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Impact of use of steel slag as coarse aggregate and wastewater on fresh and
hardened properties of concrete

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DOI: 10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2018.01.030

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 Construction and Building Materials 165 (2018) 126–137

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Construction and Building Materials

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/conbuildmat

Impact of use of steel slag as coarse aggregate and wastewater on fresh

and hardened properties of concrete
Shekhar Saxena ⇑, A.R. Tembhurkar
Civil Engineering Department, Visvesvaraya National Institute of Technology, Nagpur 440010, India

h i g h l i g h t s

 Reuse of steel slag as replacement to natural coarse aggregate in concrete.

 Reuse of domestic wastewater for mixing in concrete.
 Investigation of the impact on fresh and hardened properties of concrete.

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Present research is focused on replacement of ingredients of concrete with recycled material and
Received 19 July 2017 wastewater to compensate the increasing demand of natural resources. Steel slag is an industrial by-
Received in revised form 17 December 2017 product which has a potential of being utilized as a partial replacement to coarse aggregate in concrete.
Accepted 4 January 2018
The present research investigates the impact on fresh and hardened properties of the concrete when the
natural coarse aggregate is replaced in ratios of 15%, 25%, 50%, 75% and 100% with steel slag aggregate and
wastewater is reused during the making of concrete. It is found that 50% replacement of basalt aggregate
Keywords:
with steel slag aggregate indicates improvement in compressive strength, flexural strength and modulus
Concrete
Steel slag
of elasticity of concrete by 33%, 9.8% and 22% at the age of 28 days respectively. SEM analysis, ultrasonic
Wastewater pulse velocity and rapid chloride permeability tests indicate dense microstructure and enhanced durabil-
Strength ity. Therefore, this study shows the possible reuse of steel slag as coarse aggregate and wastewater in
Durability concrete.
Workability Ó 2018 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction
Rapid urbanization has increased the demand for water and
other resources for concreting which are inadequate and depleting.
Use of recycled materials as one of the alternatives is finding a way
to supplement the increasing demand. In the steel making process,
nearly 20% slag is generated by the mass of crude steel [1]. Slag
being an industrial byproduct particularly from steel industry is
usually neglected for reused and recycling and being dumped as
a waste. Thus recycling of steel slag seeks greater attention from
resource utilization and environmental protection point of view.
In previous studies, the strength of concrete was found to be
similar or slightly more than the conventional concrete when steel
slag aggregate was used [2–8]. The properties of recycled aggregate
concrete could be improved when the recycled coarse aggregate
⇑ Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: shekhar.saxena23@gmail.com (S. Saxena), artembhurkar@civ.
vnit.ac.in (A.R. Tembhurkar).
was partially replaced by steel slag coarse aggregate [9]. Grading
of steel slag aggregate is also important, proper grading of slag
aggregate improves the compressive strength of concrete in a bet-
ter way [10].
An alternative to the use of fresh water in concrete is another
element which is searched upon in the field of concrete. Wastew-
ater coming out from Ready Mix Concrete (RMC) plant, industries
and domestic activities has been effectively used in concrete
instead of fresh water. However, some of the studies show con-
cerns about the reduction in strength. Chatveera et al. [11] investi-
gated that increasing the percentage of sludge water from RMC
plants tended to reduce the compressive strength of concrete.
Yan [12] also found the reduction in compressive strength of con-
crete by using de-inking wastewater. The compressive strength of
concrete mixed with wash water from RMC plant was also found to
be higher or not <90% of reference concrete prepared with tap
water as prescribed in ASTM C94 and EN 1008 [13–16]. Kadir
et al. [17] replaced tap water with slurry water from 0% to 50%.
It was found that concrete achieved highest compressive strength

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2018.01.030
0950-0618/Ó 2018 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
 S. Saxena, A.R. Tembhurkar / Construction and Building Materials 165 (2018) 126–137 127

and modulus of elasticity with 20% replacement level. In a study by Table 2

Borger et al. [18], it was found that the strength of concrete was Chemical characteristics of cement.

increased when RMC plant wash water of age of 8 h or less was Characteristics Observed Limiting value
used. Similar results were reported when domestic wastewater value (BIS 269:2015) [21]
was used in concrete mixing and curing. In a study of Mahasneh Ratio of% lime to% of silica, alumina and 0.68 0.66–1.02
[19] compressive strength and split tensile strength decreased by iron oxide
using of wastewater and treated wastewater because the value of Ratio of% of alumina to% of iron oxide 1.30 0.66 (Min)
Insoluble residue (%) 1.04 5 (Max)
Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD), Chemical Oxygen Demand Total Sulphur content as sulphuric 2.5 3.5 (Max)
(COD) and Total Suspended Solids (TSS) is very high and more than anhydride (SO3) (%)
the limits of ASTM C94. However, the characteristics of reclaimed Magnesia (%) 2.36 6 (Max)
wastewater with below as prescribed limits showed no harmful Loss of ignition (%) 3.65 5 (Max)
Chloride content (%) 0.09 0.1 (Max)
effects when used as mixing water in concrete [20].
Alkali content (%) 0.2 0.6 (Max)
Against this backdrop, an attempt is made using domestic
wastewater for mixing with different proportions of steel slag
aggregate and assesses its impact on fresh and hardened properties
2.3. Fine aggregate and superplasticizer
of concrete.

Natural sand was used as fine aggregate. The specific gravity of

2. Materials natural sand was found as 2.65, water absorption was 3.4% and
bulk density of sand in loose condition and rodded condition were
2.1. Cement obtained as 1487 kg/m3 and 1592 kg/m3 respectively. Fineness
modulus of natural sand was found as 2.70. A sulfonated naph-
In the present study, ordinary Portland cement 43 grade con- thalene polymer based super-plasticizing admixture was used in
forming to BIS 269:2015 [21] was used to produce the concrete this study to maintain a slump of 100 ± 10 mm. The superplasti-
during the study. To avoid any non-homogeneity, cement was cizer fulfilled the requirements of BIS 9103:1999 [30]. The pH of
stored in sealed containers. Tests were conducted to determine the superplasticizer was found as 7.4 and it had the average rela-
the properties of cement with tap water as well as with wastewa- tive density, ash content and dry material as 1.24, 11.76% and
ter such as consistency of cement [22], specific gravity [23], Blaine 51.03% respectively.
fineness [24], initial and final setting time [25] and compressive
strength [26] and shown in Table 1. To determine compressive
2.4. Steel slag aggregate and basalt aggregate
strength of cement three cubes of size 70.6  70.6  70.6 mm were
made for each 3, 7 and 28 days and mean value was determined.
Steel slag was collected from Electric Arc Furnace (EAF) of a
Chemical analysis was also performed to find out the chemical
medium scale steel industry, capacity of 360,000 tonnes per
characteristics of cement and tabulated in Table 2.
annum. It is producing mainly carbon steels, alloy steel, free & semi
free cutting steel and stainless steel which is involved in the sec-
2.2. Water ondary stage of production. Steel slag was obtained in the form
of lumps or boulders. They were first broken into small pieces by
Tap Water (TW) and Domestic Wastewater (DW) were used as the help of a hammer and then crushed in a crushing machine
mixing water in concrete. Wastewater was collected from the out- and sieved through to obtain two fractions of coarse aggregate
fall of sewerage system of residential institutional campus, during according to BIS 383:1970 [31]. The first fraction was 20 mm to
day time on a regular basis. Wastewater was provided the prelim- 10 mm and the second fraction was 10 mm to 4.75 mm as shown
inary setting and the supernatant was used immediately for mix- in Fig. 1 and the images of EAF steel slag aggregate are depicted
ing of concrete. It was stirred properly before using in concrete. in Fig. 2. It was noticed that slag aggregates had a very porous sur-
To determine the characteristics of tap water and wastewater, 10 face texture. The porosity of steel slag was enhanced by the pres-
samples were tested as per Standard Methods for the Examination ence of steam and other gases in EAF which resulted in highly
of Water and Wastewater, APHA [27] and average values with their porous aggregate [1]. Basalt aggregate was used as natural coarse
standard deviations are reported in Table 3 and the obtained values aggregate. The particle size distribution curves of basalt aggregate
were also compared to the limits prescribed by BIS 456:2000 [28] and steel slag aggregate of the fractions 20–10 mm and 10–4.75
and BS EN 1008 [29]. Since the presence of organic matter in the mm were compared to each other to minimize the possible effect
wastewater also contributes to the total dissolved solids of the of the change of gradation on the properties of concrete and plot-
wastewater, therefore, it is more than the minimum requirement ted in Fig. 3. The gradation of both natural and steel slag aggregates
of mixing water as per the standard BS EN 1008 [29]. were found to be within the limits of BIS 383:1970 [31]. The chem-
ical compositions of steel slag and basalt aggregate were examined
Table 1 by wavelength dispersive X-ray fluorescence (WD-XRF) spectrom-
Physical properties of cement.
eter model-S8 Tiger Bruker (Germany) and listed in Table 4. The
Properties Observed values BIS 269:2015 value of Fe2O3 was found as 3.75%, the lesser value of iron content
limits [21] in steel slag obtained was due to the secondary stage of production
Specific gravity 3.20 – of steel. The amount of free CaO in steel slag was determined
Blaine fineness (m2/kg) 402 225 (Minimum) according to laboratory testing manual of Ministry of Transporta-
Tap water Wastewater
tion, Ontario (test method LS-622) [32] and it was obtained as
Consistency (%) 30 31.5 –
Initial setting time (minute) 70 95 30 (Minimum) 1.2%. The risk of expansion of EAF slag is negligible when free
Final setting time (minute) 434 480 600 (Maximum) CaO content is <5% [33]. Physical and mechanical properties of
Compressive strength (MPa) steel slag and basalt aggregate were evaluated in accordance with
3 days 26.7 24.2 23 (Minimum) the provisions of BIS 2386 (part I–IV) – 1963 [34] and reported in
7 days 33.8 30.6 33 (Minimum)
28 days 43.4 41.2 43 (Minimum)
Table 5. Moreover, the slag aggregate were found as light weight
aggregate as compared to basalt aggregate as it was obtained from
128 S. Saxena, A.R. Tembhurkar / Construction and Building Materials 165 (2018) 126–137

Table 3
Characteristics of water used for concreting.

Characteristics Tap water Wastewater BIS 456:2000 [28] limits BS EN 1008 [29] limits
values ± Std. Dev. values ± Std. Dev.
pH 7.11 ± 0.15 7.45 ± 0.10 Not<6 4.0
Chlorides (mg/l) 5.23 ± 0.32 41.74 ± 1.61 2000 mg/l for plain concrete 4500 mg/l for without RCC and  1000 mg/l for RCC
and  500 mg/l for RCC
Sulfates as SO4 (mg/l) 6.33 ± 0.11 58 ± 4.00 400 mg/l as SO3 form 2000 mg/l as SO24 form
Total solids (mg/l) 67.6 ± 3.12 580 ± 4.37 – 1% of the total amount of aggregate in the concrete
Total suspended solids (mg/l) 8.2 ± 0.97 261 ± 3.26 2000 mg/l 4 ml
Total dissolved solids (mg/l) 55.6 ± 1.30 365 ± 2.74 – <100 mg/l
Alkalinity as CaCO3 (mg/l) 42.31 ± 1.22 123 ± 3.89 – <1500 mg/l
BOD (mg/l) – 112.24 ± 4.13 – –
COD (mg/l) – 204.32 ± 3.31 – –
Conductivity (mS/cm) 296.8 ± 1.59 651.7 ± 3.01 – –
Density (kg/m3) 1000 ± 0.01 1100 ± 0.12 – –

10 mm 20 10m First fraction

Sieve
20mm 20 0mm
Crushing to Sieve 10-4.75mm Second fraction
4.75mm
sizes (< 30 mm) Sieve
Over 20mm 10 0mm
4.75 0m Discarded
Discarded

Fig. 1. Process for preparing the steel slag aggregate.

Fig. 2. Images of steel slag aggregates and microscopic view of steel slag aggregate showing porous structure.

secondary stage of steel production. Steel slag abrasion value was
very high i.e. 53.73% (Table 5) because it was highly prone to frag-
mentation due to its special crystalline microstructure. This favors
breakage and exfoliation during the initial mixing process, affect-
ing the properties of the concrete. The water absorption capacity
of this fine and powdered steel slag was also measured and
reported in Table 5. The Mineral compositions present in the steel
slag were determined through X-ray diffraction test and depicted
in Fig. 4. The major minerals present in steel slag were dodecacal-
cium hepta-aluminate (Ca12Al14O33) or also known as mayenite,
calcium fluoroaluminate (11CaO.7Al2O3.CaF2 or C11A7CaF2) and
yttrium aluminum garnet (Y3Al5O12). Mineral mayenite is highly
reactive and responsible for accelerated hydration reaction. It
reacts rapidly with water and forms 3CaO
Al2O3
6H2O and Al
(OH)3 gel with considerable heat evolution and contributes to
strength developing phase of concrete [35]. Mineral calcium
fluoro-aluminate is a component of jet cement. The reactivity of
this mineral is also very high like mayenite because of high CaO
content leading to rapid hydration and shows rapid setting and
early strength of concrete [36]. Mineral yttrium aluminum garnet
(Y3Al5O12) has no cementing property and it is mostly used in
adhesive and coloring agents for enamel, field emission displays,
cathode materials for alkaline batteries, pigments for ceramics
and glasses; phosphors and electro-luminescent application and
for the production of transparent ceramics etc. [37,38].
3. Experimental plan
Mix proportion of all the materials was calculated as per BIS
10,262:2009 [39] for target strength of 25 MPa and experimental
trials were made to obtain a slump of 100 ± 10 mm. While carrying
out the research, all the concrete mixes were designed for mild
exposure. According to BIS 456:2000 [28], for mild exposure, the
maximum water to cement ratio is 0.55. Therefore in the present
study, water to cement ratio was considered as 0.50. The study
was divided into two phases as shown in Fig. 5. In the first phase,
basalt aggregates were used to prepare concrete with tap water as
well as with domestic wastewater (DW). The concrete prepared
with basalt aggregate, tap water, natural sand, cement and super-
plasticizer, designated as CC (Control Concrete) and when tap
water was replaced by wastewater and keeping other materials
 S. Saxena, A.R. Tembhurkar / Construction and Building Materials 165 (2018) 126–137 129

100 110
90 (a) 100 (b)
80 90

70 80
70
60

% Passing
% Passing

60
50
50
40
40
30
30
20 20
10 10
0 0
1 10 100 1 10
Sieve Size (mm)
Sieve size (mm)
Basalt (20-10 mm) Basalt (10 - 4.75 mm)
Steel Slag (20-10 mm) Steel Slag (10 - 4.75 mm)
Lower limit (BIS 383) Lower limit (BIS 383)
Upper limit (BIS 383) Upper limit (BIS 383)

Fig. 3. Particle size distribution curves (a) 20–10 mm basalt and steel slag aggregates, (b) 10–4.75 mm basalt and steel slag aggregates.

Table 4
Chemical composition of coarse aggregates (WD-XRF).

Elements SiO2 CaO Fe2O3 Al2O3 MgO Na2O TiO2 P2O5 SO3 K2O MnO Cl Cr2O3
Basalt (%) 46.93 11.24 15.39 15.31 3.94 2.79 2.27 0.67 0.55 0.45 0.22 0.03 –
Steel slag (%) 15.62 51.43 3.75 18.89 3.89 0.16 0.52 1.42 3.12 0.16 0.45 0.02 0.35

Table 5
(Basalt + TW) or
Physical properties of steel slag and basalt aggregate.
Control Concrete (CC)
Properties Steel Slag Basalt Aggregate BIS:383:1970 Basalt 15% slag +DW
Aggregate
Concrete M25

(20 mm) (20 mm) [31] limits (Basalt + DW) or (15% SWC)
Specific Gravity 2.604 2.932 – Basalt Wastewater
Concrete (BWC) 25% slag +DW
Water Absorption (%) (25% SWC)
(Aggregate form) 0.61 1.22 –
(Powdered form) 1.6 – – Slag 50% slag +DW
Bulk density (loose) (kg/m3) 994 1432 – Aggregate (50% SWC)
Bulk density (rodded) 1082 1605 – (Slag + DW) or Slag
(kg/m3)
Wastewater Concrete 75% slag +DW
Impact value (%) 32.35 6.90 <45%
(SWC) (75% SWC)
Crushing value (%) 36.67 15.39 <45%
100% slag +DW
Abrasion value (%) 53.73 8.72 <50%
(100% SWC)
Flakiness (%) 5.14 30.97 –
Elongation (%) 25.14 32.65 –
Fig. 5. Preparation of concrete with different combinations of steel slag and basalt
aggregate with wastewater.

was used as mixing water and other materials were kept constant
as in the first phase, this concrete was designated as SWC (Slag
Wastewater Concrete). To study the partial and complete replace-
ments, steel slag aggregates were used to replace basalt aggregate
in proportions namely 15%, 25%, 50%, 75% and 100% by weight of
basalt aggregate in addition with wastewater. For example, the
concrete mix 15% SWC showed the concrete prepared with 15%
steel slag aggregate, 85% basalt aggregate and wastewater. The
mix proportion of each constituent of concrete is shown in Table 6.

4. Test methods

Fig. 4. XRD of steel slag.
same as in CC, it was designated as BWC (Basalt Wastewater Con-
crete). In the second phase, different proportions of steel slag
aggregate were used to replace basalt aggregate and wastewater
Initial and final setting time of cement was determined accord-
ing to BIS 4031: 1988 (Part-5) [25]. For measuring the initial and
final setting time Vicat mold was used. Initial setting time was
measured as the time duration when the needle fails to penetrate
to a depth of 5.0 ± 0.5 mm measured from the bottom of the mold
130 S. Saxena, A.R. Tembhurkar / Construction and Building Materials 165 (2018) 126–137

Table 6
Mix proportions.

Ingredients CC BWC 15% SWC 25% SWC 50% SWC 75% SWC 100% SWC
Cement 325 325 325 325 325 325 325
w/c 0.50 0.50 0.50 0.50 0.50 0.50 0.50
Water 160 160 160 160 160 160 160
Sand 848 848 848 848 848 848 848
Basalt (20) 705 705 599 529 352.5 176.3 0
Basalt (10) 469 469 398.6 351.8 234.5 117.3 0
Slag (20) 0 0 106 176.3 352.5 529 705
Slag (10) 0 0 70.4 117.3 234.5 352 469
S.P (0.7% by wt of cement) 2.28 2.28 2.28 2.28 2.28 2.28 2.28

made from fresh cement. To assess the fresh properties of concrete,
tests such as slump, air content and fresh density were performed
immediately after mixing the concrete batch in the laboratory.
Slump and air content of concrete were measured according to
BIS 1199:1959 [40] whereas fresh density was measured as per
the guidelines of ASTM C138 [41]. Nine fresh concrete samples
were tested to assess all the fresh properties of concrete. To deter-
mine hardened properties of concrete hardened density, compres-
sive strength, flexural strength and modulus of elasticity tests were
performed. Hardened density test was done as per the provisions
of BS 1881-Part 114 [42] whereas compressive strength, flexural
strength and modulus of elasticity tests were performed as per
the guidelines of BIS 516:1959 [43]. The Cubes of 150  150  15
0 mm were prepared for the compressive strength test; beams of
500  100  100 mm size were prepared for flexural strength test
and cylinders of size 150 mm diameter and 300 mm long were pre-
pared for modulus of elasticity test. The specimens were cured at a
temperature of 27 ± 1 °C and 95 ± 5% relative humidity. Hardened
density, compressive strength and flexural strength of concrete
were determined at the ages of 7, 28, 56 and 90 days whereas mod-
ulus of elasticity of concrete was measured at the age of 28 days.
For measuring the hardened density, compressive strength, flexu-
ral strength and modulus of elasticity of the concrete three speci-
mens were prepared for each day of specified curing and the
average value was determined. The average hardened density
was calculated as q = m/V, where m is the mass of the concrete
cube calculated by saturated cube specimen in air (in kg) and V
is the volume of the cube specimen determined from its dimen-
sions (in m3). Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) test was per-
formed to examine the proportions of morphological features
such as microscopic voids or pores in concrete and deposition area
of the mineral phases. Sample for SEM testing of concrete speci-
men was prepared as per the guidelines of ASTM C1723-10 [44].
A completely dry & broken specimen of concrete cube obtained
after compressive strength test was used for SEM analysis. Con-
crete specimen is coated with palladium by a JEOL JFC-1600 auto
fine coater to provide a conductive surface for SEM imaging and
SEM testing is done by using JEOL 6380A. For studying the durabil-
ity of concrete, Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity (UPV) test and Rapid
Chloride Permeability Test (RCPT) were performed. UPV test was
performed on 150 mm cubes as per BIS 13,311 (Part 1)-1992 [45]
after 28, 56 and 90 days of curing of specimens. In the UPV test,
the frequency of the transducer was kept as 54 kHz. The sound
velocity and transit time of ultrasonic wave was collected. In the
RCPT, the permeability of concrete to chloride ion was determined
according to ASTM C1202 [46] at the ages of 28, 56 and 90 days. For
RCPT, two specimens of 50 mm thickness and 100 mm diameter
were prepared and tested for each concrete mix and the average
value was considered. Two solutions were used in RCPT i.e. sodium
chloride solution (3.0% by mass in distilled water) and sodium
hydroxide solution (0.3 N in distilled water). RCPT equipment
setup is shown in Fig. 6. In the RCPT, the total charge was com-
puted which passed through the concrete during a specific time
interval and correlated with the chloride permeability of concrete
by using the standard relationships between the total charge
passed and chloride permeability. The higher value of total charge
passed showed the lower permeability of chloride through the
concrete.
5. Results and discussion
5.1. Standard consistency, setting time and compressive strength of
cement
The chemical reaction which takes place between cement and
water can be completed when a definite minimum amount of
water is present. The complete chemical reaction would not be
achieved with a water quantity less than the required and also
the more water quantity would increase the water to cement ratio
and would decrease the strength. Hence, an accurate amount of
water to be mixed with cement is needed to attain required
strength. This can be obtained through standard consistency of
cement paste. According to BIS 4031 Part-4 [22], standard consis-
tency is measured by the penetration depth of Vicat plunger in
cement paste. A penetration depth of 5–7 mm from the bottom
of Vicat mold of 40 mm height is required for standard consistency.
It is shown as a percentage of water by the weight of dry cement. In
Fig. 7, penetration depths at different consistency are shown when

Fig. 6. RCPT equipment set up.

 S. Saxena, A.R. Tembhurkar / Construction and Building Materials 165 (2018) 126–137 131

35 110
100
Tap Water Waste water
30 90
Penetration Depth (mm)

80

Slump (mm)
25 70
60
20 Penetation
r depth for 50
standard
a consistency 40
15 4
(BIS 4031 Part 4) 30
20
10 10
0
5 CC BWC 15% 25% 50% 75% 100%
SWC SWC SWC SWC SWC
0
228.0 28.5 29.0 29.5 30.0 30.5 31.0 31.5 32.0
Fig. 9. Variation of slump.
Consistency (%)

Fig. 7. Standard consistency of cement with wastewater.

cement was tested with tap water and wastewater. Penetration
depth between 5 and 7 mm was found at the consistency of 30%
for tap water and 31.5% for wastewater. It means that 30% tap
water and 31.5% wastewater by weight of dry cement is needed
to make a cement paste of standard consistency. The more amount
of wastewater was required due to the presence of excessive total
solids, dissolved solids and suspended solids as compared to tap
water which lowered the water to cement ratio [47].
The initial setting times of cement with tap water and wastew-
ater were found as 70 and 95 min respectively which were greater
than 30 min, a limit for initial setting time as suggested by BIS
456:2000 [28] (Fig. 8). The compressive strength of cement with
wastewater reduced by 9.36%, 9.47% and 5.07% at 3, 7 and 28 days
respectively as compared to the compressive strength of cement
with tap water (Table 1) and also did not reach to the limits of
BIS 269:2015 [21]. It could be due to the presence of organic mat-
ter in wastewater which may interfere the hydration reaction of
cement and therefore cement was unable to attain its full strength.
5.2. Fresh concrete properties
5.2.1. Slump
The slump was studied to assess the workability of concrete.
The variation of slump for all concrete mixes is reported in Fig. 9.
Slump was noticed to be reduced by 3% when wastewater was
used with basalt aggregate (mix BWC) as compared to mix CC.
Total solids present in domestic wastewater could be responsible
for the reduction in slump by reducing the w/c ratio [16]. When
different proportions of steel slag aggregates were used with
6 water did not affect fresh density significantly. Fresh density of
5.5 Wastewater
5 8.0
Penetration Depth (mm)
wastewater, the slump was found to be successively decreasing.
The slump was reduced by 23%, 30%, 50%, 56% and 65% by using
15%, 25%, 50%, 75% and 100% steel slag aggregate respectively with
wastewater as compared to mix CC. A considerable fall of slump
was found when steel slag aggregate (specific weight 2.604) were
used in place of basalt aggregate (specific weight 2.932). The
reduction in slump could be due to the highly porous nature of slag
aggregate particles than basalt aggregates which consume more
cement-sand paste and lowering the workability of concrete [9]
as well as significant part of the mixing water was entrapped in
the pores of the slag aggregates and reduce the slump [6]. The
water absorption capacity of the fine and powdered steel slag
which was formed during initial mixing found as 1.6% (Table 5)
which also reduced the slump of concrete.
5.2.2. Air content
The quantity of air present in fresh concrete was measured by
air content test [40]. The durability of concrete is seriously affected
by the higher amount of entrapped air. The air content was
observed to be increased by 1% when wastewater was used with
basalt aggregate in place of tap water. It was also noticed that all
the slag-based mixtures with wastewater had a slightly higher
air content which was within the range of 5.5–6.9%, compared to
the basalt and wastewater based mixture of 4.4% (Fig. 10). The
higher air content of slag based mixtures may be attributed to
the more porous nature of steel slag aggregate than natural basalt
aggregate; therefore there is a possibility of some air trapped in the
pores of steel slag aggregate which also increases the air content of
concrete [48].
5.2.3. Fresh density
It was observed that the replacement of wastewater with tap
Tap water

4.5 7.0
4 6.0
Air content (%)

3.5 5.0
3
4.0
2.5
3.0
2
1.5 2.0
1 1.0
0.5 0.0
0 CC BWC 15% 25% 50% 75% 100%
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 SWC SWC SWC SWC SWC
Time (Minutes) Mix ID

Fig. 8. Initial setting time of cement with wastewater. Fig. 10. Variation of air content.
132 S. Saxena, A.R. Tembhurkar / Construction and Building Materials 165 (2018) 126–137

mix BWC was less by 0.44% as compared to mix CC. The use of steel
slag aggregates with wastewater reduced the fresh density of con-
crete successively by increasing the percentage of steel slag aggre-
gates. It was due to the lower bulk density and specific gravity of
steel slag aggregates as compared to basalt aggregates as shown
in Fig. 11. It was reduced by 2.7%, 3.2%, 4.0%, 4.5%, and 8.5% for steel
slag aggregate proportions of 15%, 25%, 50%, 75% and 100% respec-
tively with wastewater as compared to control concrete.
5.3. Hardened concrete properties
5.3.1. Hardened density
The mass of a unit volume of hardened concrete is known as the
density of hardened concrete. Fig. 12 shows the variation of the
hardened density of each concrete mix. The use of wastewater in
place of tap water with basalt aggregate reduced the density by
1.2–1.4%. The density of hardened concrete also successively
decreased with the increase in steel slag aggregate content from
15% to 100% with wastewater. At the age of 28 days the reduction
in the hardened density was noticed as 2.1%, 4.2%, 4.6%, 5.3%, and
6.2% and at the age of 90 days it was found as 1.4%, 2.4%, 3.2%,
4.7% and 6.4% for the mixes 15% SWC, 25% SWC, 50% SWC, 75%
SWC and 100% SWC respectively as compared to the control con-
crete. The reduction in the density of slag concrete is attributed
to the less bulk density and specific gravity of steel slag aggregates.
However, it was found that the use of wastewater did not affect
significantly the density of concrete. Hardened density of concrete
was varying by 0.8–2.5% from 7 to 90 days for all the mixes of con-
crete whereas at 90 days, density is less by only 1–2%, which is not
5.3.2. Compressive strength
To determine the compressive strength of cube specimens, a
load with a constant rate of 0.23 MPa/s was applied on cube spec-
imen by a compression testing machine of 3000 kN capacity up to
the failure of specimens. It was observed that the use of wastewa-
ter in concrete with basalt aggregate (mix BWC) reduced the com-
pressive strength of concrete by 8% as compared to control
concrete. But the use of steel slag aggregate with wastewater
increased the compressive strength. The compressive strength
was found to be increased successively up to 50% steel slag aggre-
gate incorporation and beyond that the strength was also
improved but the improvement was less as compared to 50% ratio
as shown in Fig. 13. It was noticed that the improvement in com-
pressive strength was more at early ages but as the age of the con-
crete increased from 28 days to 90 days the increment in strength
reduced as shown in Fig. 14. For concrete mix 15% SWC the incre-
ment in strength at 7 days was 31% while for 90 days it was 6% as
compared to control concrete. The presence of minerals like
mayenite (dodecacalcium hepta-aluminate) and calcium fluoroalu-
minate in steel slag (Fig. 4) was considered as highly reactive, lead-
ing to rapid hydration and fast setting of concrete and responsible
for high early strength of concrete [35,36]. As well as the compar-
atively higher chloride content in wastewater may also be one of
the reason of the higher early strength of concrete as suggested
by Noruzman et al. [16]. Adding 50% steel slag aggregates with
55
7 days 28 days 56 days 90 days
50
Compressive Strength, Mpa

an appreciable change. 45
40
35
30
2600 25
Fresh Density (kg/m3)

2550 20
2500 15
10
2450
5
2400
0
2350 CC BWC 15% 25% 50% 75% 100%
SWC SWC SWC SWC SWC
2300
Mix ID
2250
2200 Fig. 13. Variation of compressive strength of concrete.
CC BWC 15% 25% 50% 75% 100%
SWC SWC SWC SWC SWC
Mix ID
60
Fig. 11. Variation of fresh density.
7 days
% Change of Compressive Strength

50 28 days
40 56 days
90 days
2670
2640
30
7 days 28 days 56 days 90 days
2610
2580 20
Density, kg/m3

2550
2520 10
2490
2460 0
2430
2400
2370 -10
2340
2310 -20
2280 CC BWC 15% 25% 50% 75% 100%
CC BWC 15% 25% 50% 75% 100%
SWC SWC SWC SWC SWC
SWC SWC SWC SWC SWC
Mix ID Mix ID

Fig. 12. Variation of hardened density of concrete. Fig. 14. % change of compressive strength.
 S. Saxena, A.R. Tembhurkar / Construction and Building Materials 165 (2018) 126–137 133

wastewater in concrete, the compressive strength improvements
were found as 48%, 33%, 17% and 14% at 7 days, 28 days, 56 days
and 90 days respectively. The porous surface texture of steel slag
aggregates which enhanced the interaction between the slag
aggregate and the cementitious matrix could also be the reason
behind the higher strength of concrete as also reported by
Sumayya et al. [49].
interaction of cement matrix, is probably the main factor responsi-
ble for the increase in flexural strength [50].
A mathematical equation is obtained for expressing compres-
sive strength and flexural strength relationship for all mixes of
concrete. Fig. 17 shows the relationship between compressive
strength and flexural strength with correlation coefficients as
0.81, 0.82, 0.89 and 0.98 for 7, 28, 56 and 90 days respectively.

5.3.3. Flexural strength 5.3.4. Modulus of elasticity

To measure the flexural strength of concrete, a constant load
rate of 0.011 MPa/s was applied on beam specimens by a flexural
testing machine of capacity 300 kN. Like the compressive strength,
the flexural strength of concrete also reduced when wastewater
was used with basalt aggregate in place of tap water. This reduc-
tion was found as 18% of control concrete. Flexural strength was
found to be increased as steel slag aggregates were incorporated
with wastewater in concrete from 15% to 100%. From various
replacement ratios, the highest flexural strength was found for
50% ratio of steel slag aggregate as shown in Fig. 15. These
improvements were recorded as 11%, 9.8%, 9.3% and 6.9% of the
flexural strength of CC at 7, 28, 56 and 90 days of curing respec-
tively (Fig. 16). For 100% ratio of steel slag aggregate with wastew-
ater, the flexural strength was found to be increased by 5.3%, 5.7%,
2.3% and 2.5% for 7, 28, 56 and 90 days of curing respectively. The
higher porosity of the steel slag aggregate, which enhances the
12
The elastic modulus of concrete is an important parameter for
determining the deformation of structural members, additionally
a principal characteristic of concrete for computing the modular
ratio, which is considered as a design parameter for structural ele-
ments subjected to flexure. To estimate modulus of elasticity, 50%
of the stress of failure load was determined from the compressive
strength test results. The cylinder specimens with extensometers
were kept in compression testing machine and the stresses and
strains of concrete cylinders were computed by applying the load
up to 50% stress of the failure load. To calculate the modulus of
elasticity, stress versus strain slope was plotted. It was observed
that modulus of elasticity decreased by 4.18% for mix BWC as com-
pared to mix CC and it increased when steel slag aggregates were
used from 15% to 75% in addition with wastewater as shown in
Fig. 18. The highest elastic modulus of concrete (22% higher than
CC) was obtained for 50% replacement level (mix 50% SWC) at
28 days of curing. Modulus of elasticity of steel slag aggregate
was also calculated from a relationship between relative density
and modulus of elasticity of aggregate i.e. Ea = 8.1⁄q2a , where qa is

7 days 28 days 56 days 90 days

10 12
y = 0.178x + 1.156
Flexural Strength (MPa)

Flexural Strength (MPa)

10 R² = 0.89
8 y = 0.127x + 2.619
8 R² = 0.82
6 y = 0.200x + 0.117
6 R² = 0.88
4 4 y = 0.116x + 2.765
R² = 0.81
2
2
7 days 28 days 56 days 90 days
0
0 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
CC BWC 15% 25% 50% 75% 100% Compressive Strength (MPa)
SWC SWC SWC SWC SWC
Fig. 17. Relationship of compressive and flexural strength of concrete.
Mix ID

Fig. 15. Variation of flexural strength of concrete.

45000

40000
15
Modulus of Elasticity (MPa)

35000
10
% Change of Flexural Strength

30000
5
25000
0 20000
-5 15000
7 days
-10 28 days 10000
56 days 5000
-15
90 days 0
-20
CC BWC 15% 25% 50% 75% 100% CC B WC 15% 25% 50% 75% 100%
SWC SWC SWC SWC SWC SWC SWC SWC SWC SWC
Mix ID Mix ID
Fig. 16. Percentage change of flexural strength. Fig. 18. Variation of modulus of elasticity of concrete.
134 S. Saxena, A.R. Tembhurkar / Construction and Building Materials 165 (2018) 126–137
relative density (specific gravity) of aggregate and Ea is the modu-
lus of elasticity of aggregate [51] and found as 54.9 GPa. The con-
crete having a high modulus of elasticity is used in high-rise
buildings, bridge piers and other structures where the stiffness of
the concrete is of prime importance because it can resist a concrete
structure from deforming or sway. However elastic modulus was
found to be reduced by 11% when 100% steel slag aggregates were
used in place of basalt aggregate.
For concrete prepared with basalt aggregate with wastewater
(mix BWC) and different proportions of steel slag aggregate with
wastewater, the direct relationship between compressive strength
and elastic modulus was observed and from Fig. 19, it was noticed
that as the compressive strength increased, the modulus of elastic-
ity was also found to be increased and when compressive strength
45000
40000
Modulus of Elasticity (MPa)
35000
30000
25000
20000
15000
Modulus of Elasticity (28 Days)
10000
5000 Compressive Strength (28 Days)
0 0
0 15 30 45 60 75 90
Steel slag Aggregate Content (%)
Fig. 19. Relationship of modulus of elasticity and compressive strength of concrete.
Fig. 20. SEM images of concrete samples a) mix CC, b) mix BWC and c) mix 50% SWC.
decreased, the modulus of elasticity was also decreasing. The high-
est compressive strength and modulus of elasticity was found at
50% replacement of basalt aggregate with steel slag aggregate.
5.3.5. Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM)
Pore structure is a very important microstructure characteristic
of concrete because it influences the physical and mechanical
properties and controls the durability. For the microstructure anal-
ysis of concrete, SEM images of concrete samples of mix CC, BWC
and highest strength concrete mix 50% SWC for 28 days are shown
in Fig. 20. SEM images of mix BWC showed a concrete structure
having voids and cracks as compared to SEM image of mix CC. It
could be due to the presence of total, suspended and dissolved
solids and organic content in wastewater. As a result, concrete
mix BWC seems more porous as compared to mix CC. According
to Asadollahfardi et al. [52], SEM images of concrete specimens
45
which were made of wastewater indicated voids. Yan et al. [12]
40 also found pores in SEM micrographs of concrete samples contain-
Compressive Strength (MPa)
35 ing 100% wastewater. On the other hand, the mix 50% SWC exhib-
ited white colour irregular shaped precipitates distributed in
30 concrete. XRD test results of concrete sample 50% SWC revealed
25 that major mineral components present in this concrete mix were
quartz, calcium acetate hydrate and yttrium calcium silico-
20 carbonate or caysichite-(Y) as shown in Fig. 21. They may be
15 formed because of the presence of yttrium aluminum garnet, cal-
cium oxide and silica in steel slag. Therefore, these precipitates
10
may comprise of quartz, or calcium acetate hydrate or caysichite-
5 (Y) which could fill the voids of concrete and provided a quite
dense structure.
5.3.6. Ultrasonic pulse velocity (UPV)
UPV test is a nondestructive test which is used for analyzing the
homogeneity of the concrete and the presence of cracks, voids and
 S. Saxena, A.R. Tembhurkar / Construction and Building Materials 165 (2018) 126–137 135

4800

Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity (m/sec)

28 days 56 days 90 days Excellent quality
4600
4400
4200
4000
3800
3600 Good quality

3400
3200 Medium quality
3000
CC BWC 15% 25% 50% 75% 100%
SWC SWC SWC SWC SWC
Mix ID
Fig. 21. XRD of concrete mix 50% SWC.
Fig. 23. Variation of ultrasonic pulse velocity.

other imperfections by detecting internal flaws like inadequate

the crucial forms of harsh environment that causes corrosion of
compaction, voids or cracks and segregation in concrete. In the
reinforcing bars and leads to a subsequent reduction in the durabil-
region of imperfections, the ultrasonic pulse is diffracted around
ity and strength of the concrete structure. Fig. 24 shows the charge
the periphery of the defect and takes more time to reach the
passed and permeability grade to chloride ion of concrete at the
receiving transducer. Comparatively higher pulse velocities are
ages of 28, 56 and 90 days for all the mixes of concrete. It was
obtained when the quality of concrete is good regarding its homo-
reported that at the age of 28 days, the mix BWC showed the med-
geneity, uniformity and lack of imperfections. In the present study,
ium permeability, mixes CC and 15% SWC showed the low perme-
for conducting the UPV test, the generator and the receiver trans-
ability and all the remaining mixes showed very low permeability.
ducer were placed on the opposite side of cubes for direct trans-
At the age of 56 days, mix BWC exhibited low permeability and all
mission of ultrasonic waves as shown in Fig. 22. It was observed
remaining mixes showed very low permeability and at the age of
that pulse velocity reduced by 4–9% when wastewater with basalt
90 days, all the concrete mixes fell in the category of very low per-
aggregate was used as compared to control concrete and higher
meability. Generally, the use of steel slag aggregate from 15% to
pulse velocities were obtained for concrete mixtures containing
100% with wastewater reduced the chloride ion permeability from
steel slag aggregate and wastewater as shown in Fig. 23. For all
40 to 70% at 28 days and 62–80% at 90 days as compared to the
the replacements of steel slag aggregates with wastewater, ultra-
concrete made of completely basalt aggregate and tap water
sonic pulse velocity increased from 1 to 6% for 28 days, 2–6% for
(mix CC). Permeability is the major factor which could be known
56 days and 1–8% for 90 days. The highest pulse velocity was
noticed for mix 50% SWC (4569 m/s) which was 8% higher than
the concrete mix CC. As the age of the concrete increasing, the
4000
pulse velocity was also increasing. BIS 13,311 (Part 1)-1992 [45] BWC 15% SWC 25% SWC 50% SWC
Charge Passed, Coulomb

has provided the velocity range to assess the quality of concrete. 3500 75% SWC 100% SWC CC
The quality of concrete is considered as medium, good and excel- 3000
Medium
lent if the pulse velocity falls in the range of 3000–3500 m/s, 2500 permeability
3500–4500 m/s and more than 4500 m/s respectively. The pulse
2000
velocity <3000 m/s is considered as the doubtful quality. In the Low
1500
present study, all the concrete mixes fall under the good quality permeablity
and also mix 50% SWC at 90 days falls under the excellent quality 1000
grading of concrete as shown in Fig. 23. 500 Very low
permeability
0
0 20 40 60 80 100
5.3.7. Rapid chloride permeability test (RCPT) Age (days)
Due to the harsh environment, concrete deteriorates gradually
and leads to early failure of the structure. Chloride ingress is one Fig. 24. Chloride ion permeability of concrete.

Fig. 22. Ultrasonic pulse velocity set-up.

136 S. Saxena, A.R. Tembhurkar / Construction and Building Materials 165 (2018) 126–137
by determining chloride penetration in concrete. However it could
also be observed that the concrete prepared with steel slag aggre-
gate was affected by the binding property of chloride ion to slag
particles and the presence of iron content in steel slag may also
affect the current flowing through the concrete made of steel slag
aggregate [53].
6. Conclusion
Based on the results of the present experimental work, the fol-
lowing conclusions can be summarized:
1. Use of steel slag aggregate with wastewater in concrete is found
to be possible without any appreciable deterioration in fresh
and hardened concrete properties.
2. The reduction in slump and fresh density were found whereas a
slight increase in air content of fresh concrete was observed
while using steel slag aggregate with wastewater.
3. The hardened density of concrete was found to be reduced by
1.4%, 2.1%, 4.2%, 4.6%, 5.3%, and 6.2% for the mixes BWC, 15%
SWC, 25% SWC, 50% SWC, 75% SWC and 100% SWC respectively
as compared to the mix CC.
4. Improvement in the compressive strength of concrete was
found for all the percentage replacements of basalt aggregate
with steel slag aggregate used with wastewater at all the ages
of concrete. The highest compressive strength was found at
50% replacement level. However compressive strength
decreased when wastewater was used in place of tap water
with basalt aggregate.
5. Initially flexural strength was also found to be reduced when
only wastewater was replaced by tap water with basalt aggre-
gate but later on improvement in flexural strength was found
when different ratios of steel slag aggregate were used with
wastewater. The highest flexural strength among various
replacement ratios was found for 50% ratio of steel slag aggre-
gate with wastewater i.e. 9.8% higher than concrete mix CC at
28 days.
6. Highest modulus of elasticity was also found for concrete mix
50% SWC i.e. 22% higher than the reference concrete mix CC.
However it was decreased by 11% for concrete mix 100% SWC.
7. SEM image of concrete mix BWC showed more voids as com-
pared to SEM image of CC whereas concrete samples with steel
slag aggregates and wastewater showed improved
microstructure.
8. Higher pulse velocities were found for concrete mixtures con-
taining steel slag aggregate and wastewater as compared to
the mix containing basalt aggregate and wastewater. As the
age of the concrete increasing, the pulse velocity was also
increasing. However pulse velocity reduced by 4–9% when
wastewater was used with basalt aggregate.
9. RCPT results showed that the use of steel slag aggregate from
15% to 100% with wastewater reduced the chloride ion perme-
ability from 40 to 70% at 28 days age as compared to the mix CC.
Hence it can be concluded that the steel slag could be used as a
partial replacement to coarse aggregate with wastewater without
significant impact on fresh and hardened properties of concrete.
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