to aircraft than to ships. Russian interests have reportedly
built and tested such a craft (see Ekranoplans) but details have not yet
been made available. Other countries are also looking at the wing in
ground effect project but it would appear that some time will elapse
before the concept is approved for the carriage of fare paying pass-
engers in view of its inherent dangers.
Workshop Most ships are nowadays provided with a workshop
which is equipped with an array of machine tools and other equipment
so that the ship's engineers can undertake running repairs. Such items
as a lathe, drilling machine, valve refurbishing machine, and welding
equipment are generally provided. More sophisticated equipment can
also be provided if the ship's engineers have been trained in its use.
World Maritime University (WMU) The World Maritime University
is an International Maritime Organisation (IMO) project located at
Malmo in Sweden and was opened in 1983. Student intake is mainly
from developing countries, which rarely have the high academic facili-
ties provided by the WMD. Most students have already obtained
qualifications leading to appointment of captain or chief engineer in
their own countries. The WMU offers a fellowship course running for
two years and also offers selected candidates an accelerated MSc
course.
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Zinc silicate paint
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