VGP - Book1

General information regarding relay type
English Electric Relay Identification:
All English Electric relays bear an identification or model number and a serial
number. The model number of standard relays is as follows:
Example ----------------> CMM42PF3A5

C M M 4 2 P F 3A 5
a b c d e f g h I
(a) Operating Quantity:
A --Phase Angle I --Directional Current S --Slip Frequency

Comparison
B --Balanced Current K --Rate of Rise of current T --Temperature
C --Current M --Manual V --Voltage
D --Differential O --Oil Pressure W --Power
E --Direction P --Polyphase Volt Amperes X --Reactance
F --Frequency R --Reactive Volt Amperes Y --Admittance
Z --Impedance
(b) Basic Movement :

A --Attracted Armature G --Galvanometer P --Plug
B --Buchholz I --Transactor R --Rectifier
C --Induction Cup J --Mixed Types S --Synchronous
Motor.
D --Induction Disc M --Sensitive Balanced T --Static Circuit
Armature
W --Weight or Gravity
(c)Indication of Application:
A --Auxiliary EF --Earth Fault K --Check alarm
B --Testing F --Flag or indicator L --Load limiting
C --Carrier or G --General or generator S --Synchronizing
Counting
CB --Capacitor Bank GF --Generator Field T --Transformer or
timer
D --Directional H --Harmonic restraint U --Definite time
E --Earth I --Interlocked or Industrial V --Voltage Control
M --Motor or J --Tripping W --Pilot wire
Semaphore
N --Negative phase JE or JX -- Tripping(Elect- WA --Interposing
sequence reset) Auxiliary
O --Out-of step JH or JV -- Tripping(Hand- WJ --Inter tripping
reset)
P --Potential or fuse JA or JS or JZ -- tripping (Self - X --Supervisory
failure reset)
Q --Alarm JB --Control Tripping Y --Flash back or
Backfire
R --Reclosing Z --Special application
ZS --Zero Phase
Sequence
By V.G.Patel TRANSFORMER COMMISSIONING BOOK.DOC

PAGE 1
(d) Number of Units:
The first number indicates number of relay units, excluding seal in and reinforcing
auxiliary units.
For example, the GMM42 relay consists of a thermal over current unit, an
instantaneous over current unit, an earth fault unit and an instantaneous unbalance
unit.
A triple pole over current relay has the Number 3.
(e) Characteristics:
The second number indicates the particular characteristics of one of a group of

relays, for example, GMM41 and GMM42 relays are of the same type and
composition but differ in their time delay characteristics.
(f) Case Size:
A -- Size 1 draw out single ended 10 terminals

B -- Size 1 draw out double ended 20 terminals
C -- Size 2 draw out single ended 10 terminals
D -- Size 2 draw out double ended 20 terminals
E -- Size 3 draw out single ended 10 terminals
F -- Size 3 draw out double ended 20 terminals
L -- Size 1/2 non draw out (type VAK relay) 12 terminals
N -- Size 1/2 draw out single ended 10 terminals
P -- Size 1.1/2 draw out single ended 10 terminals
R -- Size 1.1/2 draw out double ended 20 terminals
S -- Size 1.1/2 draw out double ended 40 terminals
T -- Size 4.1/2 draw out single ended 30 terminals
U -- Handle-look plug-in.
Y -- Size 1/4 moulded non-draw out 10 terminals
Z -- Size 1/2 moulded non-draw out 12 terminals
(g) Case Mounting :
F -- Flush Vertical P -- Projecting Vertical

G -- Flush Horizontal R -- Projecting Horizontal
(h) Identification:
This may be one or more numbers or letters and enables manufacturers to identify
rating contact arrangement etc.
(i) Suffix:
Some relay types, for example auto recloser relays (VAR82A, VAR82B) vary only in
detail and are identified by a suffix letter.
Where applicable this identification is given on the data sheet otherwise the last
letter must be regarded is part of the identification above.

PAGE 2
Where the last digit is a number 5 or 6, this indicates a relay specification for use on
50 or 60, cycles supply respectively.
Distance Protection Schemes

An exception to the rule are distance schemes, which have a group of prefix letters
to identify type, measurement, etc.
Mho or reactance measuring is indicated by the initial letter “M” or “R” respectively
and where two initial letters are used, the first refers to phase faults and the second
to earth faults. For switched schemes the initial letter is preceded by “S” or “SS”. The
digit denotes the number of time distance steps and final letter “V” or “T” indicates
that the scheme is electromagnetic or static in operation respectively. (e.g. MR3V
indicates a three-step electromagnet distance scheme with three Mho type
measuring units for phase fault & three reactance type measuring units for earth
fault).
Special
Instead of a type number (CMM42) special relays are prefixed by the letter SPEC,
followed by one or more numbers or a combination of numbers and letters. This
number can only be interpreted by manufacturers.
INTERNATIONAL NOMENCLATURE ADOPTED FOR PROTECTION SCHEMES
2 --Timer 60 --P.T.Fuse failure

14 --Under Frequency 62B --Breaker failure timer
21 --Distance relay 63 --Buchholz
24 --V/Hz Prot.for generator over 64 --Earth Fault
excitation
25 --Check Synchronizing 64BF --Shaft brush open protection
26 --Oil Temperature 67 --Directional
27 --Under Voltage 71 --Xmer oil or gas level
27/50 -- Inadvertent energisation protection 74 --Aux. Contactor
30 --Auxiliary Switch 76 --Field over current
32 --Low forward Power 78 --Loss of synchronism protection
37 --Under Currents 80 --A.C.Failure
40 --Loss of Excitation 81 --Frequency Relay (over / under)
42 --Contactor 81R --Rate of change of freq. protection
43 --Selector Switch 85 --Pilot wire protection
46 --Negative Phase sequence 86 --Tripping
49 --Thermal relay(Winding Temperature) 87 --Differential
50 --Local breaker back-up protection 88 --Contactor for fan
50DT --Split phase differential protection 89 --Isolator
51 --Over current 94 --Anti pumping
52 --Breaker 95 --Interturn fault/ Trip circuit
supervision
59 --Over voltage 96 --Aux. tripping
97 --Fuse supervision relay
99 --Over Fluxing

PAGE 3
MOTOR PROTECTION
1) GENERAL : As motors provide the major muscle power of
the industrial machines, they represent the
major share in utilization of electrical power.
Even for generation of power the mechanical
contributory factor. Even in the agricultural
field, the motors form an important contributory
force for irrigation. Thus electrical motors have
a very wide spread application and the
protection of motors against various types of
mishaps that can occur within it or from
external causes needs very careful analysis,
design, and implementation.
2) NEED FOR PROTECTION: Protection to a motor is necessary from the

following types of faults.
EXTERNAL:
Overloading of driven auxiliary

Jamming of driven auxiliary/delayed start up
Single phased or unbalance due to fuse failure
open circuited terminal, or system voltage
unbalance.
Repeated starts
Onerous ambient conditions :
High ambient temperature
Ingress of moistures
Persistent under voltage
INTERNAL:
Insulation failure
Phase fault
Earth fault
Interturn fault
Uneven cooling/ventilation
Lubrication/bearing failure
Magnetic circuit insulation failure
Various devices have been invented and are in
vogue to combat the above menaces that
jeopardize the operating life of a motor. A
cursory glimpse of these devices that follows
would give an overview of the motor protection
system in use.
3) PROTECTIVE SYSTEMS:
Short Circuit Protection: This takes care of phase-to-phase faults and

phase to earth faults in a solidly earthed
system. Same of the devices that provide short
circuit protection are as under :
PAGE 4
Fuses:
This is the fastest protection as the time of
operation is generally less than a quarter of a
cycle. However the following factors have to
be considered while applying this protection.
Starting current, method of starting and
starting time. The starting current would vary
depending upon the method of starting and
may be as high as 7 times full load current in
case of DOL starting.
System fault Level:
The rupturing capacity of a fuse must match
the system fault level.
Blowing of a fuse eventually results into single
phasing of a three-phase motor. This may be
taken care of by a suitable unbalanced
protection or provision of a fuse-operated
switch which would trip the starter.
High set instantaneous relays:

These may be directly connected for small
motors or may be operated from current
transformers. These will normally be set to
operate for currents more than 8 to 10 times
the full load current. As they effect
disconnection in the motor through switching
device like a breaker or a starter, this type of
protection is much slower than the fuse.
In some cases, it is possible to make the
relays more sensitive by providing a timer
actuated shorting device. This method enables
the initial setting of 10 to 12 times and half this
setting after the motor has started and current
has come down from starting value to normal
value.
Differential Protection:
This is a simple merz price differential
protection and is normally justified for large
motors like BFP motor in a thermal station or
compressor motor in a fertilizer industry. The
greatest advantage of this protection, in
reference to motor protection is that, the relay
is inherently immune to starting or even normal
full load current and can be set to a very low
pick up value of 10% to 20% of the rated
current. This would provide protection to major
portion of the winding.
Earth fault Protection: Although the fuse to provide earth fault

protection in case of solidly earthed systems, a
very sensitive earth fault protection can be
provided in such a case by an instantaneous

PAGE 5
relay connected in a residual way to the C.T.s.
Very low setting of 5 to 20% may
be achieved, protecting majority portion of the
winding. This would be more significant, if the
motor winding is connected in star, in which
case, faults very near to neutral may not be
detected by a fuse.
In case of an ineffectively earthed system, the

earth fault current is so low that conventional
methods of current detection would be too
insensitive. In fact, very fast protection may not
be necessary also, due to low magnitude of
fault current. However, generally a highly
sensitive relay capable of operating at 20 - 40
mA is used, fed from a core balance C.T.
Specific care is necessary while installing and
connecting a core balance C.T. to prevent
maloperation of relay due to spurious current
passing through the earthing path.
Overload Protection: Any overload protection, basically tries to

simulate the heating characteristics of a motor.
As the motor is a heterogeneous mass
consisting of iron, copper and insulating
materials as well as different cooling
characteristics of stator and rotor, any type of
protection cannot reproduce in a 100% exact
way the heating and cooling characteristics of
a motor. It would be necessary to register at
this juncture a note that the rotor of any AC
motor is highly vulnerable from negative
current sequence current arising out of
unbalanced conditions. It should also be noted
that the thermal replica should also register
the additional heating, a motor is subjected to
whenever it is started from stand still. Some of
the overload relays try to achieve rotor
protection in a composite way. Some of the
devices used for overload protection are
briefly discussed below :
Bimetallic Strip :
The Combination of iron and copper strips in a
bimetallic strip in a very crude way represents,
the heating and cooling characteristics of iron
and copper within the motor. The protection is
very rough. However, it is good enough for
small motors as the relay operation time can
be kept adequately lower than the thermal
withstand time of the motor. Some of the
refinements of the bimetallic strip try to
achieve ambient temperature compensation by

PAGE 6
arranging the fixed contact to move slightly by
the action of another bimetallic device. Some
very ingenious modification in the bimetallic
strips for three phases enable detection of
uneven expansion due to uneven currents in
different phases ( P&B
Gould’s relay) or amplifying the movement of
the moving contact due to this uneven
expansion (Siemens overload relay). These
innovations in a very crude way try to provide
protection against unbalanced conditions like
single phasing etc. Although they cannot
compete with the protection based on negative
sequence current measurement.
Eutectic Alloy:
Very sudden melting and freezing property of
an eutectic alloy are deployed in this
protection, where the eutectic alloy serves as
a thermal replica of the hot spot in the
machine.
Oil Dash pot electromagnet:

In this evidence, the overload is detected if the
current exceeds a preset value. The tripping is
effected after a fixed time interval due to the oil
dash pot. Though this does not provide a
thermal replica, it is considered to be more
suitable than the bimetallic strip for slip ring
induction motor where starting current is not
very high.
Static Relay:
The heating and cooling time contacts of the
motor are simulated in a much better way by
charging and discharging of a capacitor
through a resistor. These can very easily be
varied to suit to thermal time constant of the
motor protection. In certain version the I 2t of
this thermal replica gets a representation of
the effect of enhanced heating of rotor due to
negative sequence current ( I 12 + 6 I 22.). A
well-designed static relay would also permit
only the specified no. of hot/or cold starts in
an hour.
Static overload alarm relay:

This is not in fact meant for protection but is a
very early stage sentinel, which initiates an
alarm if the motor gets slightly overloaded from
its normal operating current level. The relay is
required to have 100% dropout to pick up ratio
to distinguish between the operating current

PAGE 7
and 2 to 5% overload.
Blocked Rotor Protection : This is generally achieved very easily by a

time delayed over current relay which picks up
with starting current and drops off tripping the
motor, if the starting time is less than the
blocked rotor withstand time. In case, the
starting current persists for a time greater than
blocked rotor withstand time of the motor, the
tripping is initiated.
Application of the relay sometimes become

problematic, if the blocked rotor withstand time
is very near to or less than the starting time.
The relay operation in such applications is
assisted by a speed switch mounted on the
shaft of the relay, which actually proves
whether the motor has come up to the
predetermined speed within the set time.
Negative Sequence Protection : As discussed earlier, any unbalance arising

out of unbalanced voltage or interturn fault or
the worst case of single phasing, has a very
onerous affection of the rotor of induction
motor due to rotor currents of approximately
twice the frequency in an induction motor. In
the case of synchronous motors, the damper
winding is subjected to a similar eventuality.
The phenomenon is detected by a negative
sequence filter which produces current
proportional to negative sequence component
of stator current. The out put of the filter is fed
to a instantaneous over current relay to effect
the tripping of motor, if the negative sequence
component exceeds the safe withstand
capacity of the motor. Generally a slight time
delay of a few cycles is introduced in the
operation of the relay to obviate spurious
tripping due to unbalanced inrush current
while starting the motor. In case of large
synchronous motors an additional, separate
IDMTL relay is also connected to the out put
leads of the negative sequence filter. The
characteristic of this IDMTL relay matches the I
22 t withstand characteristic of the motor.
As discussed earlier in some relays a

magnified value of I 2 2 is added to the positive
sequence I 12component and ( I 12 + 6 I 22
square) total signal is fed to thermal replica.
Condition monitoring devices: Although this can hardly be classified as

protective devices, these are certainly

PAGE 8
preventive devices providing condition
monitoring of various components of motor like
bearings, winding, core, lubricating oil
temperature, cooling water outlet temperature,
circulating air temperature, etc. Many a time,
these devices can effectively indicate very
much in advance the deteriorating conditions
of the components of the motor.
In case of dry type submersible motors, a
moisture detector is also provided in the winding
to detect a possible leak into the motor.
4) PAST PRESENT AND FUTURE In the earlier days the protective systems were
TRENDS: very crude and the factor of safety in the
equipment was large. With the advancement in
material and protection technologies, and with
over increasing sizes of motors, the margin
between the safe withstand level, and operating
level is reducing very fast. Inevitably the duty on
the protective systems are becoming more
exacting. Static relays with much greater
accuracy and versatility have replaced the cruder
forms. Even for the low capacity range of motors
better qualities of thermal overload relays with
single phasing protection are available. The trend
is more and more towards a composite relay with
flexibility in its application and on line testing
facility.
With the advent of microprocessor technology,
which has very firmly stabilized in various facets
of engineering applications, it is fast making
inroads into the protection field also. In the
context of motor protection, the microprocessor
based systems would provide following additional
facilities.
Composite protection including all functions in
the same relay.
Complete versatility making the same relay
suitable for any type of motor resulting in
standardization in manufacturing and reduced
deliveries.
Programmability of the system making the device
more and more user friendly.
Continuous, on-line self diagnostics increasing
the reliability manifold.
Much improved condition monitoring, exception
reporting and compatibility for connecting to a
centralized data acquisition system. Logging of
No. of starts, time of starting, temperature rise,
etc. can very easily be monitored in a far more
systematic manner.
Highly reduced maintenance due to completely
static components. The technique required for
maintenance is also very little due to built in self-
diagnostic features.

PAGE 9
CONCLUSION: Motor protection has remained and will continue
to remain an important function for any type of
industry. With the advancement in technology it
will be able to provide much better service to the
main equipment protected as also to the ultimate
user.
(Reference: Lecture note of Shree S.B.Jani, Dy. Manager (Maintenance)

PAGE 10
To Improve Power Factor to 0.95 Lagging
CAPACITOR RATING IN KVAR WHEN MOTOR SPEED IS:

MOTOR 3000 1500 1000 750 600 500
(HP) (REV/MIN.) (REV/MIN.) (REV/MIN.) (REV/MIN.) (REV/MIN.) (REV/MIN.)
2.5 0.5 1.0 1.0 1.5 1.5 1.5
5.0 1.0 1.5 1.5 2.5 3.0 3.0
7.5 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 4.0 4.0
10.0 2.5 3.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 5.0
12.50 3.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0 6.0
15.0 3.0 4.0 4.0 6.0 6.0 6.0
17.5 4.0 4.0 5.0 6.0 8.0 8.0
20.0 5.0 5.0 6.0 6.0 8.0 10.0
22.5 5.0 5.0 6.0 8.0 8.0 10.0
25.0 6.0 6.0 6.0 8.0 10.0 12.0
27.5 6.0 6.0 8.0 10.0 10.0 12.0
30.0 6.0 8.0 8.0 10.0 12.0 14.0
32.5 6.0 8.0 8.0 10.0 12.0 14.0
35.0 8.0 8.0 10.0 12.0 14.0 14.0
37.5 8.0 8.0 10.0 12.0 14.0 16.0
40.0 8.0 10.0 10.0 14.0 14.0 16.0
42.5 8.0 10.0 12.0 14.0 14.0 16.0
45.0 8.0 10.0 12.0 14.0 16.0 18.0
47.5 10.0 10.0 12.0 14.0 16.0 18.0
50.0 10.0 12.0 14.0 16.0 18.0 18.0
55.0 10.0 12.0 14.0 16.0 18.0 20.0
60.0 12.0 12.0 14.0 18.0 20.0 22.0
65.0 12.0 14.0 16.0 18.0 20.0 24.0
70.0 12.0 14.0 18.0 18.0 22.0 24.0
75.0 14.0 16.0 18.0 20.0 22.0 26.0
80.0 14.0 16.0 20.0 20.0 24.0 28.0
85.0 14.0 18.0 20.0 22.0 24.0 28.0
90.0 16.0 20.0 22.0 24.0 26.0 30.0
95.0 16.0 20.0 24.0 24.0 28.0 30.0
100.0 18.0 22.0 24.0 26.0 28.0 32.0
105.0 18.0 22.0 24.0 26.0 30.0 32.0
110.0 18.0 24.0 26.0 28.0 30.0 34.0
115.0 20.0 24.0 26.0 28.0 32.0 34.0
120.0 20.0 26.0 26.0 28.0 32.0 36.0
125.0 22.0 26.0 28.0 30.0 34.0 36.0
130.0 22.0 26.0 28.0 30.0 34.0 38.0
135.0 24.0 28.0 28.0 30.0 34.0 38.0
140.0 24.0 28.0 30.0 32.0 36.0 40.0
145.0 26.0 28.0 30.0 32.0 36.0 40.0
150.0 26.0 28.0 30.0 32.0 36.0 42.0
155.0 26.0 30.0 30.0 34.0 38.0 44.0
160.0 28.0 30.0 32.0 34.0 38.0 46.0
165.0 28.0 30.0 32.0 36.0 40.0 48.0
170.0 30.0 32.0 32.0 36.0 40.0 48.0
175.0 30.0 32.0 34.0 38.0 42.0 50.0
180.0 30.0 34.0 34.0 38.0 44.0 50.0
185.0 30.0 34.0 34.0 38.0 44.0 52.0
190.0 32.0 34.0 36.0 40.0 46.0 52.0
195.0 32.0 34.0 36.0 42.0 46.0 54.0
200.0 32.0 36.0 36.0 44.0 46.0 54.0

PAGE 11
TESTING EQUIPMENTS
Sr. Nature/Type of Instruments Use of Instruments

No.
1. a) Tester a) Supply availability
b) Test Lamps b) Earthing continuity check.
2. a) Avo-meter (Multi-meter) a) Resistance, insulation resistance, continuity.
current
voltage - measurements.
b) Motor checker b) Inductance measurements.
c) Clip-on Meter c) Amps measurement on load.
3. a) Insulation tester a) Insulation resistance, continuity, Absorption
(megger) Index & polarization Index measurements.
b) Growler b) For motor rotors - bars - healthiness checking.

4. Dielectric strength testing Dielectric strength
kit
5. High Voltage/pressure To check healthiness against high voltages before
testing kit. (a) AC (b) DC taking on commercial operation.
6. Under ground cables To reduce fault resistance to decide exact location of
Burning kit fault.
fault location kit
7. Tan delta measurement kit To confirm electrical healthiness especially for
transformers, switchgears, high voltage bushings,
etc.
8. Phase sequence - Hot After erection or major repairs -
phasing out testing to confirm exact phase sequence.
instruments.
9. Gas Chromatograph - test To predict nature of fault in high capacity power
kit transformers from oil samples.
10. Relay Testing set Preventive maintenance practice to check
a) Primary Injection set protections healthiness from time to time. Also after
b) Secondary Injection set erection and major repairs these tests are necessary.
11. Loading These instruments are required for primary injection
transformers/variacs etc. test.
12. Cathode Ray Oscilloscope. For measurement of voltage surges and wave forms
in the system.
13. Infrared hot spot measuring For high voltage transmission lines - switchgears –
instruments. transformers overhead connections.
14. Earth resistance measuring Immediately after erection and as a preventive
instruments. maintenance from time to time on electrical system.
15. DC Batteries/ Hydro To confirm DC batteries’ healthiness - measurement
meters. of specific gravity etc.
16. Testing benches for To confirm correctness of these instruments from
calibration of integrating, time to time.
indicating and measuring
instruments.
17. Condition monitoring - To confirm mechanical healthiness of electrical
electrical motors. equipments from time to time.
a) By portable vibration
analyser
b) SPM meter (Shock Pulse
Meter).

PAGE 12
18. High capacity generators - To confirm mechanical healthiness of windings
stators / winding overhangs overhang portion. More vibrations may lead to
vibration measurements. insulation failures.
19. H.V. Remote Sensing Safe Isolation practice.
Device.
CHARACTERISTIC OF TRANSFORMER FAULTS

Type of Faults Causes Effects Actuation Major
of Components of
Buchholz gases evolved
Realy
1 Electrical
(a) High energy 1 Short 1 Pyrolytic sudden Methane,
discharges circuits in decompositio actuation Hydrogen &
(arcing) the n of Acetylene
windings. insulating oil (Carbon
monoxide if
solid insulation
is also involved)
2 External 2 Formation of
short circuit oil carbon
from parts
at potential
to earth
3 Breakdown 3 Decrease in
between the the flash
windings point of oil
4 Breakdown
through the
oil between
the bare
conductors.
(b) Low energy
discharges
(i) Continuous 1 Bad contact Slight Actuation Hydrogen,
sparking at action of decompositio after a Acetylene.
breaks. connections n of long Methane is less
to metallic insulating oil. period. than in (a).
parts with
floating
potential.
(ii) Discharges 2 Due to

between surface
selector layer of
contacts. foreign
materials.

PAGE 13
(c) High energy 1 Poor Ionization
partial impregnatio processes.
discharges with n (Excitation
tracking. and
dissociation
of
hydrocarbon
molecules by
collision with
high energy
electrons,
ions, atomic
hydrogen, etc
2 Presence of Ionization
cavities in processes.
the
insulation.
3 Electrical
overstressin
g of the
insulation.
(d) Low energy Poor Methane,
partial impregnatio Hydrogen.
discharges n or cavities
without tracking in the
insulation.
2 Thermal
Faults :
(a) Overheating to 1. Excessive Slight After a Hydrogen,
temperatures 2 magnetic decompositio long Methane,
between 150 C losses n of oil period Ethylene
& 300 C (Hot Insufficient (Ethylene
spot) cooling predominates).
No Acetylene.
(b) Local over High Decompositio After Hyderogen,
heating (300 C circulating n of oil with some Methane,
- 1000C) currents in formation of time. Ethylene
the core oil carbon. (Ethylene
predominates)
No. Acetylene.
(c) Local over Shorting 1 Decompositio Actuation Hydrogen,
heating beyond links n of oil with of relay Methane,
1000 C between formation of after Ethylene
core oil carbon accumula (Ethylene
laminations tion of predominates).
little Considerable
quantity amount of
of gases. Acetylene
2 Destruction of
non-organic
insulation
3 Melting spots, core

PAGE 14
burn, melted
conductors and
scorching points.

PAGE 15
REPAIRING AND REFURBISHMENT OF TRANSFORMERS
One should follow the following four steps for rectifying and re-commissioning the
faulty transformer:
Identification of problem (finding out types of faults and its location)
Evolving to the solution (paper work for its rectification)
Implementation of solution (actual repairing work)
Drying out, testing and commissioning. Electrical insulation of Electrical machine in

service undergoes ageing process due to:
Thermal load
Mechanical stresses/overloads
Electrical impurities like voids, foreign particles etc.
Environmental factors like humidity, temperature etc.
Heat is generated due to dielectric losses, which are a result of above factors. This
heat accelerates reaction in the electrical insulation resulting in erosion of material.
This in turn generates more losses. This vicious circle goes on and high voltage m/c
insulation ultimately fails unless checked and proper action taken in time. In majority
of the cases, failure can be forecast through internal inspection and through following
diagnostic testing;
(A) OIL
Tan Delta:
During service, a periodic check of tan delta and capacitance of H.V. m/cs help in
determining the rate of deterioration of insulation.
Tan delta is the measure of the effectiveness of transformer oil as an insulating

medium. Transformer windings contain certain products which once dissolved in oil
cause an in-crease in oil power factor (IR/IC or VR/VC) with very little change in
dielectric strength and sludge formation and soluble oxidation products in the oil
since it responds to almost anything which might dissolve in oil, it reflects truly
the condition of oil in terms of suitability. The factors that cause an ultimate failure
on a transformer do show up in the tan-delta value of the oil. As such there is no fixed
value of tan-delta. But it can be taken in the of 0.001 to 0.003 at 90 deg. C. Oil in
service trans-former may have as high as 0.1 to 0.15, when it exceeds 0.2, oil needs
replacement. Best way is to compare tan-delta with previous reading and if there is
rising trend in the values corrective action should be taken.
Acidity :
Acidity is measured in terms of neutralization number. Oxidation of oil causes acid

formation and sludging. New oil will have an acidity of a minimum of 0.02. Oil in
service may have acidity of 0.5. Beyond 0.5 oil filtering frequency is increased,

PAGE 16
though filtering will not improve acidity condition, it may prevent further
deterioration of oil. Beyond 1.0, oil should be discarded.
Interfacial Tension (IFT) :
This is one of the important criteria in assessing the condition of the oil in
service. This is measured in dynes/cm at 30 deg. C. A high value will indicate the
PURE condition of oil. The IFT values with the corresponding values of acidity will
indicate when the oil is beginning to sludge. New oil will have an IFT of 50 dynes/cm.
Used oil will have IFT of around 20. When it drops below 14, oil should be
replaced.
Specific Resistance :
New oil may have around 700 giga ohms cms. at 90 deg. C. It can be as low as 13
giga ohms cms. In service the value should not drop below 0.2 giga ohms cms.
Dissolved Gas Analysis (DGA) :
Oil and the insulating material used in the transformer decompose under the
influence of the thermal and electrical stresses and generate gaseous products
which dissolve in the oil. When the recovered gases are analysed by Gas
Chromotog-raphy, proportion of gas content in ppm of oil by volume in NTP
(Hydrogen -H2, Methane - CH4, Acetylene - C2H2, Ethelene - C2H4,
Ethane - C2H6, Carbon Monoxide-CO, Carbon Dioxide - CO2, etc.) will give us
the type of fault and probable cause of fault.
(B) TRANSFORMER
Core loss test :
Can be measured at service voltage (always not possible) or applying low voltage.
20% increase compared to previous reading would indicate the possibility of core
bolt insulation failure or deterioration OR interturn short.
Short circuit Impedance of H..V. & L.V. :

This test and the magnetic balance test confirms the healthiness of windings.
Capacitance and tan-delta may be measured periodically and compared with

previous reading. If deviation is more than 20%, corrective measures should be
taken.
Voltage ratio at various taps may be measured periodically. I.R. & P.I. values may be
measured periodically and readings may be compared with previous readings.
Winding resistance may be measured periodically and compared with previous

readings and if deviation is more than 20% corrective action may be taken.

PAGE 17
Identification of problem :
Fault in the transformer can be identified by studying the relay operation and by
testing Iron loss - Continuity - Ratio - I.R. and by physical inspection.
By above tests, fault can be confirmed and located.
Evolving to the solution :
Paper work for rectifying the fault, material required, material procurement action,
outage period, alternate arrangement (if any), whether to be given on contract or to
be done departmentally, etc. can be worked out.
Implementation of solution:
Opening transformer cover
Dismantling the active part

(care must be taken for removing connection - a separate book should be prepared
for each unit. )
Removing sludge etc.
Inspection of insulation of other part of the winding which is not Faulty.
Remedial action for the insulation of healthy portion.
Rewinding of Transformer winding :

Care for equivalent C.S. area conductor
Care for interturn insulation
Assembly of individual discs

(care should be taken for cooling ducts)
Care should be taken for connection (vector group, etc), lead insulation and lead
connection and finally for assembling the magnetic circuit. (When transformer coils
winding is in progress, care should be taken for storing the magnet-ic material.
Undue stresses and bending of stampings should be avoided).
DRYING OUT, TESTING AND COMMISSIONING :
The practice for the frequency of untanking the large transformer for inspection
is yet not established because of the limitation of both maintenance cost and down
time cost due to outages, while the cost of failure may be prohibitive and the effects
disastrous. Only through diagnostic testing combined with close watch on operating
parameters can satisfactorily strike a balance. The internal inspection involves the
exposure of core, oil and winding to atmospheric conditions with the resulting
moisture absorption by all of them and hence after internal inspection by untanking
the trans-former, drying out of the transformer should be done for effective
moisture removal.
Before commissioning the transformer after repairs, certain tests are performed to
PAGE 18
know the health of transformers. Before carrying out any testing, transformer
winding is dried out first to remove trapped moisture from winding and core which
otherwise would reduce I.R. on load which ultimately contaminates transformer oil
and will lead to break-down of transformer.
Cellulose insulation used in power transformer has 8 to 10% of moisture by weight at

ambient temperature and since water reduces dielectric strength and resistivity of
oil and accelerates the deterioration of solid insulation, drying out is must.
The vapour pressure in the insulation is increased by heating the insulation by

passing the current through winding and vapour pressure around the insulation is
decreased by removing vapour pressure by vacuum.
During drying out, the temperature of active part/ winding should not exceed 100
deg.C. After drying out is over, the repaired winding should be pressed to its
original shape, otherwise during the fault feeding, because of excessive stresses,
the possibility of de-shaping of winding is there resulting in transformer internal
fault. The pressing of winding will expose to atmosphere resulting in absorption of
moisture. It should be again dried to remove the moisture for double the period for
which it is exposed to ambient. For drying out at site, arrangement may be made as
shown in figure.
The I.R. of a winding while not a definite measure of the insulation dielectric
strength when properly interpreted may afford a useful indication as to the suitability
of winding for operation. For H.V. m/cs, a high value of I.R. is usually indicative of
clean and dry insulation, but it is not by itself proof that the insulation is free from
mechanical OR physical weakness. Such weakness may be of a type which does not
affect I.R. at low voltage, but may be the cause of B.D. upon the application of normal
working voltage. (periodical cleaning and usual inspection are necessary
regardless of the I.R. value). I.R. may vary with change in operating conditions
such as temperature, moisture, cleanliness, age of the winding. It will also vary with
the length of time of application of test voltage and sometimes with the magnitude of
test voltage.
Since the I.R. varies so widely with temperature and humidity from day to day and
even from m/c to m/c, a considerable amount of experience and judgment is required
to know when will it be safe to energies.
It must be remembered that two effects are present; Drying, which increases I.R. and
increased temperature, which lowers I.R. (as a thumb rule, for every 10 deg. C.
increase in temp, I.R. becomes half).
In general, heat and circulation of dry air are necessary to remove moisture from
insulation.. It is particularly important never to allow the internal temperature of the
coil to exceed the boiling point of water, since temperature above this point may
convert the moisture to steam, creating internal pressure which may injure the
insulation. It is necessary, therefore, to raise the temperature slowly and control it
continuously.
The drying operation cannot be hurried. It may take many hours or even days to
secure satisfactory results. In all cases, positive air circulation must be provided with
ample ventilation for the escape of moisture.
Careful observation of the properties of the insulation during drying is the only
PAGE 19
means of determining when safe operating conditions have been reached.
Before drying, OLTC and bushings should be serviced and flushed with fresh oil.
After drying out is over, following testing should be done; (a)I.R.& P.I. (b) H.V.
testing (Hipot test - separate source test) (c) Iron loss measurement. For site
testing for item (b) and (c), arrangement may be made at twice the voltage and
double the frequency. (This test should be as fast as possible).
Finally after taking I.R. and P.I. values, transformer may be energized with minimum
relay setting and kept energized for at least 12 hours (during which transformer
will be stabilized and abnormality if any will be known) and THEN ONLY
transformer should be loaded
TRANSFORMERS 66 KV & ABOVE MANUFACTURED
IN INDIA IN COLLABORATION WITH
CROMPTON GREAVES (400 KV) Parkinson Hopkinsons (original Collaborator)
Brush electric.
Afterwards,
Westing House - USA
Mitsubishi - Japan
BHEL (400 KV) AEI (UK),
Alsthom (France) and
Asea Brown Boveri (Sweden)
TELK (400 KV) Hitachi (Japan)
VOLTAS (220 KV)- KEC
H.H. EASUN (132 KV) Hewtic Hackbridge
APEX (BARODA) (132KV) M/s.Elin
IMP (BOMBAY) (220 KV)
BHARAT BIJLEE (220 KV) Siemens (Germany)
KIRLOSKAR BANGALORE (132KV) Ferranti (Germany)
GEC (NAINI) (220KV) AEI (UK) - Now GEC Alsthom
VOLTAMP (BARODA) (132 KV)

ASHOK (UDHNA, SURAT) (")
ANDREW YULE (MADRAS) (") Andrew
NGEF (400 KV) AEG (Germany)
A) OLTC MANUFACTURED IN INDIA
IN COLLABORATION WITH :
KV Class Amps.
1. M.R. GERMANY
BHEL - BHOPAL 220 1800
HH Easun - Madras 066 800
PAGE 20
TELK - Kerala 066 800
NGEF - Bangalore 220 ---
2. CROMPTON FULLER - ENGLAND
CTR - Pune 066 300
Crompton - Nasik, 066 300
ATL (UK) (Improved ver.)
IMP - Bombay 066 300

PAGE 21
3. A.E.I - UK/AEG GERMANY
NGEF - Bangalore 066 300
4. G.E.C - UK
GEC - Naini 011 300
B) ON LOAD GEAR - MADRAS 033 300

(No collaboration)
C) Elin, Austria 132 1600

ASEA, Sweden 220 1600
Westing House, USA 220 ---
Brush, Sydney (Australia)/UK --- ---
Sr. No. (C) (a to d) not manufactured in India.
Highest capacity transformer manufactured in the world is 2000 MVA 1600 KV. For
one MW generation of power, the requirement of transformer is 6 MVA (for entire
network, till power reaches the consumer). with the introduction of wind mills, this
ratio of 6 reduces to nearly 5.
CRGO stampings are presently imported from Nippon - Japan., Kawasaki - Japan.,
ARMCO - U.S.A., Stemcore- U.K., British Steel - U.K.
Now-a-days the grading (nomenclature) is M4H, M3H, M2H, M0H, etc. M0H is the
best variety available in the world. Watt loss per Kg. is 15% less than M4H, M3H
etc.
No load loss - Rs. 60,000/- per KW
Bm - 1.6 T to 1.75 T, Saturation level is 2 T
V/T = 4.44 B f A x 10-5 Volts.
(4.44 - fixed, B - Almost fixed, A - Area of core) are known as binding parameters.
If transformer analogy is compared with human body, it will be core and winding
(active part) - Heart, Oil - Blood circulation, Tank - Body, (Bushing,T.C., etc.) - legs,
Arms.
L = __/Cg/Cs
Cg - Ground Capacitance, Cs - Series Capacitance
By interleaving arrangement series capacitance is increased & L is made nearly 1.

PICC (Paper insulated covered conductor) available at
Shakti Bombay
Bhandari
Delta
MEPL Bhopal
Shree
Vindhya Reva
Kraft Paper - On conductor Both are Crape imported

Paper - On lead

PAGE 22
TAP CHANGER
Tap changer is an equipment which is fitted with the transformer for adjusting
trnaformer winding turns to suit the HV / LV side voltages.
Generally the tap changer is fitted on the HV side and by operating the tap changer
i.e. by changing the no. of turns in the circuit ,we can change the HV/LV side
voltage.
The tappings of the tap changer are generally provided on the H.V. side due to the
following reasons:
The number of the turns in the winding is large and therefore a fine voltage regulation
is obtained. It may not be possible to provide correct voltage regulation by using
tappings on the L.V. side because of the smaller number of turns.
The current on the L.V. side of high capacity transmission and generation
transformers is very high. Therefore, provision of tappings on the L.V. windings for
these transformer is impracticable on account of the difficulties encountered in
handling of high current.
The L.V. winding is placed on the inner side nearer to the core while the H.V. winding
is placed on the outside. Therefore, on account of the practical consideration it is
simpler to provide tapings on the high voltage winding.
There is an additional advantage of providing tapping on high voltage winding of

step-down transformer. The voltage on L.V. side of these transformers increases on
light loads. Therefore, in order to decrease this voltage, the tappings on H.V. side is
adjusted to such a position where the number of turns is large. The more number of
turns decreases the flux and the flux density. This reduces the core loss which in turn
increases the efficiency of the transformer at low loads.
Out of few occasions where tappings are provided on L.V. side of transformers, two
more significant reasons are as follows :
For 400 kV and above transformers, tappings are provided on L.V.side to make
transformer economical. If it is provided on H.V.side and phased near star point then
tap changer should be designed for 400/_/3 kV insulation and handling H.V.side
current. On the other hand, if it is provided on L.V.side then tap changer should be
designed for _/3 times lesser insulation than L.V.side voltage and handling L.V.side
current which is transformation ratio - times higher than H.V.side current. Looking to
the prohibitively higher cost of insulation, higher current tap changer design is
economical (Frequency of operation is comparatively less).
For tap changer design considering insulation cost and higher current handling
aspect, a compromise is made and it is concluded that upto 220 kV providing
tappings on H.V.side is economical and beyond 220 kV system, it is economical to
provide tappings on L.V.side.
.
In case of furnace transformers, voltage variations required is of the order of 100%
(For power transformers, it is max. 20%). If tappings are provided on H.V.side where
no. of turns are large, transformer winding should be designed with almost double the
turns involving double the copper & more iron and more consumption of insulating
material and hence transformer will become bulky which require more oil and
PAGE 23
ultimately transformer will become costlier. By providing tappings on L.V.side, with
marginal incremental cost purpose is served.
THERE ARE TWO TYPES OF TAP CHANGERS
OFF-CIRCUIT tap changer.
ON-LOAD tap changer.
OFF-LOAD CHANGER
The tapping must be changed only when the transformer is disconnected from the
supply at both the ends. This is called off-circuit tap changing.
As the name suggests, the tappings are changed by disconnecting the transformer
from the supply. This adjustment is carried out by tapping the respective windings as
required and bringing the connection of tappings to some position near the top of the
transformer. The changing of tapping is done manually through hand-holes provided
in the cover. Another arrangement employs reconnection that can be made by
manually operated switches.
One from of selector switch used for off-load changer is shown in fig. No.1
This arrangement is commonly used for providing ±5% tappings in steps of 2.5% .
Six brass or copper terminals are mounted on an arm attached to the shaft. Taps are
brought out of the middle part of the winding and connected to the next, the moving
contact connects adjacent pair of stationary terminals.
ON-LOAD CHANGER
All forms of tap-changing circuits possess two fundamental features :
Some form of impedance which is introduced to prevent short circuiting of the tapping
section.
AND
A duplicate circuit which is provided so that the load current can be carried by one
circuit whilst switching is being undertaken in the other.
The impedance can take the form of either a resistor or a centre tapped reactor and
on-load tap changers can in general be classified as resistor or reactor type. For our
65MVA ICT-1, it is resistor type.
In early designs of on-load tap changers although it was recognized that resistor
transition had considerable advantages in longer contact life, due to the relatively
short arcing time associated with unity power factor switching. The use of center
tapped rectors as the tap changing impedance was in general more popular inspite of
the inevitable shorter contact life.
Earlier the rectors were used in on-load tap changers. But these early tap changers
were operated at low speeds and contact separation was slow enough for arcing to
persist for several half cycles. Arc extinction finally taking place at current zero when
PAGE 24
the contact gap was wide enough to prevent a restrike.
The mechanical drive to these earlier tap changers, both resistor and reactor
transition type was of direct drives or of stored energy type using a flywheel or spring
but such drives were associated with complicated gearing and shafting and the risk
of failure had to be taken into account.
To a very large extent these older designs have now been superseded since the
introduction of high speed resistor transition tap changing. Reliability of operation
has been vastly improved very largely by the practice of building the stored energy
drives. Further more, the introduction of contacts using copper/tungsten alloy arcing
tips has brought about a substantial improvement in contact life and a complete
change in switching philosophy.
As already mentioned, high speed resistor tap changing has now almost completely
superseded the midpoint reactor method, and in general there are two basic circuit
arrangements in use. These can be divided into those types which carry out selection
and switching on the same contacts and transfer resistor and those types which have
tapping selectors and separate diverter switches in general, use the resistor.
With a single resistor load current and resistor circulating current have to be
arranged to be subtractive which dictates use with unidirectional power flow or
reduced rating with reverse power flow. When two resistor are employed the duty
imposed on the diverter switch is unchanged by a change in the direction of power
flow.
The two types fall into the classes, single and double compartment tap changers.
Most designs of the single compartment type employ a rotary form of selector switch.
Figure no-2 shows diagrammatically the various switching arrangements for resistor
type changers.
Figure no-2 (a) illustrates the method employed for the single compartments tap
changer and is known as the Pennant cycle (Bi-directional).
Figure no-2 (b) shows the connections where two resistors and separate diverter
switches are employed and is shown as the Flag cycle (Unidirectional).
On larger transformers the on-load tap changing equipment is more usually arranged
with separate tap selectors and diverter switches. The tap selectors are generally
arranged in circular form but “in-line” contact and crescent arrangements are also
used and in fact provided a greater voltage withstand over the tapping range. The
diverter switches have contacts operating in rapid sequence with usually four
separate make and break units. Figure shows typical selector and switching
arrangements.
In the process of changing from one tapping to the next, the main contact M-1 and
the auxiliary contact A-1 are closed so that connection is made to tapping 10. To
change to 9, M-1 is opened first, and this transfers the load current via A-1 with one
resistor R-1 in series. A-2 then closes. In this position the two resistors are in series
across tapping 9 and 10 setting up a circulating current. The load current is divided
passing through each of the resistor to each of the tapings. A-1 then opens and
interrupts the circulating current and the load is now transferred to the tapping
passing through the resistor R-2. Finally M-2 closes completing the tap change. In
the majority of designs this sequence is completed in between 50 and 80 ms. For a
tap change in the opposite direction, the sequence is reversed, but it will be noted
that for the first reversal the tap selectors do not have to be moved. This feature is
obtained by using a lost motion coupling in the upper portion of the tap selector.
In diagram shown below the tap changer is shown connected to an auto transformer
with reversing tapping at the line end of the winding.

PAGE 25
SWITCHING SEQUENCE OF THE TWO COMPARTMENT O.L.T.C.
Tap position No.2.The main contact is carrying load current. The resistor contacts M-
1 and M-2 are open resting between fixed contacts.
The resistor contact M-1 was made on the fixed contact-2 and the main contact has
broken. The transition resistor contact M-1 carries load current.
The resistor contact M-2 has made on the fixed contact-3. The load current is divided
between resistor contacts M-1 and M-2. The circulating current is limited by resistors.
The resistor contact M-1 has broken from the fixed contact-2. The transition resistor
contact M-2 carries the load current.
The position No.-3. The main contact has made on fixed contact-3. The resistor
contact M-2 has broken from the fixed contact-3. The main contact is carrying load
current.

PAGE 26
TRANSFORMER OIL TERMINOLOGY
MAINTENANCE :
Objective : Maximize system availability to the desired level with a criteria of safety
and economy.
After maintenance, condition should improve.
Judgment.
One should exercise practical approach.
Example of fire and substation operator.
Give clear cut instructions with reasoning part.
Example of D.G. Set oil cup.
Example of wiring piping belting.
Example of Moorty.
Example of Vasai Khadi/Canal.
Routine Maintenance.
B. D. Maintenance
Preventive maintenance/ Planned maintenance/ Scheduled Maintenance/ Time

based Maintenance.
Predictive Maintenance/ Condition based Maintenance.
Corrective Maintenance.
Opportunity Maintenance.
Do not adopt make shift method.
Haste in maintenance is waste in production.
Example of maintenance manager’s excuse.
Secret of good maintenance is perfection and attention to details. If you attend to

minor defects, major breakdowns never arise.
TRANSFORMER OIL TERMINOLOGY:
Improper use of word transformer oil like Dalda Ghee.
Why to know terminology.

Practicing Engineers, jargon of wordings - IS 335

PAGE 27
Basic Function of Oil
Engineers’ concern
Controlled temperature - cooling
Three modes of heat transfer.
Insulating oil - about 90% used in transformer - hence named transformer oil.
Insulating property
Should not interfere with any part. Therefore must be completely free from dirt,
fibres, moisture and other solid matter.
Dust, dirt and moisture are enemies of electricity, remove them.
Should be stable against oxidation - working temperature 90 deg. C
Right viscosity and thermal conductivity to be an efficient coolant.
Should not have a tendency to dissolve any matter.
Operating Engineer would perhaps be knowing standard values for these terms but
often wonders what it means in practical life.
Understand significance of terms.
Understand their monitoring method and ageing characteristics.
It should have many properties which cannot be defined in one sentence.
Example of commercial Bania.
Specific gravity of oil is 0.85 to 0.88 at 27 degree C.
FLASH POINT :
By some reason temperature of machine increases upto a point where oil emits
excessive vapour and when mixed with air, ignitable mixture can cause flash on
application of small pilot flame.
Two method for safeguarding machine and oil - controlled temperature and use of
oil which does not emit vapour at that temperature. Value - 145 deg. C minimum.
POUR POINT :
Lowest temperature as a multiple of three deg. C when starts flowing.
At lower temperature oil can freeze hindering formation of conventional current hereby
reducing cooling ability of oil. May block Buchholz Relay operation. Must remain mobile -
must have and retain viscosity. Value - minus 30 deg. C. maximum ( As per latest IS 335 it
is minus 6 deg. C).

PAGE 28
VISCOSITY :
In absence of cold ambient, the self-resistance of oil restricts its movement - flow
time as low as possible. Measures of this resistance defined as viscosity of oil. Time
required to flow through long capillary. Higher viscosity can slow down movement
of moving parts like C.B. and tap changers of transformers. It should be low. Value -
max. 27 centistokes at 27 deg. C.
NEUTRALISATION VALUE :
Also known as Acidity.
Oil derived from crude petroleum can have acids in it, which is detrimental to oil and
reduces to some extend dielectric strength of oil.
Acid not only is responsible for corrosion but can form insoluble sludges which can
clog and hamper to cooling system and hence to neutralize effect of oil. Unit - mg. of
KOH per gram of oil. For new oil - 0.02. (max. value for new oil is 0.05 mg. of
KOH/gm. of oil). For transformer in service, it could be 0.5 Beyond 1.0, it should be
discarded.
Filtering oil -- can be reduced by fuller’s Earth process.
CORROSIVE SULPHUR :
Some transformers age faster than others. One of the reasons is excessive
corrosion of metal parts due to presence of sulphur, which might not have
eliminated at the time of manufacture.
Standard recommends freedom from sulphur.
SLUDGE LEVEL AT HIGH TEMPERATURE :
Use of oil at high temperature forms asphaltenes - this compound blankets heat
generating parts and creates resistance to uniform heat distribution.
Radiator cooling efficiency further increases temperature, which increases

deterioration - cumulative process.
Compound known as sludge.
Process is known as Oxidation.
Resistance to process is Oxidation stability.
Sludge value indicates deterioration rate of oil.
DIELECTRIC STRENGTH :
Moisture present in oil - free, suspended or dissolved affects performance of

transformer.
Dielectric strength of oil is the voltage in KV at which breakdown occurs in transformer oil.

PAGE 29
Test procedures and value (As per IS 6712).
Test procedures and value.
Oil with requisite dielectric strength may not be good enough.
12.7mm to 13.0mm sphere diameter for gap of 4 +/- 0.02mm.

S.C.I should be more than 20 mA. above 15 KV. It is limited to 1 Amp. max.
40 KV for 1 minute.
30 KV for one minute for oil in drum.
It should be increased to 40 KV for one minute before transferring to electrical
equipment.
P.F. (tan delta) and resistivity are of more importance.
POWER FACTOR :
Referred as tan delta OR dielectric dissipation. This gives the exact method of
evaluation of dielectric degradation.
This property responds to improper manufacture of oil and indicates soluble

varnishes, resins and moisture.
P.F is the ratio of power dissipation in oil to VA in oil when subjected to sinusoidal wave.
Measured at 50 Hz. and corrected at 20 deg. C.
Ir/Ic or Vr/Vc is the oil P.F.
Value should be as low as possible to ensure non-presence of moisture, polar

compound or other soluble impurities.
Higher P.F. results in higher heating, corrosion and water - faster rate of oxidation.
This test provides protection against inferior oil - cannot be achieved by measuring
dielectric strength. Values (Range), 0.001 to 0.003 at 90 deg. C, Could be as high
as 0.1
For voltages above 145 KV, if it exceeds 0.2 %, oil needs replacement. For voltages
below 145 KV, tan delta can be 1.0%. If it increases, resistivity decreases. Best way
is to compare with previous readings. Deviation should not be more than 20%.
Measuring instruments should be perfect. Example of 650V grade wire for 5 KV

megger.
SPECIFIC RESISTANCE :
Also known as Resistivity :
Out of every ten transformers that burn, reasons remain unknown for atleast nine.
The operating engineer can make a guess based on available data derived from
post fire condition. One reason of short circuit - Oil could have started conducting
because of presence of water or perceptible material which reduces resistivity by
PAGE 30
contaminating oil.
Resistivity is defined as the ratio of D.C. potential per cm. to current density in
amperes per cm. square. Value 700 Gigaohm cms. at 90 deg. C. In service
transformer oil can have value as low as 13 Gigaohm cms. It should not be less
than 0.1 Gigaohm cms.
Resistance is temperature dependent.
Example of megger value.
S.K. VALUE :
Manufacturer some times uses conventional acid treatment and sulphuric acid to
produce good quality transformer oil from base stock. S.K. value is therefore
increase in volume of sulphuric acid when a particular test sample is added.
INTERFACIAL TENSION:
Sludge in oil affects the heat transferability of oil, which makes it important to
assess the sludge formation rate in oil.
Oil gets contaminated due to dissolution of varnish etc
The property of oil which can detect above things is termed as interfacial Tension.
The force necessary to detach planner ring of platinum wire from the surface of
liquid of higher surface tension that is upward from the water - oil surface.
It is measured in N./mt. (Newton/mt.) OR Dynes/Cms.

Value - New oil - 50
Used oil - 20 If drops below 14, oil should be replaced.
IS 10028 (Transformer Maintenance)

Part I -- Selection
Part II -- Installation
Part III -- Maintenance
TEST FOR CRACKLING (TEST FOR FREE WATER) :
DISSOLVED GAS ANALYSIS :
OIL RECONDITIONING :
STATIC ELECTRIFICATION OF TRANSFORMER OIL :
When insulating oil flows through insulation ducts in power transformers, charge
separation occurs at the interface of paper and oil. As a result the insulating oil and
the surface of the solid materials become charged and dielectric breakdown is
possible within the oil or at the interface of insulating materials. At least dozen field
failures of large forced oil cooled power transformers has been found. These
failures were not attributed to any specific transformer design or type of oil.
Colour of Transformer Oil Oil Quality Class

PAGE 31
Pale Yellow Good Oil
Yellow Proposition A Oil
Bright Yellow Marginal Oil
Amber Bad Oil
Brown Very bad Oil

Dark Brown Extremely Bad oil
Black Oil in and disastrous condition
The useful information about the trend of change in the oil (can be known from its
colour and odor).
Cloudiness in oil may be due to suspended moisture or sediments such as iron

oxide or sludge.
Dark Brown coloured oil may indicate the presence of dissolved asphaltenes.
A Green colour indicates the presence of dissolved copper compounds and a rapid
deterioration of oil may be expected.
Acrid acid smell indicates the presence of volatile acids which can cause corrosion.
The mineral hydrocarbon oil obtained from raw petroleum, degrades through
various processes :
Oxidations
Oxidation process begins when a small quantity of oil combines chemically with the
dissolved oxygen in the oil (from air) resulting the formation of traces of organic
acids. Carbon dioxide (CO2) is liberated predominantly during oxidation.
OIL BREAKDOWN:
The direct breakdown of oil by arcing results in cracking of oil. The aeromatic
content of the oil breaks down into simple hydrocarbons gas and hydrogen.
Acetylene and Methane are major constituents. Other hydrocarbon gases may also
be liberated due to cracking.
Permissible concentrations of dissolved gasses.
Gas Less than 4 years in 4-10 Years in More than 10 years

service (PPM) Service (PPM) in service (PPM)
Hydrogen 100-150 200-300 200-300

Methane 50-70 100-150 200-300
Acetylene 20-30 30-50 100-150
Ethylene 100-150 150-200 200-400
Ethane 30-50 100-150 800-1000
Carbon Monoxide 200-300 400-500 600-700
Carbon Dioxide 3000-3500 4000-5000 9000-12000

PAGE 32
DIELECTRIC STRENGTH OF OIL
(A)12.7 to 13 mm dia balls

Gap between two balls - 4 mm
± 0.02 mm
12.7 to 13 mm dia
4 mm gap
(B) 13 mm wide 36 mm dia

Gap between two balls - 2.5 mm
13 mm
36 mm dia
2.5 mm gap
Short circuit current should be more than 20 m.a. above 15 kV. It is limited to 1.0 Amp
max. In both the cases, withstand time is one minute.
Oil should withstand
30kV for one minute for oil in drum

40kV for one minute for oil in equipment.
D.S. of oil should be increased to 40 kV for one minute by filteration before transferring
to electrical equipment.
Permitted water content (in PPM) :-
Up to 145 > 145 kV

kV
New Oil 20 15
Oil in service 35 25
As per IS 2070
System Voltage RMS (Power BIL

frequency) 1.2 / 50 micro
kV second impulse
6.6 kV 22 60
11 kV 28 75
33 kV 70 170
66 kV 140 325
132 kV (a) 275 650
(b) * 230 550

PAGE 33
* For graded insulation
RMS value withstand time - 1 minute

* * * * * * *
For new machine, high voltage testing on site is not necessary or not desirable on a
machine which has already passed its tests in the factory in accordance with the
standards.
High voltage D.C. Testing will not serve a useful purpose since the potential distribution
on stator end windings under D.C. testing is different from that which exists under A.C.
for which the machine was designed. However if one wishes to carry out this test, he
should refer to the appropriate standard. e.g. the value of direct voltage shall not be
greater than the RMS value of the alternating voltage specified for the acceptance test
in the factory multiplied by 0.8 x 1.6 in the case of British standards and 0.85 x 1.7 in the
case of American standards. The max. duration of test is one minute.
After D.C. high voltage testing, the windings should be earthed for a period of several
hours.
WARNING:
If the windings are earthed momentarily, a voltage will build up following the removal of
the earth connection.
It should be borne in mind that when generator is rotating at rated speed, it may
generate at least 5 % of nominal voltage even when unexcited, due to residual
magnetism.
For 11kV stator winding. I.R. should not be less than

Winding temperature deg. C. 0 10 20 30 40 50
I.R. in mega ohms 128 64 32 16 8 4
11kV generator rotor should be meggered with 500 Volt megger. In no case voltage
should be more than 500 Volts. The I.R. value should be @ 2 m  . If rotor is lying idle
for days together under damped weather, I.R. can be as low as 10 K  . In such case
the best way of drying out rotor is to run the machine on load.
AUTOMATIC VOLTAGE REGULATOR
Voltage regulation is due to different loading conditions. Function of voltage regulator

is to maintain (adjust) generator terminal voltage at predetermined value (level).
Two modes of operation are available:
Manual (or Hand) operation through manual channel known as “ Manual Control”.
Setting is done by taking exciter current as reference. For voltage variation, one has
to change exciter current reference manually. This mode of operation is necessary for
machine operation when fault occurs in auto channel and for the short circuit
operation of machine (say for alternator winding drying out purpose).
Auto operation through Auto channel known as “Auto Control” and then the
equipment is known as AVR - Automatic Voltage Regulator (Manual Control or
Channel is a part of AVR.)

PAGE 34
Over and above generator voltage control, AVR on Auto mode (i.e. Auto Channel)
performs the following functions ;
Limits field forcing current immediately (Undelayed operation). Module is known as

“Field Forcing Limiter”. Field forcing is required for quick operation of certain relays
during fault. The maximum permissible value of excitation current is 1.4 to 1.5 times
the rated excitation value. If excitation is not limited within this range, it can damage
regulator and machine by overstressing by excessive over excitation.

PAGE 35
Under-excitation, Module is known as “Under Excitation Limiter”. When AVR is called
for under excitation, it will under excite (i.e. it will reduce the Excitation Current) the
machine to adjust to set point voltage. But because of the response time (Feedback),
AVR will reduce more excitation than the required level to match the generator
voltage which may bring the machine to operate more under-excited which may cross
the stability line on under-excited side (i.e. machine will operate at leading p.f.) and it
will become unstable. When under excitation limiter operates, it will increase (raise)
the generator voltage set-point and thus prevent machine operation from under
excitation state i.e. it will limit the machine operation in stable region as per the
capability curve.
Limits the excessive over excitation (by delayed operation). The module is known as
“OVER EXCITATION LIMITER”. The reasoning part is almost same as point (a) i.e.
F.F.I. Limiter.
Automatic field suppression. When machine is tripped on full load or at partial load,
its field breaker also trips and the arrangement in field breaker is such that it will
discharge the generator field and will load the exciter (by connecting loading resistor
across exciter output terminal and discharge resistor across generator field i.e.
Rotor). But by this arrangement, the discharge of energy from the field may take
more time which is responsible for inducing high voltage in the stator and exciter.
Actually the field decay depends upon the time constant of the winding. In case of
automatic field suppression, by allowing thyristor firing angle more than 90 deg., VE
(Reverse) polarity is created which decays field in less than 0.5 seconds. (Known as
inverter operation). During inverter operation it draws current from the exciter field.
Limits the stator current. The module is known as “Stator Current Limiter”. This limiter
is required to limit the stator current particularly when it is operating under excited
(i.e. with leading p.f.). Because for limiting stator current, excitation is reduced and if
it is running under excited and if excitation is reduced, it will be excessively under
excited and p.f. will be still less in leading side and stator current will increase
instead of decreasing. When stator current limiter operates, it will raise the excitation
(for leading p.f. operation) and thus stator current is reduced.
Prevents (Limits) overfluxing of transformer. Module is known as “V/Hz or V/f Limiter”.
Though V/f protection is not provided in system, provision is there in AVR for limiting
V/f ratio. Over fluxing is responsible for saturation of transformer. When V/f ratio (Say
K = 110V/50 Hz = 2.2 where 110V AC is the P.T. reference which has a ratio of 11
kV/110 V ) becomes 1.2K, overfluxing can occur( It can happen for higher generator
voltage with rated speed i.e. rated frequency or for rated generator voltage with
under frequency operation or for both.) Set point for auto control is generator terminal
voltage (Through P.T.) Set point voltage is generated in module from 110V DC (±15
Volts), which is compared with actual value of generator voltage and current (by line
C.T.). If any deviation is there, it will be amplified @ 100 times with the help of
differential or proportional amplifier and given to pulse controller and accordingly
pulse is varied and firing angle of thyristor is controlled, known as “Gate Control” and
excitation is varied accordingly.
Over and above two feedbacks (From line side C.T. and P.T.) a third feedback is also
given to AVR - known as series compounding - for controlling reactive component
when working parallel with other machines and for its own short circuit operation or
when a severe s.c. fault occurs on generator terminal itself because when short
circuit occurs, the generator voltage drops drastically and due to this the exciter input
(which is output of thyristor) is not available as the input power to thyrsitor which is
taken from machine output via excitation transformer is minimum because of very low
PAGE 36
generator terminal voltage. During this condition as stator current is very high, it is
converted to proportionate voltage and applied to exciter field to drive the fault
current or short circuit current.
Under certain fault conditions, AVR auto channel will change over to manual control
or manual channel. Incase auto control excitation fuse fails, a M.C.B. which is
connected across fuse will operate and Auto control mode will be charged over to
Manual control mode. If Manual control excitation fuse fails, a MCB, which is
connected across fuse, will operate and it will trip the machine. When AVR is on auto
channel (Control) a follower circuit (Follower module) comes into operation which
operates manual control potentiometer and adjusts manual channel excitation nearly
equal to auto channel excitation. The follower circuit operation is controlled by the
differential signals, which is obtained by comparing auto and manual channel control
voltage values. By this arrangement changeover from auto mode to manual mode is
made possible. (Otherwise when auto channel changes over to manual channel and
if manual channel excitation level is different, there will be wide voltage fluctuation
which will affect the machine loading.) A difference will be indicated in control room
by null voltmeter. P.T. voltage (110V AC) is connected to AVR for giving the actual
value of generator voltage. If P.T. secondary fuse fails, A.V.R. will see it as zero
voltage condition and will try to boost up the generator voltage by applying more
excitation to generator field even though generator voltage is at the required level. In
such situation a P.T. fuse failure relay will operate and will block the AVR functioning
(will BLOCK the AVR operation).
“Functioning of AVR” OR “Operation of AVR” OR “Working of AVR”

PAGE 37
BASIC FACTS ABOUT CURRENT TRANSFORMERS
1) WHAT IS CONTAINED IN A C.T.? A Primary winding which is connected in series
with the circuit, the current of which is to be
transformed,
the magnetic core, &
the secondary winding which receives electrical
energy from the primary circuit by
electromagnetic induction & to the terminals of
which is connected the relay, instrument, or
other device, which constitutes the burden on
the Current Transformer.
P
Generally primary has small no. of turns,

secondary large no. of turns and a toroidally
wound core (i.e. without air gaps). Impedance of
the C.T. is small. So its introduction in the circuit
does not change the current.
2) WHY SHORT-CIRCUITING A C.T. In a constant voltage system, short circuiting a

SECONDARY DOES NOT load causes high current to flow and creates a
CREATE A FAULT? fault. C.T. secondary is not a const. voltage
system. Connecting a C.T. secondary to low
impedance is in fact a functional requirement.
Is
Ip
Primary current IP sets up a flux in the core

which induces a voltage in the secondary. With
secondary shorted a current flows in the
secondary reducing the flux causing it. When
the Primary & Secondary Amp-Turns balance
each other and only magnetizing flux remains
in the core.
So, ApTp = AsTs

So, As = Ap . Thus the current in secondary is
Ts/Tp
primary current divided by the turns ratio.
Sec.Turns
Pri.Turns

PAGE 38
As a typical example :
Primary Ip = 100A, Pr. Turn = 1 , Sec. Turns =
20
Sec. Current = 100 = 5 Amps.
20/1
A C.T. is designated by its rated Current
transformation ratio, e.g. 100/5A.
3) HOW ACCURATELY IS THE Exact Amp-Turn balancing of Primary and
CURRENT TRANSFORMED BY Secondary is only theoretical. In practice C.T.
THE C.T.? secondary will have some resistance and
circulating current through it will require some
voltage in secondary and in turn some flux in
the core. This flux requires a magnetizing
current Im and a current Ie feeding the core loss.
These two currents are not transformed and
hence cause an error. Expressed vectorially it
looks like:
Ie
Ip
Is' Im
Om
(NOT TO SCALE)
Loss component Ie causes the Is to be less than
theoretical and gives rise to magnitude error
say
4.95 A in place of 5.00 A i.e. .05 x 100 = 1%
error. 5
This is referred to as Current Error (formerly
was known as Ratio Error).
Magnetizing current Im causes the phase error
i.e. Is is not exactly 180 o w.r.t. Ip but a little less.
180o is not considered any error because it can
be made 0o just by reversing the C.T. terminals.
Less than 180o (Inversed) causes the Is to lead
Ip. This error is called Phase Angle Error and is
expressed in “(Minutes)”.
4) WHAT IS MEANT BY -VE AND Current error where Secondary Current is less
+VE CURRENT ERROR? than theoretical is called -ve. Normally the error
would be -ve. But using certain techniques to be
discussed later - the error can be made +ve (i.e.
Secondary Current more than theoretical).
5) WHAT IS MEANT BY -VE AND When Is is leading Ip, Phase Error is +ve and
+VE PHASE ERROR? vice-versa. Phase Error cannot generally be
modified and can not be negative, because
secondary Power Factor angle is generally less
than the core material characteristic angle.

PAGE 39
6) DO THE ERRORS REMAIN SAME Due to the non-linearity of B-H characteristic of
FOR ALL VALUES OF PRIMARY magnetic core and loss varying with flux density
CURRENT ? non-linearly, errors at different primary currents
are different , the general pattern being
described below:
+120' Phase Error
+60'
25 50 75 100 125 Ip
0
%Rated
-1% Current
-2% Current Error
-3%
7) WHAT IS THE PRACTICAL USE Power system Engrs. are concerned with the
OF A C.T.? metering of various current dependent
quantities like Current, Power, Energy, P.F. etc.
They are also concerned with the protection of
the system in case of faults giving rise to high
currents. C.T.s sense these currents and feed to
the different operating devices.
These currents are at different values from tens
of Amps. to thousands of Amps. and at diff.
voltages from 415V to 400 kV. If all the metering
& protective devices were to be made for these
currents and voltages, it would be a prohibitive
task. With the interposition of C.Ts, the metering
& protection devices can be standardized on
suitable currents.
8) IS THE SAME C.T. SUITABLE Generally not because the requirements of
FOR BOTH METERING AS WELL metering instruments are different from those of
AS PROTECTION? protective devices. Metering devices require
high accuracy upto 1.2 times rated currents and
requires to be saturated at higher currents.
Protective Devices come into operation for
currents higher than rated. For discrimination of
operation they require accuracy upto several
times the rated currents without being
saturated.
9) WHAT IS APPLICABLE I.S. IS 2705, Part 1 : General
SPECS? FOR C.Ts? Part 2 : Metering C.Ts.
Part 3 : Protection C.Ts.
Part 4 : Special Purpose C.Ts.

PAGE 40
10 WHAT ARE THE ACCURACY Keeping requirements & economics in view,
) CLASSES OF METERING C.Ts ? following are the metering acc. classes :
0.1, 0.2, 0.5, 1.0, 3.0, 5.0. they specify

permissible errors at various % of Rated
Current like 10% ( or 5%), 20%, 50%, 100%,
125% (or 120%). The class designation is the
permissible Current Error at Rated Current.
11) HOW IS THE OVER CURRENT A factor called Accuracy Limit Factor (ALF)
DUTY OF A PROTECTIVE C.T. specifies this duty. C.T. must be accurate upto
SPECIFIED? ALF x Rated Current.
e.g. a C.T. with 100 A Rated Current and ALF
= 10 will be accurate upto 10 x 100 = 1000A.
Typical ALFs are 5,10,15,20.
12 WHAT ARE THE ACCURACY 5P, 10P, 15P, letter “P” indicates that it is
) CLASSES OF PROTECTION CTs ? protection Duty. 5,10,15 are the permissible %
Composite Error at the ALF Current.
13 WHAT IS MEANT BY BURDEN? These are the voltage requirements of the
) devices fed by C.T. (say 0.6V, 1V etc. at rated
current). However it is found convenient to
express them in VA. For 5A rated current, the
above figs. would be 3VA, 5VA, etc. If required,
ohm values can also be worked, e.g.
0.6 V 1V
------- = 0.12 , ----- = 0.2
5 A 5A
Thus commonly used fig. is VA but V and
Ohms can be easily worked out or vice-versa.
With several devices connected in series, VAs
get added. With long leads - as in the case
when C.T. is outdoors and the device in control
room-lead burden has a substantial value.
14 WHAT IS MEANT BY OUTPUT OF It is the voltage, the C.T. can develop without
) A C.T.? being saturated e.g. 3V, 6V etc. Here also it is
more convenient to express in VA. Thus with
5A Sec. current 3V = 15VA, 6V = 30VA etc.
While the output of a power apparatus like
transformer is a thermal rating, in C.Ts it is the
accuracy rating. i.e. a C.T. rated 15VA can
possibly deliver 30 VA also but its errors would
not be within permissible values for its
designated class (say 1.0).

PAGE 41
15 HOW ARE THE C.T. ERRORS More burden requires C.T. to develop more
) AFFECTED BY CHANGE IN voltage which requires more flux in the core.
BURDEN? This requires more mag. current I m & energy
loss current Ie. Thus the errors increase with
increase of burden which is logical also.
15VA
10VA
+120' 5VA
Phase
+60' Error
25 50 75 100 125 % Ip
25 50 75 100 125 % Ip
0 5VA
10VA
-0.5% 15VA
-1%
-1.5%
-2%
16 WHAT IS “TURNS Current Error of a C.T. can be modified by a

) COMPENSATION” ? “TRICK” i.e. Technique. Consider a 500/5A C.T.
with 100 turns secondary having a current
error of -1% i.e. the Is = 4.95A. With this the
Sec. AT = 4.95 x 100 = 495.
If now instead of 100 turns only 99 turns are

provided, Is will have to be 495 AT = 5.0 A
99 T
i.e. 0 error. Thus the error curve will be lifted
towards +ve by 1% (approx.)
+1.5%
+1% 10VA, 99 Turns
15VA, 99 Turns
+0.5%
25 50 75 100 125 Ip
0
-0.5% 10VA,100 Turns
-1% 15VA,100 Turns
-1.5%
With the turns compensation the Current Error

PAGE 42
can now be +ve also. If the turns compensation
is designed for rated burden for less burden,
the C.E. will be more +ve e.g.
Burden C.E. without C.E. With

Compensation
Compensation
15 VA -1% 0.0
10 VA -0.7% +0.3%
5 VA -0.5% +0.5%
Hence the specifications specify even the

lower values of burdens for which the C.T.
errors must be within permissible values. This
lower value is 25%. Thus a 15VA, Class 1.0
C.T. must have its errors at 15VA, as well as at
3.75 VA within permissible limits.
It is possible to give 1/3, 1/2 and 3/4 turn’s

compensation also.
17 WITH DIFFERENT CTs FOR 2 or 3 ratios can be obtained in a C.T. with
) DIFFERENT DUTIES i.e. marginal extra cost.
METERING & PROTECTION AND Tappings on Secondary
DIFFERENT C.Ts FOR
DIFFERENT RATIOS, THE NO. &
COST OF C.Ts WOULD BE 100
PROHIBITIVELY LARGE. IS S1 TNS S2 S3
THERE ANY ALTERNATIVE? 200 TNS
Ratio 500/5A in S1 - S2
Ratio 1000/5A in S1 - S3
With turns compensation used, S2 need not
always be center tap. Hence S1-S2 may not be
interchangeable with S2-S3.
Primary Reconnection
Parallel
Series
2T 2T
80 T 80 T 5A
Series Connection : Parallel
Connection
Ratio : 100/5A
Primary Tns : 4, AT = 400
Sec. Tns : 80, AT = 400
Ratio : 200/5A 400/5
Primary Tns : 4, AT = 800 2, AT = 800
Sec. Tns : 160, AT = 800 160, AT = 800

PAGE 43
By employing both these techniques, one can
get 3 ratios as :
400 - 200 - 100/5 A.
Cost of different C.Ts for metering & protection
can be reduced by employing a common
primary winding. In HV outdoor C.Ts this
results into large savings.
There would be 2 or 3 different cores with their

own sec. windings each meeting specific
requirements of metering , protection, etc.
Primary
Sec1 Sec2 Sec3
18 WHAT IS THE COMMON C.T. Typical C.T. details are written as :

) NOMENCLATURE? 400- 200 - 100/5+5+5 A.
Core 1 : 15/1.0
Core 2 : 15/5P 10
Core 3 : PS
where :
15/1.0 means 15VA rated output, Metering
Class 1.0.
15/5P10 means 15VA rated output protection

class 5P, ALF = 10.
PS is a special purpose protection class used

for differential protection where balancing
between C.Ts is required.
19 HOW IS THE PS CLASS By specifying :
) SPECIFIED ?
KpV= }Knee Point Voltage which makes
Or
Vk(Min.) }operation well below saturation.
RCT = Resistance of the secondary winding

(Max). at 75o C.
Im = Mag. Current at Vk-min. or Vk-min. or any

(Max). 2
other fraction of Vk.
No.3 is an additional specification some times
given.
20 WHAT IS THE SIGNIFICANCE OF For a simple Ammeter indication, polarity is not
) POLARITIES IN A C.T ? important. But for Energy metering, etc. phase
of C.T. current is important and polarity must
be correctly known.
21 HOW IS THE POLARITY Primary is marked as P1, P2 while secondary
) INDICATED ON A C.T. ? as S1, S2.
PAGE 44
With tapped secondary.
S1-S2 for one ratio.
S1- S3 for other ratio.
With more than one cores :

1S1 - 1S2 - 1S3 for core 1
2S1 - 2S2 - 2S3 for core 2 etc.
22 HOW IS THE POLARITY A D.C. current is passed through the primary.

) CHECKED? When this current is broken, a voltage is
induced in the secondary. A center zero moving
coil galvanometer is connected to the
secondary. The direction of deflection of the
pointer confirms polarity.
It can also be confirmed while measuring C.T.
errors.
P2 S1 P1
S2
A P.B.
A - M.C. centre zero permanent magnet

Ammeter
Battery - Low voltage 1.5 or 3.0 volts.
On closing P.B., the DC ammeter A should

indicate a positive flick and on opening, a
negative flick. If it is reverse way, polarity of CT
is reverse.
23 HOW ARE THE C.T. ERRORS Generally by comparison with a standard low
) MEASURED? error C.T.
Std Test
C.T. C.T.
Secondary Secondary

PAGE 45
The two currents - Sec.Currents of std. C.T. &
Test C.T. - pass through the detector in
opposite directions. Thus the current through
detector is the error current. Balancing of the
error current by “ In phase” & “Quadrature”
components give the “Current Error” & “Phase
Error”. “Petch Elliot” is a well-known age-old
Test Set suited for production. With the
development in “Electronics” several other
accurate sets are available. (with automatic
null balancing & digital read-out) These are
used for metering C.Ts . Protection Class 5P
has requirement of C.E. & P.E. at rated current
which is also measured by the above set.
Error at ALF current is measured in SP
protection class C.Ts by applying the voltage
required to be developed. This error is known
on composite error. The method of measuring
composite error is described in detail in Sr. No.
(40).
For PS class C.Ts, error in turns ratio shall be
determined. There is no simple & positive
method of measuring turns ratio on a C.T. This
is due to the fact that the actual transformation
ratio (for the measurement of which there is
readily available equipment) differs from the
rated transformation ratio by an amount which
depends upon the following factors:
the difference between the turns ratio & rated
transformation ratio, &
the core exciting current.
One method is to measure the current error at
about the rated primary current with as low a
value of non-inductive burden as possible. In
many designs, the current error measured
under these conditions, with the turns ratio
equal to the rated transformation ratio, is much
less than the errors due to a one turn error of
the secondary winding. But, in some instances,
however, it may be difficult to decide. Whether
a certain value of measured current error is
due wholly to the error component of the
exciting current or in part to an error in turns
ratio. In the majority of cases, it will be
sufficiently accurate to assume a linear
relationship between current error & total
burden & to calculate the current error
corresponding to zero burden from
measurements of current error at two low
values of burden only, as follows:
PAGE 46
Turns ratio error = Y (A+R) - X {1 + (A+R)}
(B-A) { (B-A)}
Where,
Y = Current error with burdens,
A = Lower value of burden in ohms,
R = Res. of the sec. Winding,
B = Higher value of burden in ohms,
X = Current error with burden A.
24 WHAT IS MEANT BY “BAR A CT consists of single turn primary winding is

) PRIMARY” C.T.s ? WHAT ARE known on ‘BAR PRIMARY CT’. This is the
THEIR LIMITATIONS? simplest form of C.T.
However Primary AT are fixed by Primary

Current. Thus a 1000/5A C.T. has 1000 Pr. AT
while a 50/5A C.T. has only 50 Pr. AT.
Permissible errors of the class fix the error AT
i.e. in 1000/5A, class 1.0, C.T., error AT = 1% of
1000 i.e. 10 AT while for 50/5A, error AT = 0.5.
Thus with lower ratio say 50/5A and therefore
low permissible error AT, it is difficult to obtain
higher output (say 15VA) at a higher accuracy
class (say 0.5) . With high ratio say 1000/5A,
this problem is not severe.
In a “Tong Tester”(Clip-on-meter) , the C.T.
magnetic circuit is temporary broken to encircle
the primary conductor. This offers a very
versatile method of measurement.
25 WHAT IS MEANT BY “WOUND By providing required no. of turns in Primary,
) PRIMARY” C.T.s ? WHAT ARE one can obtain required primary AT. e.g. By
THEIR LIMITATIONS ? providing 20 Turns in Primary a 50/5 a C.T.
can be operated at 20 x 50 = 1000 AT and
desired output and accuracy class can be
obtained.
Their limitation is about carrying the fault
current because more primary turns give rise to
large Short-Circuit forces, which are
proportional to the square of no. of primary
turns.
26 IS THE C.T. SECONDARY When secondary leads are very long (as in an
) CURRENT STANDARDISED ON outdoor substation where C.T. is in the field
5A ONLY? and instruments in Control Room) they form a
very high burden, e.g. if lead resistance is 0.8
Ohms, lead burden = 52 x 0.8 = 20 VA.
Instead if secondary current = 1A, lead burden
would be = 12 x 0.8 = 0.8 VA, which is very
less. Hence 1A is another Std. Sec. Current.
H.V. C.Ts. would generally have 1A Sec.
Current.
With 1A Sec. current, no. of sec. turns
PAGE 47
becomes 5 times and winding labour
increases.
Generally 5 Amp rating is being used as
standard rating. However incase of higher lead
resistance, lower secondary rating i.e. either
1Amp or 0.577 Amp is preferred.
27 WHY A C.T. SECONDARY During working, voltage induced in secondary
) SHOULD NEVER BE OPEN are very small e.g. 3V, 6V, etc. and
CIRCUITED ? corresponding error currents are also very
small 1% or 3% of rated current. If sec. is open
circuited there are no opposing ATs. So whole
primary current magnetizes the core which is
100 times or 33 times normal current. So high
flux is set up in the core inducing a high peaky
voltage in the secondary. This can puncture
sec. insulation and can endanger the safety of
the personnel. When not in use, the secondary
terminals should be shorted.
28 WHY ONE TERMINAL OF THE In case the main insulation of the C.T. fails, the
) C.T. SECONDARY SHOULD voltage of Sec. will rise to dangerous values
ALWAYS BE EARTHED? endangering safety. By earthing sec. terminal
personnel safety is ensured.
29 CAN WE USE 40/1 AMPS. BAR No. Because beyond 40 Amps. current , more
) PRIMARY C.T. AS 200/5 AMPS. ratio error will be introduced. If it is measuring
BAR PRIMARY C.T. OF SAME class C.T. , it will start saturating above about
CLASS OF ACCURACY HAVING twice the current. If it is protection class C.T. ,
40 TURNS IN THE SECONDARY its ALF will be 1/5th. If it is class PS C.T. , for a
WINDING EACH? given core, Vk depends only on turns.
Moreover it can not give desired VA output.
Reverse is the case for using 200/5 Amps. C.T.

as 40/1 Amps. C.T. as it will be inaccurate
below 20 Amp. current.
30 WHAT IS SATURABLE C.T.? In case of motor protection, or in certain
) applications under dimensioned C.T.s which
saturate at around half the maximum fault
current are used. In such cases time delay is
given to prevent nuisance tripping.
31 CAN WE USE CLASS PS C.T. IN Protective current transformers for special
) PLACE OF CLASS P C.T. OR VICE purpose applications, i.e. PS class C.Ts, are
VERSA? intended mainly for use in applications where
the required characteristics of the C.Ts can’t be
conveniently expressed in the terms used for
SP, 10 P current transformers. The Knee point
voltage, exciting current, sec. winding
resistance & turns ratio error are the factors
which limits the use of PS class C.Ts in place
of class P C.Ts.

PAGE 48
However, class P C.Ts can be used in place of
PS class C.Ts if the composite error alls within
the limits specified by the P class CT.
32 WHAT IS THE EFFECT OF Because of the transients -- more precisely

) TRANSIENTS ON A C.T.? because of the presence of D.C. component ,
as it is not transformed to secondary of the C.T.
, the C.T. will saturate causing inaccuracy or
maloperation of protection scheme.
33 WHY SOMETIMES SCREENING Screening is provided to eliminate Electrostatic

) IS PROVIDED ON A C.T. ? & Electromagnetic effects.
For 6.6 kV & above system when current is
flowing through the primary , some current can
flow through the secondary to earth because of
the capacitive transfer from primary causing
error. This is known as Electrostatic effect.
When the C.T. is located close to conductors

carrying high currents , the symmetry of the
core flux gets destroyed which may result into
saturation causing error which can be
minimized/ eliminated by providing metal
casting around the C.T. This is known as
Electromagnetic effect.
Incase of window type CTs, the screening is
provided to keep the Potential of resin surface
same as that of HV conductor to prevent
corona discharge. This is done by connecting
through wire called equipotential lead.
34 WHAT IS BASIC DESIGN C.T. Works ( is designed) on a variable flux
) DIFFERENCE IN A C.T. AND A principle where as P.T. works (is designed) on
P.T. ? a constant flux principle. Incase of CTs, the
primary no of turns are very less while incase
of PTs the no. of primary turns are few
thousands. Incase of CTs, the entire insulation
is provided between primary and secondary
winding, while incase of PT either full
insulation or graded insulation is possible.
35 WHAT IS MEANT BY LIVE TANK H.V. C.T. is designed with ‘LIVE’ & ‘DEAD’
) DESIGN & DEAD TANK DESIGN Tank construction. ‘LIVE TANK’ design consists
IN CASE OF HIGH VOLTAGE of steel mounting base, Main porcelain
C.T. ? Insulator mounted on base & steel tank
mounted on top of bushing. In case of live tank
design, primary winding terminals P 1 & P2 are
made through by a BARE conductor inside the
upper tank only and secondary winding is
insulated for a system voltage for which it is
designed and Primary winding is passed
through the insulated secondary, and
secondary leads are brought to terminal box in

PAGE 49
the lower tank.

PAGE 50
Where as ‘DEAD TANK’ design consists of
bottom tank, porcelain Insulator & Expansion
chamber mounted on top of bushing with
Primary terminals. In case of dead tank design
primary winding terminals P1 & P2 are made
through by a conductor which is laid through
one terminal to insulator to bottom tank to
insulator to another terminal and insulated for
a system voltage for which it is designed and
secondary winding (without insulation) is
placed over it in the lower tank and secondary
winding leads are connected to secondary
winding terminal box in the lower tank.
Incase of LIVE tank, the tank containing
assembly of primary and secondary winding is
at full live voltage, while incase of DEAD tank
design, the tank is at earth potential.
36 WHICH DESIGN (LIVE TANK OR Though for Dead tank design more care is
) DEAD TANK) IS MORE taken for force exerted due to peak dynamic
PREFERRED ? current, this design is commonly used because
of more failure rate of Live tank design.
However, ‘Dead Tank’ design is more
expensive than ‘Live Tank’ design.
37 WHY LOW RATIO, HIGH VA It is proved by experience that for a higher VA

) RATING AND HIGH ACCURACY rating and high accuracy C.T., minimum
C.T. IS COMMERCIALLY NOT Ampere - turn (AT) requirement is of the order
VIABLE ? of 300 for a low ratio - say 25/5 or 25/1, high
accuracy- say 0.5 and high burden - say 15 or
30 VA, AT available is only 50 with bar primary
design. So for above requirement one has to
go for wound primary design. For achieving
300 AT, there has to be 12 turns in the primary.
When STC requirement is 10 kA or so, the C.T.
will be stressed by a very high amount of force
as per the following calculation :-
For 10 kA STC design, peak dynamic current

would be 2.5 x 10 = 25 kA.
The force exerted would be 25 kA x 12 turns =
300 kAT. i.e. it would be in few tonnes and
design of a C.T. to withstand such a greater
force will be cost prohibitive.
38 NORMALLY WHY C.T. Because of cost prohibitive design as

) MANUFACTURER CAN NOT explained in previous answer. For 300 AT with
OFFER LOW C.T. SECONDARY 1 Amp. secondary, there has to be 300 turns in
RESISTANCE FOR A LOW RATIO, the secondary and accordingly C.T. secondary
HIGH ACCURACY AND HIGHER resistance will be there - say minimum 2 Ohms
VA RATING C.T. ? or so.

PAGE 51
39 EXPLAIN ANKLE POINT OF A C.T. In the voltage Vs excitation curve of a C.T.,
) ? ankle point is nearer to zero from where almost
a straight line region in the curve starts. It has
significance only in metering C.T. As such
there is no specific formula or derivation for it
but by experience the design of C.T. is done by
considering flux density at ankle point as 0.3
Tesla and below ankle point as 0.1 Tesla.
40 HOW COMPOSITE ERROR IN There are two method of measuring composite
) THE C.T. IS MEASURED? error of a C.T.; Direct method and Indirect
method. Consider ALF as 20 and C.T. is rated
for 600/1 Amps.
Direct Method :
In direct method, 600 x 20 = 12000 Amps is
passed through primary and error is measured.
But with C.T. manufacturers in their lab,
provision of passing 12000 Amps is not there.
Even if high current source is available, the CT
is likely to be damaged while testing. So they
adopt indirect method as follows :
Indirect Method:
Secondary limiting emf = Rated current x ALF x
(RB+RCT at 750 C)
= 1 x 20 x ( 30(Say) + 7.5)
= 750 Volts
7.5 is the actual measured C.T. secondary
resistance converted at 75 0 C
% Composite error =
Iex at Secondary limiting emf x 100
Rated Secondary current x ALF
-3
= 20 x 10 x 100
1 x 20
= 0.1
Iex is measured by applying calculated
secondary limiting emf in the C.T. secondary
winding.
For SLV, Please refer Sr. No. 54
41 WITH CLASS PS CT, EXCITATION For, class PS, KpV is measured. By definition,
) CURRENT IS SPECIFIED IN KpV is such voltage where 10 % more voltage
THREE DIFFERENT FASHIONS . causes 50 % more exciting current. If increase
WHY ? in exciting current is less, it is below saturation
or KpV is higher, & vice - versa. Excitation
current of a C.T. is the requirement of relay
manufacturers to suit their differential relay.
They design a relay by considering certain
excitation current of a CT in unsaturated
region

PAGE 52
(i.e. almost a straight line on the curve) I.e.
either at Vk / 4 or at Vk /2 or on the basis of
excitation current required by a C.T. at Vk and
accordingly they maintain the accuracy of the
relay or give the performance guarantee of
the relay.
42 CAN WE USE 30 VA CT IN PLACE The answer for above question is YES and
) OF 15 VA CT FOR METERING NO both for which explanation is as under:
CIRCUIT?
CT manufacturers give performance
guarantee for a particular CT from 25% to
100% VA burden. A CT designed for 15 VA is
guaranteed for its accuracy even at 3.75 VA
burden where as a CT designed for 30 VA
burden may work with a specified accuracy up
to 7.5 VA but may be inaccurate at 3.75 VA.
Here, one additional aspect is taken care of &
that is ISF or FS. Suppose manufacturer has
manufactured a CT which is accurate upto
3.75 VA burden. But in some design, the
specified ISF which is say less than 5 will not
remain less than 5 & may become more than
5 for which associated meters are not
designed. Hence, where power measurement
required is to be accurate using class 0.5 or
class 1.0 CT, supply company may object the
use of 30VA CT in place of 15VA CT.
43 SIMILAR TO CT, FOR PT CAN WE Logic is same as answer no. 42 A. 50 VA PT is
) USE 100 VA PT IN PLACE OF 50 VA supposed to work accurately upto 12.5 VA
PT FOR METERING CIRCUIT? burden but 100 VA PT may be inaccurate at
12.5 VA burden, i.e. at 12.5% VA burden.
44 WHAT IS LEAKAGE REACTANCE All the flux produced by the primary Ampere-
) OF A C.T.? turns does not completely confine to the
magnetic core & there is ‘leakage’ of the flux
into the surrounding air space. So, in addition
to the main flux, each winding is linked by a
leakage flux set up by the ATs of the windings
& thus possess leakage reactance.
45 WHAT IS EFFECT OF LEAKAGE Leakage reactance introduces C.T. error
) REACTANCE ON A particularly at higher current. Error will be
PERFORMANCE OF C.T. ? max. at primary over current.
46 WHAT IS SHORT TIME THERMAL As the primary of the C.T. is connected in
) CURRENT (S.T.C.) RATING OF A series with the system, it must be capable of
C.T.? withstanding system short circuit levels without
mechanical damage or overheating i.e. C.T.
must be rated for a little higher K.A. than the
max.system fault K.A. which may flow during
the severe fault.

PAGE 53
It is rated in K.A. for 0.5, 1, 2 or 3 seconds
depending upon system fault MVA and voltage.
S.T.C. must never be less than the breaking
capacity of associated C.B. The time specified
depends upon the protective relays used.
47 WHAT IS SPLIT-CORE C.T.? Split-core C.T. is used that can be clamped

) around the bar or cable at the point where
current is to be measured.
Example : Clip-on C.T. (or say clip-on meter)
48 WHAT ARE BUSHING C.T.s? Bushing C.T.s are basically L.T. C.T.s but
) mounted over (around) the bushings of H.T.
transformers. Insulated primary bar is provided
by porcelain and metal part of the bushing.
49 WHAT IS I.S.F. IN CASE OF ISF is the Instrument security factor and is the
) METERING? ratio of saturation flux density and the
operating flux density. In metering C.T.s I.S.F.
may be specified as <5, <10, or <15, etc. ISF
is also known as F.S. i.e. factor of security.
50 WHAT IS SUMMATION C.T.? Where current in a number of feeders need to

) be summated to a single meter or instrument,
a summation C.T. can be used. The output of
feeder C.T.s are applied to a multi primary
windings onto a single core and provided with
a single secondary winding of 5 Amp or 1 Amp.
Thus specification of summation C.T. may read
as 5+5+5+5/5, 5 VA, Cl.0.5
51 WHAT IS CORE BALANCE C.T.? The core balance C.T. (CBCT) is used for
) sensitive earth fault and earth leakage
protection. The CBCT is of ring type
construction & if encircles a 3 phase, 3core
cable or 3 single core cables. When all the
three phases are healthy, the 3 phase currents
sum up to zero and no flux is set up in the
core. However, when there is an earth fault, the
phasors are out of balance and zero phase
sequence currents flow which set up a flux that
causes the C.T. to operate the relay.
52 WHAT IS A ZERO FLUX C.T.? Zero flux C.T. is used in precision metering in
) laboratory class applications. The principle of
measurement is to obtain a prefect balance
between the magnetic flux generated by the
primary current and that generated by the
current in secondary winding which is situated
in the measuring head. This balance point is
the condition of zero flux.

PAGE 54
53 WHAT IS THE INTERPOSING For differential protection of transformers when
) C.T.? line C.T.s are required to be connected in delta
fashion for delta/star or star/delta transformers,
a common practice is to connect them in star
and use a star/delta interposing C.T. for
obtaining phase shift and to match(balance)
the currents on the C.T. secondaries.
Interposing C.T.s are also used where the
primary currents are very high of the order of
thousands or tens of thousands of Amps. It is
very difficult or design of a C.T. will be cost
prohibitive to transform such high current to 5
or 1 Amp and hence the line C.T. may be
specified for this high current to some lower
values - say 20 Amps and interposing C.T.s of
20/5 or 20/1 Amp. are used for connection to
the relay.
54 WHAT IS THE EFFECT OF In case metering core is saturated during any

) SATURATION ON C.T. ? fault, then its accuracy may be affected. So it is
required to be demagnetized. Similarly for
protection core which gets saturated when
heavy fault occurs, shall also be
demagnetized.
The demagnetization of core can be carried
out by applying 120 % of rated SLV / Knee
point voltage and then reducing it slowly to
zero. This shall be repeated 3 to 4 times to
eliminate residual magnetism effectively.
SLV = Secondary Limiting Voltage
= Is (VA x Is + RCT) ISF - for metering core
= Is (VA x Is + RCT) ALF - for protection core
Where
Is = Rated Secondary current
VA = Rated burden in Volt - Amperes
RCT = Resistance of the secondary winding in
ohms at 750 C.
ISF = Instrument security factor (Guarnteed
value)
ALF = Accuracy limit factor
For SLV, Please refer Sr. No. 40
55 WHAT IS THE EFFECT OF As regards accuracy performance is concern,

) HARMONICS ON C.T. ? C.T. do not get affected by any harmonics
contained on primary side. As a general rule,
harmful harmonics in the system exists for very
short time, since it is not advisable to have
sustained harmonics of magnitude of more
than 5 %. The higher harmonics create heavy
heating losses in case of transformer. However,
whenever such situation arises, the C.T. output
(metering core) is not affected.

PAGE 55
56 WHAT IS UNDER DIMENSIONED Under dimensioned C.Ts. are used for
) C.Ts. ? WHERE THEY ARE USED? protection of motor. Under dimensioned C.T.
means, the C.T. core us designed with higher
flux density, such that, it gets saturated earlier
to the certain defined over current which may
be drawn by motor. In this situation, the output
(voltage level) from C.T.going to coil of
protection unit is blocked. This blockage of
voltage may be an indication to certain tripping
device so as to help to cut-off the supply to
motor.
GENERAL INFORMATION :
15 VA , 5P 10 means output of C.T. is 15 VA ,

there will not be more than 5% error at 10
times the current , P stands for protection class
and 10 is the accuracy limit factor (ALF).
For the same specification but with a 5 amps.

secondary, the equivalent specification would
be 5P30F10 where F is for accuracy limit
factor , 10 is the accuracy limit factor , 5 is the
maximum %age error at 10 times current, P
stand for protection class and 30 is the
secondary reference voltage (upon which
performance of C.T. is based ) and is derived
from VA output divided by secondary current
multiplied by ALF i.e. 15/5 x 10 = 30.
In case of class P and class PS C.T.s , design

is done by taking into consideration the
TRANSIENT effect. Class PS C.T.s are also
known as class “X” C.T.s as they are always
inter connected or cross connected. Class PS
C.T.s of I.S. (Indian standard) is similar to that
of class PL C.T.s of A.S. (American standard).
The performance of class PS C.T.s is defined
in terms of its internal characteristics i.e knee-
point voltage, exciting current at knee-point
voltage or at 1/2 or 1/4 the knee-point voltage
and the C.T. secondary resistance corrected at
75 deg. C . The value of minimum knee-point
voltage is given by K x If (RCT + Rb) where K
is any factor determined from relay
characteristics. In American standard , Indian
standard equivalent C.T. can be specified as
0.05 PL 950 R3, where 0.05 is the exciting
current at the knee-point voltage , 950 is the
rated KPV, 3 is the max. secondary resistance
at 75 deg. C. Class P C.T. is generally
designed for a product of burden and ALF

PAGE 56
approx. equal to 150.

PAGE 57
REFERENCES :
Lecture note and interaction with Shree

S.K.Mahajan , Manager - Developement of
M/s. Voltamp Transformers Ltd. - Baroda.
Interaction with Shree G.K.Dave, Director of
M/s.Indian Transformer Co.- MIDC,Tarapur.
Reference manual on Instrument Transformers
by Mira Parasuram, Director of M/s. Kappa
Electricals - Madras.
Guide lines by Shree S.V. Karkhanis, Director
of M/s. Automatic Electric Ltd. - Bombay.
Guide lines by Dr. J.J.Patel and Shree
V.J.Desai of Design Department M/s. ABB Ltd.
- Baroda.
Guide lines by Shree N.K.Gajjar, Sr. Manager,
Design department, Switchgear division. M/s.
Jyoti Ltd. - Baroda.
Reference book on Instrument Transformer by
JENKIN.

PAGE 58
ELECTRICAL SAFETY
By V G Patel
D M (E)
4/10/2001
What is safety ?
Meaning of safety:
Skill
Attitude
Foresight
Education
Team work
Your common sense
ACCIDENTS
Unsafe condition --- 12%

Unsafe act --- 87%
Natural calamity --- 01%
Electrical Safety:
It takes
A minute ---to write a safety note
A week ---to organize a safety programme
A month --- to put it in action
A life time --- to make a good worker
BUT
It takes only less than one second to destroy all these by an accident ( Electrical
accident).
Electricity is a blessing for mankind. In today’s world, electricity is used extensively.

Earlier the electrical appliances which were used by rich people, now they are used by
common people and appliances have became common. When anything becomes
common, people take it easy and neglect it. This is the human tendency.

PAGE 59
Common household appliances are …
- Geyser (Instant/Immersion/Storage) - Air conditioner - Computer
- Radio/sound system - Domestic floor mill - Air cooler
- Room heater
- Electric lighter - Hot plate
- Cooking range
- Mixer/Grinder/Juicer - Lighting
- Electric iron
- Microwave oven
- Refrigerator
- Fan(Ceiling/Table/Pedestal/Exhaust)
- Washing machine -
Television - Toaster
The most important and common point for all appliances is RELIABLE AND GOOD
EARTHING.
Remember—Electricity is a very good servant but tough task master. It does not tolerate
any negligence. Hence, do not play with electricity. Treat it respectfully.
Human IR
Dry Skin
- 1 to 6 lac Ohms.
Wet Skin
- 1000 Ohms.
Internal body hand to foot- 400 to 600 Ohms.
Ear to Ear
- 100 Ohms
Dry Wood
- 8 to 10 lac Ohms
Wet floor of bath room - less than 100 Ohms
HEART BEAT - 1 lac/24 Hrs.
Loss due to accident:–

Person – Wound, permanent disability, sometimes fatal
Family
Relatives
Society/community
Organization
Nation.
INJURIES FROM ELECTRIC SHOCK:
The severity of injury from electrical shock will be determined by the following :
Amount of current that flows through body.

Path the current takes through the body.
Duration of time the victim is in the circuit.
Types of electrical energy – AC or DC
3 times DC is equal to AC in effect. Current between 20 to 100 Hz is very dangerous
since ventricular fibrillation every cycle whereas DC produce only once.
PAGE 60
Physical condition of victim :
The amount of current that flows through the victim will depend upon:
Voltage of the current with which he/she is in contact.
The insulating qualities of the place in which he/she is located at the instant.
The resistance of skin or clothing or both.
The pressure of contact with the line conductor.
HOW SHOCK OCCURS:
Shock occurs when the body becomes part of the electrical circuit. The current must
enter the body at one point and leave at another point. Shock may occur in one of the 3
ways :
With both wires of electrical circuit.

With one wire of an energized circuit and the ground.
With a metallic part that has come in contact with live wire.
Moreover it can occur due to
Open or short circuit due to equipment failure.
Static electricity.
Lightning.
a,b,c will cause flash burns.
The Fatal accidents from electric current are in general of following types:
Hold on type
Ventricular fibrillation
Respiratory arrest.
Hold on type :
Generally hold type accidents occur at 10 milliamperes. In this the muscles of the fore-
arm contracts and as the flexor muscles are more powerful than the extensor muscle,
the hand tightens into the conductor. This type of accidents is very dangerous in the
sense that due to continuous passage of current, the heart muscle may be contracted
and the circulation of blood could be stopped.
Ventricular fibrillation
Ventricular fibrillation occurs when co-ordinated action of the ventricle is disturbed.
When the current passes through the chest and affects the heart, ventricular fibrillation
is caused. It is fatal because it is extremely difficult for the heart to recover its normal
rhythm spontaneously. Even a current of the order of 20 microamperes passing through
the chest can cause this ventricular fibrillation. The relation between the chest current
and the body current is not precisely known but the probability of ventricular fibrillation is
estimated to be high when the body current flowing through extremities is of the order of
40 milliamperes.
Respiratory arrest :
Another effect of electrical current is the respiratory arrest in which the respiration is
stopped and does not restart again after the shock. This occurs when the current
passing through or near to the respiratory centre which lies near base of the brain. This
requires that the current path way should be from the head to one of the limbs. However
the current usually passes through one arm to another limb and hence the probability of

PAGE 61
respiratory arrest after the shock under normal circumstances of electrocution. In those
un-common cases where the current passes through the respiratory centre, such
respiratory arrest occurs and breathing may be affected for considerable time.
Current Effect
10-15 m.a. Sensation

20 m.a. Severe pain
20-50 m.a. Hold on type
50 to 2000 m.a. Range of fibrillation.
LIGHTENING:
When wind rushes upward against a cloud, it splits up the rain drops. The larger drops
become positively charged and remain in lower or front of the cloud, whereas the
smaller drops and surrounding air are negatively charged and are driven to the upper or
back of the cloud. The potential of the positively charged bigger drops increases when
they collide and similarly the potential of negatively charged smaller drops. This results
in the positive space charge in form of the cloud and negative space charge behind it. At
the same time, the positive space charge in front of the cloud includes a negative
charge on the earth facing the cloud. Thus the positive charge of cloud may strike the
negative charge behind it or may strike the negative charge include on the earth. Also
the positive charge from earth may strike the negative charge on the rear of the cloud.
When the potential difference amongst the above rises sufficient enough to break down
the insulation of air in between them, discharge takes place resulting in production of
lightening. Thus lightening is an electric discharge from one cloud to another or from a
cloud to earth.
The potential gradient required for a discharge to take place in air at ordinary pressure
is about 30,000 volts/cm2.
As it is not possible to prevent the generation of atmospheric electricity hence only

protection part must be given due importance to protect our installations.
STATIC ELECTRICITY :
When electricity is present on the surface of non conductive body, where it is trapped is
called `static electricity’. Some of the insulators (Non conductors), which can develop
static electricity, include gases, glasses, rubber, paraffin and most dry petroleum oils and
may plastic materials.
EXAMPLE OF STATIC CHARGES GENERATION:
Separation of a tyre edge from roadway, it is rolling upon.

Steam containing condensate coming out of pipe,.
Gas containing dust or rust being discharge from jet.
Non-conducting liquid in a tank is subject to turbulence
Flow of non-controlling liquids through pipes.
Splash filling of liquid
Running of flat belts.
PAGE 62
Pulverized material passing through chutes of pneumatic conveyors.
HAZARDS : IGNITION & SHOCK
ELECTRICAL SAFETY
A. FOR ENGINEERS
GENERAL
MECHANICAL
FAILURE OF INSULATION
FAILURE OF EQUIPMENT
FAILURE OF SYSTEM
SIDE
SWITCH OFF
ISOLATE
DUMP (DISCHARGE)
EARTH
GENERAL
Administrative
Permit system
Accident Investigation System
Medical
First Aid
I.H.U.
MECHANICAL
Causes of Electrical Accidents
Ignorance
Lack of Earthing
Negligence
Failure of Permit System
Ignorance by others
Mechanical Causes:
Failure because of vibrations

Failure because of additional tension
Failure because of corrosion
FAILURE OF INSULATION :

PAGE 63
High Current Stress
High Voltage Stress
Failure due to excessive voltage or neutral shift

Over voltage due to circuit problem
H.V. conductor falling on L.V. line
Failure due to moisture
Failure due to Excessive temperature rise
Hot spot
Over excitation
Over size fuse
Relay Co-ordination
DC supply to AC coil
Cooling system failure
EQUIPMENT FAILURE :
Switch gears :
Transformer :
5 limb trans. Instead of 3 limb trans.
Voltage ratio :
Cables :
Fire stop between two floors or compartments (to eliminate or to prevent the
spread of fire)
Surface coating in bunch of cables.
Use of FRLS cables
FAILURE OF SYSTEM :
Lighting System
Low fault (Ltg. transformer)
Non-availability of upto date drawings
Earthing grid design
B. FOR TECHNICIANS
Meaning of Safety
Skill
Attitude
Foresight
PAGE 64
Education
Team Work
Your Common Sense
Safety can not be arrived, it is to be achieved.
“SIDE” RULE
Switch Off
Isolate
Dump (Discharge)
Earth
Confirmation of P.T.W. (for group) and identification of circuit.

Caution Board - 400V, 11000V etc.,
Cordoning of area with Red rope / string or with ordinary string with Red flags.
Slogans :-Original parts of the body are not available, preserve them
To follow safety rules with proper understanding (example)
In day to day work

Loose wiring
Loose wires in plug without 2 pin or 3 pin top. Thick and long middle pin for
earthing.
Wire colour coding

R - Red for phase
B - Black for neutral
G - Green for earth.
Extension Boards - if open from bottom posibility of touching hand and getting
shock.
Protective guards for hand lamps. Checking earthing for portable tools.
Proper / Perfect earthing - loose earthing is more dangerous than no earthing for
equipments
Working near live parts. Use of rubber matting (insulated matting) and protective
goggles.
Testing with test lamp (use 2 lamps series lamp for 400V)
First test the test lamp with (ON) healthy supply.
Bus fault (example of module)
Proper size fuse (example of over size fuse)
ELCB / Shock guard provided should not be bypassed.
DC supply to AC coils
Man can make mistake, machine can not
Near rotating M/Cs, no loose clothing.
Starters / J.B.s - moisture / dust prevention. Proper tightening of covers with
protective gasketing after work is over.
Proper dressing of wires
Particularly for street lighting, squirrel entry should be stopped by closing, opening
otherwise damage live wire may tough the pole and one may get shock.
Electric Shock
Duration
PAGE 65
Path
Current
ELECTRIC SHOCK
Wet cloths for drying on a wire tied up with batten wiring on wall of a room.
Wet cloths for drying on a wire tied up with water piping
One end to phase and other end to ground (water piping)
Ceiling fan hook (wire insulation damaged)
One equipment (appliance) from one socket only. No loose wires in plug (loose wires
hold by wooden pieces or matchsticks).
Switch yard – no umbrella allowed.
Electrical appliances:
Hair dryer
Iron
Table fan
Metal table lamp
Heating of water in a bucket by two live open ended wires.
Energisation of wire fencing by electric supply (monkey repeller)
Cable jointing pit
Safety belts – tied up with wiring pipe
Paper mill godown weighing pan
Testing instrument flash over
Unloading of petrol from pipe line to a tanker

PAGE 66
“NEUTRAL GROUNDING”
BY
V.G. PATEL (Dy. Mgr. - PSD)
INTRODUCTION :-
The words “Earthing” and “Grounding” have the same meaning. The term EARTHING is
used in U.K. and GROUNDING in U.S.A.
All power systems of today operate with grounded neutrals. The neutral point of
Generator, Transformer, system, circuit, rotating machines, etc. is connected to earth
either directly or through a resistance or a reactance. In some cases the neutral point is
earthed through an adjustable reactor of a reactance matched with line to earth
capacitance of a line. The neutral earthing is one of the most important features of
system design to a switchgear and protection engineer, neutral grounding is important
because
The earth fault protection is based on the method of neutral earthing.
The system voltage during earth fault depends on neutral earthing.
Neutral earthing is provided basically for the purpose of protection against arcing
grounds, unbalanced voltages with respect to earth, protection from lighting and for
improvement of the system.
Equipment earthing is different from neutral point earthing. Equipment earthing is
connecting to earth the non-current carrying metallic parts in the neighborhood of
electrical circuits.
The subject of neutral grounding and equipment grounding methods become more
complex when we talk about the equipments and network of power system. The idea of
keeping the system neutral isolated or floating has become quite obsolete these days.
However, what type of grounding is to be provided has been a matter of various
philosophies (in addition to the technological reasons) adopted by engineers from time
to time and place to place.
Objectives :-
Whenever, any method of grounding is adopted, the designers usually-take care of the
following basic aspects.
Adequate protection of the equipment/system: This perhaps is the basic objective for a
system designer. The method of grounding is selected in such a way that the “arcing
grounds” over voltages and subsequent damage to the insulation of equipment is
avoided. On the other hand, sizeable amount of earth fault current is allowed to flow so
that discriminative type of relaying can be applied.
System Reliability: - There are many equipments networks where reliability is the most
important criteria. Under these circumstances, after considering the harmful effects due
to the earth fault current, the designers sometimes give only alarm and do not suggest
tripping of the equipment. The fault can be attended in a scheduled outage and thus
interruption in power system is avoided.
Human safety: The various international standards have given definite instructions for
grounding e.g. How to ground, where to ground etc. thereby, human safety is ensured.
Economics: The designers, after studying the various possible alternatives, compare the
cost factor. This is quite obvious. A techno-economical solution is worked out after
analyzing various pros and cons.
DISADVANTAGES OF UNGROUNDED SYSTEMS :
The following difficulties are encountered in ungrounded systems. Therefore,
ungrounded systems are no more used :-
Arcing grounds

PAGE 67
Consider overhead lines R,Y,B connected to the system at normal voltage [figure- (c)].
Each line has an inherent distributed capacitance with respect to earth. Consider an
earth fault on line B. The distributed capacitance gets charged due to supply voltage E B.
The charged capacitance discharges through the fault when the gap between F and
ground breaks down . The capacitance, again gets charged and again discharged. Such
repeated charging and discharging of line to ground capacitance resulting in repeated
arcs between line and ground is called arcing grounds. Arcing grounds produce severe
voltage oscillations reaching three to four times normal voltage. The problem of arcing
ground is solved by earthing the neutral through a coil called Peterson coil or arc
suppression coil connected between neutral and earth.
In ungrounded systems, the voltage of healthy line above earth is increased by _/3
times when an earth fault occurs on a line. This causes stresses and insulation failure
may occur though fault current may be negligible.
In ungrounded systems, earth faults cannot be easily sensed and the earth fault relaying
becomes complicated.
The over voltages due to induced static charges are not conducted to earth in
ungrounded systems. The voltages due to lightning surges do not find path to earth.
ADVANTAGES OF NEUTRAL GROUNDING :
Arcing grounds are reduced or eliminated and hence the system is not subjected to over
voltage surges due to arcing grounds.
The voltages of healthy lines with respect to earth remain at normal value.
The life of insulation is long due to prevention of voltage surges or sustained over
voltages. There by reduced maintenance, repairs, breakdowns.
The earth fault relaying is relatively simple.
The over voltage due to lightning are discharged to earth.
Earth fault current can be controlled by reactance or resistance.
Greater safety to personnel and equipment due to operation of fuses or relays on earth
fault and limitation of voltages.
Life of equipments, machines, installation is improved due to limitation of voltage. Hence
over all economy.
FEW DEFINATIONS RELATED TO GROUNDING :-
Zero sequence Impedance: It is an impedance which a symmetrical three-phase circuit
offers to the flow of zero phase sequence currents.
Zero Sequence components: These are the vector (either current or voltage ) consisting
of three phasors equal in magnitude and with no phase displacement between each
other.
Co-efficient of Earthing: It is the ratio of highest r.m.s. voltage to earth of the healthy phase or
phases during a line to ground fault to the normal line to line r.m.s. voltage and is expressed as a
percentage of the latter.
VL - E x 100
Thus % Coefficient of earthing
=
Where VL - E = Line to earth vol. of healthy phase under fault
condition.
& VL - L = Normal line to line voltage.
Effectively Earthed System: It is a three phase earthed neutral system where the co-
efficient of earthing does not exceed 80% under all operating conditions. This condition
is met when for all switching, operating and supply conditions the ratio of the zero
sequence reactance of the system to its positive sequence reactance is less then 3 and
the ratio of the zero sequence resistance to the positive sequence resistance is less
than one.

PAGE 68
Non-effectively earthed System : It is a three phase neutral system where the coefficient
of earthing exceeds 80% under all conditions of operation.
Arcing Grounds : It is established by years of experience in the field of system
grounding that the capacitive currents between line to earth of the order of 4 to 5
amperes are sufficient to maintain an arc in the ionized path of the fault. The current,
thus maintained, may exist even after the earth fault is cleared. This phenomenon of
persistency of the arc is called ‘Arcing Grounds’. Under such condition, the system
capacity may be subjected to high oscillations and very high voltage can build up.
INSULATED OR FREE NEUTRAL :
As indicated in figure - (f), a three phase system is having a capacitive coupling
between the conductors and the earth due to which capacitive currents are flowing in all
the phases of the system.
If line to ground fault occurs, the voltage to earth of the faulty phases become zero
(earth potential). Hence no capacitive current flows in the faulty phase. However, the
voltages of the two healthy phases increase to full line-to-line value [refer figure - (e)].
Thus, the voltage on the healthy phases shoot up to the line valve. The occurrence of
over voltage means constant threat to the insulation at all the points in the system.
Therefore, chances of breakdown become more and more. In addition to the above the
arcing grounds’ problem may also be likely which again causes the breakdown.
Discriminative type of protection cannot be applied in this system because fault on any
one phase gives rise to unbalance capacity currents in all circuits connected to it. Only
neutral displacement relay can be provided. Otherwise detection of actual fault can only
be traced by the process of switching off individual circuits by trial & error if the load
condition permits.
EARTHED NEUTRAL :
The system neutral earthing methods can be classified as follows :
Solid Earthing.
Resistance Earthing.
Reactance Earthing.
Peterson Coil Earthing.
Voltage transformer Earthing.
Earthing by special type of transformers.
Solid Earthing : Under the normal condition, the distribution of capacitive current are
same as shown in figure - (g). When a line to ground fault occurs, the phase to earth of
the healthy phases will be normal phase voltages as neutral point is not shifted [Refer
figure - (d)]. Also, in addition to the capacitive currents, the power source also supplies
the fault current IF. The current IF is dependent on the zero sequence impedance of the
circuit only, considering the earth resistance to be negligible. Further the resistance part
of the zero sequence impedance is very small. Thus fault current I F is lagging the faulty
phase voltage VBE by 90° approximately. It can be seen from the vector diagram that if
completely nullifies the capacitive current I CF and is in fact much higher than I CF. Hence
arcing grounds and over voltages are completely eliminated.
Moreover, discriminative type of protection can be applied as earth fault current is very
high in the circuit in which the fault has occurred.
The only disadvantage is that very high fault current flows. Hence, this type of earthing
is advisable only where the circuit impedance is high.
Resistance Earthing: In this case, the fault current I F depends on the zero sequence
impedance plus the resistance inserted in the neutral circuit. (Refer figure - (h). This
fault current can be resolved into two components as shown. The lagging component
will be in phase opposition to the capacitive current. The value of the earthing resistance
is so chosen that at the time of fault on any one phase, a current equal to full load
current of the largest power source flows in the earth connection. This will keep the over

PAGE 69
voltages within limit. If the resistance is increased, the lagging component becomes less
than the current ICF and thus the system condition approaches to Isolated Neutral.
Usually values of resistance inserted in the neutral circuit is decided such that earth
fault current is equal to full load current. This makes earth fault detection very fast and
completely discriminative.
Reactance Earthing : The magnitude of fault current in this system is dependent on the
zero sequence impedance plus the reactance in the neutral circuit. (Refer figure - (j). It
can be seen from the vector diagram that it resembles the solidly earthed system if zero
sequence resistance component is neglected as capacitive current is completely
compensated.
This system is not in use because very high transient voltages are developed. Also
discriminative protective relaying is not possible.
Peterson coil Earthing: The three names - Arc suppression coil, Peterson coil, Ground
fault neutralizer - have the same meaning. In such grounding the reactance of the coil is
matched with the capacitance between line and earth. The grounding is called Resonant
Grounding. In this type of earthing, an iron cored reactor is provided as shown in figure -
(b). When the line to ground fault occurs, the coil tuned with the capacitance of the
healthy phases to produce resonance. Thus the arc extinguishes itself. The coil keeps
the current to a very low value and two healthy phases can be kept in service.
This type of earthing is not used where the insulation of the transformers in the system
are fully graded and their neutral are not sufficiently insulated.
Voltage transformer Earthing: Here, the neutral is earthed through a single phase
distribution transformer. The transformer provides a high reactance in the voltage on the
secondary winding of the transformer.
This type of earthing is used mostly for generator neutral, which are connected with the
step-up transformer. The lighting surges reaching the winding of Generator cannot be
ignored. The voltage transformer acts as a reflection point for traveling waves passing
through the machine winding. A surge diverter is also usually provided between neutral
point & earth.

PAGE 70
Transformer Earthing : Many a times it is required to create an artificial earth when the
access to the neutral is not possible or the system is a delta connected. The artificial
earth can be created by earthing transformers. These transformers are of two types: -
Ziq - Zaq transformer: This is a special type of transformer where the three limbs are
built up in the same manner as ordinary transformer. Each limb is provided with two
equally spaced windings [Refer fig. (I-2)]. One set of winding is star connected where as
the other winding connected to it is of next phase. Thus the zero sequence current in the
two sections of the winding on each limb is in opposite direction, thus stresses on the
insulation of transformers are reduced.
As the zero phase sequence impedance of such earthing transformers is quite low,
usually a series resistor in the neutral circuit of the earthing transformer is provided. The
transformer offers high impedance for three phase system.
Star-open Delta Transformers : This is another type of special transformer where the
secondary of the transformer winding is kept in open delta formation, whereas star
connected primary is connected to the system. Under the normal operating condition the
transformer draws three phase positive sequence magnetizing current circulate in the
secondary delta winding & as well as the resistor. In case of an earth fault on the system
the zero sequence fault current in the primary winding causes circulating current in the
open delta as also the resistor. A protective relay is also connected across the resistor.
The resistor is designed in such a way that it is capable of dissipating the energy & is
rated for continuous operation.
This type earthing transformers are made of five limbed construction instead of three
limbs to provided adequate return path for the flux under one phase earth condition.
IMPORTANT :
Generally one neutral ground is provided at each voltage level and at source end (not at
load end ) [fig. (k)]. Each major Bus section is grounded. When several generators are
operating in parallel, only one generator neutral is grounded. If more neutrals are
grounded, the zero sequence components of circulating currents create disturbance.
Generator neutral grounding is selected on the basis of desired stator earth fault
protection.
VOLTAGE GROUNDING TYPE
Upto 660 V Solid
Between 3.3 kV & 11 kV Resistance or reactance
22 kV and above Solid

PAGE 71
COMMISSIONING OF A POWER TRANSFORMER
Before putting transformer into service, following checks/tests are necessary for knowing
health of transformer and smooth functioning of transformer;
Magnetizing Current test

Magnetic Balance test
Vector Group test
I.R & P.I. value
Oil sample test at site
Ratio test
Short circuit test
W.T.I. current transformer test
Winding Tan Delta test
Bushing Tan Delta test
OLTC testing
Functional test
MAGNETISING CURRENT TEST

Apply three phase 400V on HV side on normal tap and measure no load current in each
phase(Compare with factory test). Similarly repeat for LV side(May be done in case of
doubtful results on HV side).(If secondary side voltage is nearer to 415V, then do not
carry out from LV side).
OR
Apply single phase 230V on HV side on normal tap and measure no load current in
each phase. Similarly repeat for LV side. (If secondary side voltage is nearer to 415V,
then do not carry out from LV side).
Value of magnetizing current should not be more than 2% in any case
MAGNETIC BALANCE TEST
Apply single phase voltage(<10% of rated voltage) on star connected winding (on
normal tap) R phase to neutral and measure induced voltage in other two phases with
respect to neutral. Similarly repeat for Y phase and B phase. Sum of induced voltages
should be approx. equal to applied voltage. When Y phase is energized, induced
voltages in R&B should be approx. equal. When R&B phases are energized, Y phase
voltage should be 60-70%. At the same time LV side voltage in respective phase should
be equal to the total of other two phases.
Similarly repeat for LV side as in B (a).

PAGE 72
VECTOR GROUP TEST
Short 1U-2u of both winding and apply three phase 400 Volt in all HV phases
and measure voltage between 1V-2v, 1V-2w, 1W-2w, 1W-2v and confirm vector Group.
I.R & P.I. VALUE
With motorized megger & test voltage of 5KV (except when rated voltage is <=
3.3KV) measure IR as follows;
Between HV & LV } Guard terminal should be connected as
recommended
Between HV & E } by megger manufacturer.
Between LV & E }
Measure for 10 seconds and 60 seconds and calculate A.I. by dividing 60
seconds reading by 10 seconds reading. Similarly calculate P.I. by dividing 10 minutes
reading by one minute reading.
OIL SAMPLE TEST AT SITE
For transformer tank & for OLTC:-
With 2.5 mm gap, breakdown voltage (average of 6 values) being noted.
Also measure water PPM value at Laboratory.
RATIO TEST
Measure ratio of voltages at all taps (one by one) by applying (a) single phase
230 volt supply and (b) Three phase 400 volts supply in HV winding and measuring
induced voltage in respective LV winding.
SHORT CIRCUIT TEST
For short circuit test apply single phase 230V to HV phase and neutral keeping
respective LV phase shorted with neutral. Application of voltage should be with Ammeter
in series and shorting of LV phase through an Ammeter. Measure short circuit current in
HV as well as in LV winding. Repeat this test for all taps and for remaining two phases.
Variation of current should follow a set pattern. HV measured current multiplied by HV
rated Voltage should be approx. equal to LV measured current multiplied by LV rated
voltage.
W.T.I. CURRENT TRANSFORMER TEST
Current Transformer ratio of W.T.I. C.T. should be equal to Transformer rated
current divided by 1.7 or 2.1. 1.7 or 2.1 amp on C.T. secondary depends upon the oil
gradient between winding temp. and oil temp.Shunt resistance is adjusted to give
required current in bellow heater coil as per the designed/tested winding gradient by the
transformer manufacturer. Details may be obtained from them & checked.
& (J) WINDING TAN DELTA TEST & BUSHING TAN DELTA TEST
Winding and Bushing Tan Delta test is indicative. There is no any absolute value for
this. A record should be built up and when measuring next time, the measured value
should be compared with previous reading. If deviation is more than 15%, some
corrective action should be taken. This test is not applicable for porcelain
insulators/bushings. It is for winding insulation and for condenser type bushings where
paper insulation comes into picture having hygroscopic property.
OLTC TESTING
For OLTC testing apply three phase 400 volt supply in all the three phases of HV
winding and short LV winding through 3 Ammeters and change the tap. Ammeter reading
should change smoothly i.e. when tap changing is in progress, there should not be any
sharp fluctuation in Ammeter reading indicating a break in the circuit. Repeat for all
position of taps. This will confirm the continuity of contacts of diverter resistor and
contacts of OLTC.
FUNCTIONAL TEST
For functional test, one by one short respective terminals and observe in RCP or
RTCCP and observe annunciation or lamp indication of the function.

PAGE 73
For example, in Buchhoz relay, two potential free pair of contacts are there;
One pair of contact will bridge when air/gas column of approx. 200 C.C. is
collected in Buchholz chamber. This contact is connected for initiating an annunciation
in the control room as “ Buchholz Alarm” which normally can operate during transformer
in service for “Incipient” faults i.e. slowly developing faults. Also Buchholz Gas relay can
operate without any fault after filtration of transformer oil for few day due to
accumulation of air bubbles in Buchholz chamber. In such case air may be expelled by
operating “air release valve”/ “air release cock” provided on top of transformer near
Buchholz relay. This condition can be simulated by shorting two alarm contacts of
Buchholz relay and “Buchholz Alarm” in the control room on annunciator panel can be
confirmed.
Similarly another potential free pair of contacts will bridge in the event of short
circuit or severe fault in the transformer which is connected for transformer tripping and
initiating an annunciation in the control room as “Buchholz Trip” or “Buchholz Surge”
which normally can operate for few meters/second velocity of oil thro’ Buchholz relay.
Also inside pressurizing can operate PRV (pressure relief valve) if pressure inside the
tank exceed 0.42 kg/cm² (set value of PRV) whose contact also is connected for
tripping the transformer. Also PRV can operate for blockage of breather vent with
transformer on full load due to increased current resulting in increase in oil temp, which
is responsible for increase in volume, but volume can not increase in closed vessel and
hence pressure is increase inside the transformer tank.
If amount of pressure inside the tank is very high, the explosion vent provided as
an alternative to PRV on transformer tank will burst and release the pressure (by
bursting of explosion vent glass/hylam, some quantity of oil will be drained out side the
transformer, but transformer body can be saved from buldging). This condition can also
be simulated by shorting contacts of Buchholz surge and PRV one by one and observing
respective window on annunciator panel in control room. Similarly by normally operating
dial of oil/winding thermometer, cooling fan or oil pump starting can be simulated.
Transformer fire system (if provided) may be checked for auto mode.
After completion of all the tests, transformer oil filtering is carried out till PI value
of transformer is greater than 1.2 irrespective of I.R. value. As a thumb rule, for every 10
degree decrease in transformer temp., I.R. becomes double.(For 400kV transformer
PPM should be less than 10 preferably less than 8).(Ref : I S 1866, Amendment-1)
Once the filtering is curried out, the oil shall be topped to the requisite level in
main/OLTC conservator tank and minimum 24 hours of setting time shall be given.
Before commissioning, air shall be removed from all the points such as radiators,
bushings and turrets, Buchholz, headers, etc.
If the transformer is with conservator oil protection system (COPS), special care
has to be taken while topping up the oil. The baloon inside the conservator tank is
attached with arm of M.O.G. The baloon shall be inflated by introducing N 2 at the
pressure slightly less than the operating pressure of PRV. Then conservator tank shall
be filled with bottom oil drain cock of conservator tank keeping top cock of conservator
tank open. Once the oil starts coming out of the top cock of conservator tank, it should
be closed. Thus all the time the conservator tank will be full of oil, while the baloon will
have inside air attached to the breather pipe. Breathing action will expand/contract the
baloon and conservator tank will have no contact with the out side atmosphere.
Transformer should be checked physically for oil leakage, cleanliness of Bushings
etc and transformer surroundings.
Then transformer is kept idle for minimum 24 hours and with minimum relay setting
transformer may be energized and kept energized on no load for 24 hours and THEN
ONLY it should be loaded.
(V.G. PATEL)

PAGE 74
27th Feb. 1999

PAGE 75
150 MVA 220/132KV AUTO TRANSFORMER TEST RESULTS
MAGNETSING CURRENT : (3PH ON HV SIDE)
RY:416V YB: 420V BR412V RN:248V YN:247V BN:246

V
TAP U(mA) V(mA) W(mA) U(mA) V(mA) W(mA)
5 1.3 0.8 1.3 (From 1.6 1.4 2.0

HV Side)
5 2.9 1.9 3.5 (From LV 3.5 3.0 5.0
Side)
MAGNATIC BALANCE TEST:

FROM HV SIDE (IN VOTS)
TAP UN VN WN un vn wn
5 239.0 215.0 23.0 146.5 132.8 13.9

5 161.7 241.0 84.0 89.3 147.4 57.5
5 55.5 188.0 238.0 32.2 113.7 146.2
FROM LV SIDE (IN VOLTS)
TAP un vn wn UN VN WN
5 238.0 215.0 23.8 402.0 360.0 41.6

5 163.7 241.0 83.5 265.0 404.0 140.5
5 63.4 182.0 239.0 101.0 304.0 403.0
VECTOR FROUP TEST : (1U – 2u SHORTED)
APPLIED VOLTAGE :
RY:420V
YB: 424V
BR: 417V
(1U-2u SHORTED) YNA0

VOLTAGE MEASURED :
1W- -- 125.0
2w V
1V-2w -- 354.0
V
1W-2v -- 350.0
V
(Ynd1) Not possible to test at site as only 1 delta terminal is brought out.
IR VALUE (With 2.5 KV MOTORISED Megger) Values in M Ohms

(Temperature 42 Deg.C) :

PAGE 76
10 60 SEC AI 1 MIN 10MIN PI
SEC
(I) 1846 2750 1.46

(II) 1875 3500 1.86
(III) 1250 2750 2.20

PAGE 77
OIL SAMPLE TEST AT SITE (2.5mm GAP):
TRANSFORMER MAIN TANK : 58 KV NO BREAK DOWN

(Test kit does not go beyond 58 KV at site)
OLTC SAMPLE (SUCTION)
R PHASE 58 KV
Y PHASE 59KV
B PHASE 60KV
PPM VALUE : 10 PPM
RATIO TEST :
SINGLE PHASE RATIO TEST ( 1 PH SUPPLY BETWEEN HV PHASE & NEUTRAL)

RN : 236V YN: 233V BN:229
TAP UN un VN vn WN wn
1 236 135.8 233 135.6 229 133.8
2 236 137.5 233 137.1 229 135.4
3 236 139.1 233 138.8 229 137.2
4 236 140.8 233 140.4 229 139.1
5 236 142.6 233 142.7 229 140.5
6 236 144.5 233 144.7 230 142.6
7 236 146.3 233 146.6 230 144.4
8 236 148.2 233 148.1 230 146.6
9 236 150.1 233 150.0 230 148.3
10 236 151.8 233 152.1 230 150.3
11 236 153.8 233 154.8 230 152.4
12 236 155.3 233 156.7 230 154.2
13 236 157.9 233 158.6 230 156.2
14 236 159.8 233 151.5 230 158.4
15 236 162.3 233 164.1 230 160.6
16 236 164.5 233 166.5 230 163.1
17 236 166.7 235 168.8 230 165.3
RATIO TEST (3 PH SUPPLY BETWEEN HV PH)
TAP UV UW WU uv vw wu un vn wn
5 416 420 412 242 247 246 145 146. 145.5
1
SHORT CIRCUIT TEST:

(1-PH SUPPLY BETWEEN HV PH & NEUTRAL, RESPECTIVE PH & NEUTRAL SHORTED)
UN : 226V VN: 234V WN:227
TAP HV(Amps) IV(Amps) HV(Amps) IV(Amps) HV(Amps) IV(Amps)
1 5.12 8.6 5.31 8.8 5.1 8.7
2 5.12 8.8 5.48 9.0 5.27 8.9
3 5.43 8.9 5.65 9.1 5.43 9.1
4 5.59 9.1 5.79 9.2 5.59 9.2
5 5.74 9.2 5.96 9.4 5.76 9.4
6 5.92 9.4 6.13 9.6 5.93 9.6
7 6.09 9.6 6.32 9.7 6.1 9.7
8 6.25 9.7 4.49 9.8 6.28 9.9
9 6.43 9.9 6.67 10.0 6.46 10.0
10 6.6 10.0 6.85 10.1 6.63 10.2
11 6.79 10.1 7.03 10.3 6.81 10.4
PAGE 78
12 6.97 10.3 7.21 10.4 6.99 10.5
13 7.14 10.4 7.4 10.5 7.18 10.6
14 7.32 10.5 7.59 10.6 7.36 10.8
15 7.5 10.6 7.77 10.7 7.54 10.9
16 7.66 10.7 7.93 10.8 7.72 11.0
17 7.84 10.8 8.06 10.9 7.90 11.1
NO BREAK HAS BEEN OBSERVED DURING ABOVE TEST.
WTI CURRENT TRANSFORMER TEST :
SECONDARY CURRENT DURING SHORT CIRCUIT TEST OF V PHASE (NORMAL TAP)
HV 25.8ma
IV 18.7ma
TAN DELTA TESTS ;

WINDING TAN DELTA TEST
WINDING MODE
UST (HV +IV/LV) (CH-L) CAPACITANC TAN DELTA%

E 0.719
6806 p F
CHG GST - L 5338 p F 0.490

GUARD
CHL + HG GST - L GND 5995 p F GST (HV+IV/LV+E)
CL – G GST – H 10626 p F 0.552

GUARD
CHL + LB GST – H - GND 17276 p F 0.444
BUSHING TAN DELTA TEST
BUSHING U S T (CH-L) C-1 G S T ( H GUARD)

SR.NO. CAPACITANCE: TAN CAPACITANCE: TAN
DELTA DELTA
1U1 (60773) 363.8 0.475 769.7 0.239
1V1 (60771) 355.1 0.464 879.1 0.332
1W1 (60772) 361.9 0.469 853.4 0.388
2u1 (51574) 306.0 0.487 472.2 0.378
2v1 (51551) 306.75 0.466 499.7 0.332
2w1 (51573) 305.65 0.490 551.8 0.315

PAGE 79
ENERGY CONSERVATION
INTRODUCTION
With the rapid industrialization, energy demand in our country has

been rising at a tremendous rate. Due to depleting resources of non-renewable energy,
the cost of energy is continuously increasing. As a result industries all over the country
are being forced to cut down their energy wastage resulting in extensive studies being
undertaken to conserve and reduce wastage of energy. Energy conservation doesn’t
imply cutting down the energy consumption but implies the efficient utilization of the
available energy. Shortage of energy due to the gap between the supply and demand is
a persistent phenomenon in a developing country like India. To bridge this gap , adding
generating capacity will not be sufficient but it is necessary to achieve improvement in
existing method of electricity generation and efficient utilization.
GENERAL INFORMATION
Installed capacity of India ( as on march- 1999) 93249 MW
Installed capacity of Gujarat 8017 MW
Installed capacity of captive power plant( as on 2032 MW

Dec.1999)
Gujarat planning: 13000 MW
in 2003
18000-20000 MW in 2010
Indian power scenario ( Generation by) :-
64.0 % Coal
25.0 % Hydro
07.5 % Gas based
03.0 % Nuclear
00.5 % Oil
India average PLF – 68.5 %
India per capita consumption- 350 units
Gujarat per capita consumption – 700 units
USA per capita consumption – 8000 units
Supply demand gap - 11.4 % (average)
- 18.0 % (at peak time)
Supply – demand gap in our country can be greatly reduced by
Increasing Plant Load Factor ( PLF)
Restoration of lost generation capacity.
Elimination of unscheduled outages and minimizing prolonged unit outages.
Performance improvement of existing power plants.
Installed of most efficient generating stations.
Supply side and demand side management.

PAGE 80
ENERGY CONSERVATION
In power station – supply side
By end users – Demand side.
“ One unit saved is more than one unit generated”
IN POWER STATION
For Thermal power station , approx. 14% loss occur at Boiler side, 47 % loss occur at
turbine side . So key area of monitoring is
Boiler
Turbine
Auxiliary consumption
Supply side management includes improving the efficiency of power stations, reducing
the auxiliary power consumption, raw water usage and other chemicals and utilities,
reducing heat rate, economic load dispatch(load management) , by reducing forced
outages and introduction of time of use tariffs, etc.
BY END USERS
We shall concentrate on Energy conservation by end users- how energy conservation is

best achieved by demand side management (DSM)
DEMAND SIDE MANAGEMENT

On the demand side , energy conservation schemes like
Energy saving lamps installation and on-demand lights

Rectification of agricultural pump sets and high rise building pump sets.
Installation of vector controlled induction motors in textile mills.
Installation of variable speed drives for saving energy for part load operation.(Harmonic
filters are required to maintain quality of power .)
Selection of pumps and fans correctly, operate the pumps close to the best efficiency
point.
Use of energy efficient motors.
Siemens and Crompton Greaves have introduced high efficiency motors which save energy by
6 to 7 %
Not only the equipment need to be energy efficient but also the overall design of
the network where such equipments are installed should also be optimum in nature.
Ensure quality of rewinding.
Improving power factor through proper equipment design and also incorporating devices
to correct P.F. which will reduce T & D losses.
Flattening the demand and filling up the valleys.
Controlling T & D losses.
Special incentive for off peak tariff.
Adoption of above options will certainly help in reducing T & D losses to utility and to
nation by eliminating wasteful energy.
References :

PAGE 81
Papers of seminar on “Integrated Energy Management in the new Millennium”
Organized by Institute of Engineers (India) Gujarat state center.
Energy conservation Handbook.
(V.G.PATEL)
27TH FEB.1999

PAGE 82
APPLICATION GUIDE FOR POWER FACTOR TESTING OF BUSHINGS
INTRODUCTION:
Bushings provide an insulated path for energized conductors to enter grounded
electrical power apparatus. Bushings are a critical part of the electrical system that
transforms and switches a.c. voltages ranging from a few hundred volts to several
thousand volts. Bushings not only handle high electrical stress, they could be subjected
to mechanical stresses, affiliated with connectors and bus support, as well. Although a
bushing may be thought of as somewhat of a simple device, its deterioration could have
severe consequences.
Definitions:
Ambient Temperature: The temperature of the surrounding air that comes in contact with
the bushing and device or equipment in which the bushing is mounted.
Bushing Voltage Tap: A connection to one of the conducting layers of a capacitance
graded bushing providing a capacitance voltage divider. Note. Additional equipment can
be designed, connected to this tap and calibrated to indicate the voltage applied to the
bushing. This tap can also be used for measurement of power factor and capacitance
values.
Bushing Test Tap: A connection to one of the conducting layers of a capacitance graded
bushing for measurement of power factor and capacitance values.
Capacitance (of Bushing):
The main capacitance C1 of a bushing is the capacitance between the high-voltage
conductor and the voltage tap or test tap.
The tap capacitance,C2 of a capacitance graded bushing is the capacitance between
the voltage tap and mounting flange(ground).
The capacitance, ‘C’ of a bushing without a voltage or test tap is the capacitance
between the high voltage conductor and the mounting flange (ground).
Capacitance Graded bushing: A bushing in which metallic or non-metallic conducting
layers are arranged within the insulating material for the purpose of controlling the
distribution of the electric field of the bushing, both axially and radially.
Cast Insulation bushing: A bushing in which the internal insulation consists of a solid
cast material with or without an inorganic filter.
Composite Bushing: A bushing in which the internal insulation consists of several coaxial
layers of different insulation materials.
Compound-filled Bushing: A bushing in which the radial space between the internal
insulation (or conductor where no internal insulation is used) and the inside surface of
the insulating envelops is filled with insulating compound.
Creep Distance: The distance measured along the external contour of the insulating
envelop which separates the metal part operating at line voltage and the metal flange at
ground voltage.
Insulating Envelop: An envelop of inorganic or organic material such as a ceramic or
cast resin placed around the energized conductor and insulating material.
Internal Insulation: Insulating material providing in a radial direction around the
energized conductor in order to insulate it from ground voltage.
Major Insulation: The insulating material providing the dielectric, which is necessary to
maintain proper isolation between the energized conductor and ground voltage. It
consists of internal insulation and the insulating envelope(s).
Oil-filled Bushing: A Bushing in which the radial space between the inside surface of the
insulating envelop and the internal insulation (or conductor where no internal insulation
is used) is filled with oil.
Oil-Impregnated paper Insulated Bushing: A Bushing in which the internal insulation
consists of a core wound from paper and subsequently impregnated with oil. The core is

PAGE 83
contained in an insulating envelope, the space between the core and the insulating
envelope being filled with oil.
Power factor (of Insulation): The relation of the power dissipated in the insulation, in
watts, to the product of the effective voltage and the current in volt-amperes, when
tested under a sinusoidal voltage and prescribed conditions.
Note: The insulation power factor is equal to the cosine of the phase angle between the
voltage and the resulting current when both the voltage and current are sinusoidal.
Resin-bonded paper-insulated Bushing: A Bushing in which the internal insulation
consists of a core wound from resin-coated paper. During the winding process, each
paper layer is bonded to the previous layer by its resin coating and the bonding is
achieved by caring the resin.
Note: A resin bond paper-insulated bushing may be provided with an insulating envelop,
in which case the intervening space may be filled with another insulating medium.
Resin Impregnated paper-insulated Bushing: A bushing in which the internal insulation
consists of a core wound from untreated paper and subsequently impregnated with a
curable resin.
Solid Bushing: A bushing in which the major insulation is provided by a ceramic or
analogous material.
Non-Condenser Bushing: Non-Condenser bushings include the following designs, solid
porcelain, gas-filled hollow shell bushing (Porcelain or epoxy shells). Solid porcelain
bushing were used exclusively in early electrical systems, but it became apparent that
there was a voltage limit to the application of these solid porcelain bushings, Solid
porcelain bushing were utilized up through 23 kV, but after that point alternative
insulation mediums had to be employed.
The next step in bushing construction used other materials between the metal conductor
and the solid porcelain shell. Some of the early materials included oil, asphalt & air.
These designs worked well but given the ever-increasing voltages of the world’s
developing electrical systems. It became apparent that ever-increasing diameter
bushing would be required. These large diameter bushing were impractical for an
industry determined to construct smaller apparatus. A new solution had to be found. That
solution was condenser Bushings.
Today, one new SF6 gas breakers are equipped with hollow shell bushings, constructed
of either porcelain or epoxy, which are filled with SF6 gas.
Condenser Bushings: The major goal of condenser-designed bushings is to reduce the
physical size of the bushing. This compaction allows not only for a smaller bushing, but
also a upper and lower ends of the bushing. The more portion of condenser layers in
bushings provided both radial and axial voltage stress control, when resulted in smaller
compact bushings. The condenser layers are basically a series of concentric capacitors
between the center conductor and ground. This design is employed on a wide range of
voltage levels, up to and including 765kV.
Modern condenser bushings are usually equipped with test taps, Bushings rated 115kV
and above usually have voltage taps, bushings rated below 115kV have test taps. The
availability of either a voltage tap or a test tap allows for the testing of the main
insulation C1.The test tap is normally designed to withstand only about 500 volts while a
voltage tap may have a normal rating of 2.5 to 5 kV.
This voltage is only a concern when performing the C2 (Tap Insulation test) or the
inverted Underground Specimen Test (UST) , both of which will be discussed later in this
guide. Before applying a test voltage to the tap, the maximum safe test voltage must be
known and observed. An excessive voltage may puncture the insulation and render the
tap useless. If absolutely no information is available on the tap test voltage, do not
exceed 500 volts.
BUSHING TESTS:

PAGE 84
Power and Dissipation Factor & Capacitance Test C1 for Main Insulation: The voltage or
test tap allows for testing the main bushing insulation while it is in place in the apparatus
without disconnecting any leads from the bushing. The main insulation is the condenser
core between the center conductor and the tap layer. The test is conducted in the UST
test mode, which eliminates the losses going to grounded portion of the bushing. The
UST method measures only the bushing and is not appreciably affected by conditions
external to the bushing.
Test Connections (UST) :
Connect a ground wire from the test set to the host apparatus for the bushing under test.
Connect the high voltage lead from the test set to the center conductor of the bushing. If
the bushing under test is in a transformer, jumper all the bushings of the same winding.
Also jumper the bushings of the other windings & connect them to ground. Make sure
the bare conductor on the high voltage lead extends away from the bushing under test
to avoid contact with the bushing porcelain. The high voltage lead can be supported by
another bushing or an individual wearing rubber gloves suitable for the voltage rating.
Hold the cable on the insulated part, back from the exposed connector on the bushing.
This individual should also have control of initiating the test set with an interlock switch.
Connect the low voltage lead from the test set to the test tap. Test tap accessibility will
differ with the bushing style and rating. Some test taps are terminated in a miniature
bushing mounted on the grounded mounting flange of the bushing. The tap is grounded
in normal service by a screw cap on the miniature bushing housing. By removing the
screw cap the tap terminal is available to perform the tests. Most taps are readily
accessible, but a special probe is necessary to make contact with the tap in certain
bushing designs.
The tap housing may contain a small amount of oil or compound. Care must be taken
when removing the screw cap to each the oil. Be sure the oil is replaced after testing is
completed.
Test Procedure: For all power factor testing, the more information you record at the time
of testing will ensure the best comparison of results at the next routine test. Test data
should be compared to the nameplate data. If nameplate data or factory readings are
not available, compare the results of prior tests on the same bushing and results of
similar tests on similar bushings.
Always observe safety rules when conducting tests. Have a conference before testing
being and Make sure all personnel understand the danger areas. Power factor testing is
externally sensitive to weather conditions. Tests should be conducted in favorable
conditions whenever possible.
The C1 main insulation test is normally performed at 10kV in the UST test mode. Always
Refer to the name plate voltage rating of the bushing under test. If 10kV exceed the
rating of
the bushing, test at or slightly below the voltage rating. Proceed with the test and record
the
results.
Identify each set of reading with the bushing, serial number. Record manufacturer, type
or model and name plate ratings. Especially be aware to record nameplate C1
capacitance and power factor values.
Note any special or unusual test connections or conditions.
Record actual test voltage, current, Watts, Power factor and capacitance. Correct
current and watts to a standard test voltage such as 2.5kV or 10kV if necessary.
Record ambient temperature and relative humidity and a general indication of weather
conditions at the time of the test.
Correct the power factor reading to 200C.If the bushing is mounted in a transformer, use
an average of the top oil temperature and the ambient. (Refer to Exhibit A. Bushing
Temperature Correction factors)

PAGE 85
Test Result: General guidelines for evaluating the C1 Power and Dissipation Factor test
data are as follows:
Between nameplate PF and up to twice nameplate PF-Bushing Acceptable.
Between twice nameplate PF and up to 3 times.
Nameplate PF-Monitor Bushing closely.
Above 3 times nameplate PF-Replace Bushing.
General guideline for evaluating the C1 Capacitance data are as follows:
Nameplate Capacitance +/- 5% - Bushing Acceptable.
Nameplate Capacitance +/- 5% to +/-10% - Monitor Bushing closely.
Nameplate Capacitance +/- 10% or greater – Replace Bushing.
Changes in C1 testing are usually contamination issues ensure caused by moisture
increases oil contamination or breakdown and short-circuited condenser layers.
Inverted Tap to Center Conductor Test C1 (UST): The inverted tap test can be performed
on bushing with test taps. The high voltage lead and the low voltage lead are reversed
for this test. The high voltage lead is connected to the test tap and the low voltage lead
is connected to the center conductor of the bushing. The test tap may have to be
accessed with a special probe as previously described. This test is normally not
performed except on bushings that have abnormal test result from the standard UST
method. Care must be taken to ensure test voltage do not exceed the tap rating. All
windings must be shorted and test results recorded as in standard C1 UST method.
Power and Dissipation Factor & Capacitance Test C2 : The C2 test measures only the
insulation between the tap and ground and is not appreciably affected by connections to
the bushing center conductor. The tap is energized to a pre-determined test voltage and
measured to ground in the Grounded Specimen Test (GST) mode. Always refer to
nameplate data or manufacturer’s literature on the bushing for tap test voltages. Typical
test voltages for potential taps are between 0.5 kV and 12kV. Power factor taps test
voltages should not exceed 0.5kV.If no information is given, do not exceed 0.5kV to
prevent inadvertent damage to the insulation.
Test connections (GST) :
Connect a ground wire between the test set and the host apparatus for the bushing
under test.
Connect the high voltage lead from the test set to the test tap. Test tap accessibility will
differ with the bushings style and rating. Refer to previous discussion on test taps. Care
must be taken to support the high voltage lead, as the test tap electrode may be fragile.
Connect the low voltage lead from the test set to the center conductor of the bushing for
the guarded test method.
Test Procedure :
Before energizing the test specimen, double check that the test set will initially energize
at low or zero potential. Carefully increase test output to desired test voltage.
Identify each set of readings with the bushing serial number; Record manufacturer, type
or model and nameplate ratings.
Record actual test voltage, current, watts, power factor and capacitance. Correct current
and watts to a standard test voltage such as 2.5 kV or 10 kV if necessary.
conditions at the time of the test.
Correct the power factor readings to 200C. If the bushing is mounted in a transformer,
use an average of the top oil temperature and the ambient (Refer to Temperature
Correction Tables, Exhibit A)
Test Results: Changes in C2 Power and dissipation factor, which is not usually included
on the nameplate, are most commonly indicative of oil contamination.

PAGE 86
Changes in C2 Capacitance are typically indicative of physical change, such as tap
electrode problems or tap connection problems. Nameplate values for C2 are not
typically found on nameplates of bushing rated below 115kV.
General guideline for evaluating the C2 Power and Dissipation factor data are as
follows:
Compare test results to prior tests on the same bushing.
Compare test results to similar tests on similar bushings. (Note : Power and Dissipation
factor results are generally around 1%)
General guidelines for evaluating the C2 Capacitance data are as follows:
Nameplate Capacitance +/- 5% - Bushing Acceptable.
Nameplate Capacitance +/- 5% to +/- 10% - Monitor Bushing Closely.
Nameplate Capacitance +/- 10% or greater – Replace bushing.
Hot Collar Test: For Bushings not equipped with either a test tap on a voltage tap, the
only field measurement which can be performed is the HOT Collar Test. The dielectric
losses through the various sections of any bushing or pothead can be investigated by
means of the test, which generates localized high-voltage stresses. This is accomplished
by using a conductive hot collar band designed to fit closely to the porcelain surface,
usually directly under the top petticoat, and applying a high voltage to the band. The
center conductor of the bushing is grounded. The test provides a measurement of the
losses in the section directly beneath the collar and is especially effective in detecting
conditions such as voids in compound filled bushings or moisture penetration since the
insulation can be subjected to a higher voltage gradient than can be obtained with the
normal bushing tests.
This method is also useful in detecting faults within condenser layers in condenser-type
bushings and checking the oil level of oil – filled bushings after a pattern of readings for
a normal bushing has been established.
Test Connection (GST) :
Connect a ground wire between the test set and the host apparatus for the bushing
under test.
Install the collar just under the top petticoat of the bushing under test. Ensure the collar
is drawn tight around the bushing for good connect.
Connect the high voltage lead from the test set to the collar. Ensure the high voltage
cable extends away from the bushing at a 900 and not resting against the porcelain.
Ground the center conductor of the bushing.
Test Procedure :
Energize the collar to 10 kV, if 10 kV exceeds the rating of the bushing, test at or slightly
below the rating of the bushing.
Identify each set of resigns with the bushing serial number. Record manufacturer, type or
model and other nameplate ratings.
Record actual test voltage, current and watts, power and dissipation factor data is not
recorded. Correct current and watts to a standard test voltage.

PAGE 87
General guidelines for evaluating the hot collar data are as follows:
watts-loss values less than 100 mw - Bushing Acceptable.
Watt-loss values of 100 mw or more - Bushing Unacceptable.
Current values within 10 % of similar bushing - Bushing Acceptable.
Current values less than 10 % of similar bushing - Bushing Unacceptable.
(Low level of liquid or compound)
If watt-loss values are in the unacceptable range, cleaning may be necessary on the
exposed insulation surface of the bushing. Effects of surface leakage can be
substantially minimized by cleaning and drying the porcelain surface and applying a
very thin coat of Dow Corning#4 insulating grease (or Equal) to the entire porcelain
surface.
Spare Bushing Tests: All the tests discussed thus far are for bushing installed in
apparatus. These same tests can be performed on spare bushing with minor changes in
the test criteria. All tests of spare bushings should be performed on bushings mounted
vertical or at an angle of inclination to the vertical not to exceed 200.
Test Procedure : The following test procedure applies to following, with the exception of
the hot collar Test. In this test, power and dissipation factor is not recorded.
Overall Test for Bushing with or without Taps (GST)
C1 Main Insulation test (UST)
C2 Tap Insulation Test (GST)
Hot collar Test (GST)
Identify each set of reading with the bushing serial number, Record manufacturer, type
or model and other nameplate ratings.
Record actual test voltage, current and watts, power and dissipation factor results are
corrected for ambient temperature around the bushing at the time of test. ( Refer to
Exhibit A Bushing Temperature Correction factors)
Correct current and watts to a standard test voltage such as 2.5 kV or 10 kV if
necessary.
condition at the time of the test.
References:
John leech, KC&M Consulting

Theodore Wildi, Electrical Machines, Drives and Power systems.
Waukesha Electric systems, Instruction Manual # V 2.1 REV 12/95 9300
IEEE C57.19.00-1991; C57.19.01-1991

PAGE 88
INSTALLATION, TESTING AND COMMISSIONING OF POWER
TRANSFORMER
BY : V. G. Patel
A.E.CO. LTD.
Sabarmati TPS.
APPLICABLE I.S.: Transformers are generally designed, manufactured and tested as

per IS 2026 / IS 1180.
Transformers being a static device give long and trouble free service when properly
installed, operated and maintained.
Today we will discuss various important aspects for installation, testing and
commissioning of power transformers right from dispatch from the factory.
TRANSPORTATION
Normally transformers having capacity more than 1000 KVA are dispatched with their
external fittings dismantled to the required extent and weatherproof blanking plates are
provided wherever necessary. All dismantled parts are placed either separately or in a
appropriate group. Transformers are dispatched either completely filled with oil or oil
covering top yoke of transformer leaving top space exposed to atmospheric air or entire
transformer filled with inert Nitrogen gas at certain pressure. One or two Nitrogen
cylinders are connected to transformer body to supply Nitrogen to maintain inside
pressure which otherwise reduce on account of leakage.
UNLOADING
Transformer should be inspected before unloading for any transit damage to tank, parts
like valves, sight glass etc. and for oil leakage. Transformers may be unloaded at site
either by means of crane or by means of jacks for higher ratings transformers. Care
should be taken to use all lifting lugs to avoid unbalanced lifting. Lugs provided for
partial lifting -- active parts, conservator tank, etc – should not be used for lifting entire
transformer. Loose cases should be handled in their upright position as indicated on the
cases.
Rollers should be used for shifting transformer. Roller axles should not be slinged for
towing the transformer.
STORAGE
It is desirable to install and commission the transformer with minimum delay. When it is
not possible, it should be kept energized by applying low voltage to ensure 10 – 15
degree higher temp. than the ambient. Oil Break Down Voltage (BDV) should be
checked regularly and silica gel should be reconditioned periodically or need base
looking to its colour.
Oil drum should not be stored standing on end but should be placed on their sides with
the bung at 450 downwards.
INSTALLATION

PAGE 89
For smooth functioning and prolonged life of a transformer, adequate ventilation is
necessary for tank and radiator so that they can dissipate heat. There should be clear
space of 1250 mm on all sides of the transformer if it is enclosed in a room.
When rollers are fitted, suitable rail should be provided. Necessary oil draining at the
event of the fire should be made by way of Oil Soak Pit (as per Indian Electricity Rule
no. 64, 2nd part , transformer having more than 9092 litres – 2000 gallons of oil must
have soak pit). Fire separation walls should also provided as per Indian Electricity
Rules.
All components dismantled for transportation should be duly assembled as follows ;
MAIN TANK
After keeping main tank in its permanent position, lock the rollers with anti earthquake
clamps to prevent any accidental movement on rail.
BUSHING
Up to 72.5 KV, oil communicating type bushings are used. For 72.5 KV and above,
condenser bushings are used. When transformer is dispatched, these bushings are
detached from the transformer and dispatched separately. The draw through type lead is
coiled and kept temporarily below the bushing blanking plate. Clean the bushings and
check that there are no hair cracks or other damages. Test IR value of each bushing with
a 500 V megger. It should be more than 100 M-Ohms. Ensure test tap cap is fully
tightened. Before mounting, check the gasket. Remove the blanking plate and uncoil the
draw through type lead. Tie the flexible steel wire to lead and while lowering bushing,
carefully thread the flexible steel wire through the inside tube of bushing and pull it.
Remove the flexible wire and insert the locking pin to hold the cable bolt in position. Fix
upper and lower arcing horns and adjust the gap setting as per required insulation co-
ordination. Check the oil level in the bushing oil level indicating glass. IF OIL LEVEL IS
NOT VISIBLE, DO NOT MOUNT THAT BUSHING. ALSO DO NOT ATTEMPT TO FILL
OIL AT SITE. AS SUCH BUSHING IS MOST LIKELY TO FAIL IN SERVICE.
( c ) MARSHALLING BOX
The transformer is provided with certain fittings directly mounted on the transformer at
various locations. These fittings are having electrical contacts or terminals which are
required to be connected to the protection schemes to give alarm/annunciation under
abnormal conditions and if further required to disconnect the transformer from mains. In
order to facilitate connections of all such devices to the protection scheme, the cable
from all such contacts are wired up to a weatherproof terminal box. This box called
marshalling box, is also used for housing Oil Temperature Indicator (OTI) and Winding
Temperature Indicator (WTI). The marshalling box is made of steel metal and is provided
with a glass window for observing OTI & WTI. The capillaries from OTI & WTI comes out
from the bottom, thus preventing ingress of dust.
BUCHHOLZ RELAY
Buchholz relay fitted in the oil connection between conservator and main tank is a very
sensitive gas and oil operated apparatus, which detects formation of gas or
development of sudden pressure inside the oil filled transformer. It is having two floats
for gas collection for incipient faults and other disconnects the transformer from supply
in case of severe fault inside the transformer by operating mercury switch. This relay

PAGE 90
may operate due to collection of air in the relay bucket which is trapped earlier in the
tank and in the winding at the time of oil filling or at the time of filtering. Releasing air by
the petcock provided will solve the problem. Relay mounting should be such that the
arrow direction points towards conservator. The relay may be commissioned by
removing locks or by test lever putting in to working position as relay is sent in the test
position to prevent damage in transit. Isolating valve must be fully opened after
mounting the relay.
SILICA GEL BREATHER
Whenever there is change in ambient temperature or change in load on the transformer,

there is change in oil volume in the transformer. When air is breathed in, there is a
possibility of moisture and dust from the atmosphere to be sucked in. These
contaminants deteriorate insulation properties of oil and hence silica gel breather is
provided which arrests moisture and dust from the air drawn in. Silica gel breather has
three main components;
Casing has a window at the upper part to see the colour of crystals. A window at lower
part to see oil level which is provided for filtering inlet air (removing dust).
Silica gel crystals, which absorbs moisture from the air drawn in. Colour of crystals is
blue when dry and turns pink when saturated with moisture. It can be reconditioned by
heating.
Oil seal assembly.
MOG (MAGNETIC OIL LEVEL GAUGE)
This is a dial type oil level indicating device which is provided at height i.e. on
conservator tank, as conventional glass type indicator is difficult to observe due to
height and colour change/dust accumulation on glass. Also N/O contacts are provided
by mercury switch, which operates for low oil level. This protection feature and clear
visibility justify the cost of MOG on a bigger size of transformer. Two separate
compartments (1) Oil side magnet assembly which is operated by float in the
conservator tank and motion is transmitted to (2) Pointer side compartment with the
arrangement of face to face placed follower magnet on which pointer is fixed which
indicates level in circular dial.
(g) OTI (OIL TEMPERATURE INDICATOR)
It indicates working temperature of oil. There is a temperature-sensing bulb, which is

connected to Bourdon tube mounted on a case comprising reading dial and glass cover
through the armoured capillary. OTI is provided with two pointers and associated
contacts for protection of transformer. Both the pointers are independently adjustable
which can be set from out side by knob using special keys. It is generally housed in
marshalling box having a glass window on the door for observation.
If the oil temperature increases beyond set value due to overload

or inadvertent closure of indicator valves or insufficient air draft,
the indication pointer touches the preset alarm pointer and
operates alarm. If alarm is not attended and there is a further
increase in temperature, the trip contact will bridge and trip the
transformer.

PAGE 91
(h) WTI (WINDING TEMPERATURE INDICATOR)
Generally required and provided for high power rating transformers. WTI pot is
mounted at the top of the transformer tank. Hence the oil in WTI pot is at a temp. of top
oil. WTI CT is mounted on one of the line leads with the secondary connected to image
coil having CT ratio equal to transformer rated current divided by 1.7 or 2.1 depending
upon oil gradient between winding temperature and oil temperature. As the load on
transformer varies, the line current varies, the WTI CT secondary current passing
through the image coil varies, the heat developed by image coil varies and hence
temperature of oil inside the image coil varies, as the bulb of WTI is immersed in the oil
inside the image coil and as seen above, the temperature of this oil dependent on top oil
temperature and the load on the transformer. WTI also housed in the marshalling box.
WTI also has an alarm and trip contacts. For fan cooled transformers, the auxiliary
contact of WTI are used for switching ON and OFF the fans.
COMMISSIONING
Results of various precommissioning tests as well as confirmation of check points are

to be recorded in commissioning report. This will serve as a handy record for future
reference.
CHECH POINTS
LOCATION CHECKS
Main Tank ----- - Rollers locking.

Bushings ---------- Test Tap Cap., Arcing Horn Gap
MOG--------------- Mount & check Main Tank & OLTC conservator. MOG
locking lever should be removed.
Buchholz Relay -- Also check surge relay and floats tied to prevent transit
damaged should be released.
Buchholz relay lever should be put to working/normal from test position.
Breather ------------ Inspect silica gel colour and check seals.
Radiators----------- Check top and bottom valves and air release plugs.
Marshalling Box--- Check OTI & WTI settings. Normally OTI A– 85 0 C & T–
950C,WTI A– 950C & T–1050 C
Check other fittings like fans, etc.
OIL SAMPLING & FILTERATION
Oil sample from bottom and top should be tested for BDV as per IS 1866. If BDV is not
as per requirement, oil needs filtration. Release air by unscrewing air release plugs
provided for Main Tank cover, Bushings, Surge relay, Buchholz relay.
PRECOMMISSIONING TESTS
Prior to energizing the transformer, several precommissioning tests are done. The
objective of these tests is to confirm that the transformer has not suffered damage during
transit and also to check any inadvertent slip in the factory tests, or supply.
RATIO TEST :

PAGE 92
It is desirable to do this test by ratio meter. If it is not available, a simple test of
measuring voltages can also serve the purpose. From R & D plate decide phase
terminal of HV & LV and perform test by applying single phase 415 V or 240 V AC, 50 H Z
to HV and measuring in LV for all taps. Repeat for remaining two phases.
VECTOR GROUP CHECK TEST :
Connect terminals 1U,2U together. Apply three phase 415 V, 50 H Z, AC to HV terminals

1U,1V,1W. Measure voltages between terminals 1V-2V, 1V-2W & 1W-2V, 1W-2W.
1V-2V & 1V-2W will be equal, while 1W-2V will be greater than 1W-2W for Dyn11 vector
group.
MAGNETIZING CURRENT TEST:
1U 2U
2N
2V
2U
2W
2N 2V
2W
2W
1W 1V
D y n 11
Apply 415 V, three phase, 50 H Z to HV terminals, keeping LV terminals open at normal

tap. Measure three line currents. Because three phases of magnetic circuit of the core
are not similar, the three line currents will not be exactly equal. Middle phase current will
be around 50% of other two phases. These test results compared with factory test
results, confirms that there is no transit damages to the core and windings.
MAGNETIC BALANCE TEST :

This is a simple to detect shorted turns in the winding. Its principle is that shorted turns
oppose establishment of flux in that limb because of the current that circulates through
the shorted turns. Apply single phase 415 or 240 V AC on HV line terminals and
measure voltage induced in other two HV terminals. Also measure current drawn when
applied in center limb, there is almost equal voltage in two outer phases. But when
applied voltage in one outer limb, approximately there will be 70% & 30% voltages
induced in center and outer limb respectively as more flux passes through nearer limb
and less through outer limb.
When center limb excited, current drawn will be less (appro. 70%) compared to outer
limb, because of symmetry of flux in both the outer limbs. Thus this observation will
confirm the healthiness of the windings. In case one of the phases has shorted turns, it
will draw a comparatively large current when it is energized. When other phases are
energized, flux and voltage in the shorted phase will be significantly reduced. This
observation indicates the shorted phase.
Repeat for other two phases.
In case of HV voltage is 66 KV and above, current drawn may be very small in amount
and hence this test can be carried out on LV side.
PAGE 93
WHEN MB TEST INDICATES SHORTED PHASE, TRANSFORMER SHOULD NOT BE
COMMISSIONED.
INSULATION RESISTANCE TEST (IR TEST) :

This should be carried out after throughly cleaning of the transformer bushings with
either 1000 V or 2500 V megger. Before meggering adjust pointer to infinity by rotating
megger with lead open-circuited.Their should not be any external connection to the
transformer terminals. Lead wire from megger to transformer should run independently
without any joint. It is noted that IR reading continue to increase initially and for
comparision purpose reading is to be taken after one minute of energizing. IR is
dependent on temperature, hence temperature at the time of measurement should be
noted. Compare temperature measured with factory test results keeping in view,
temperature at the time of measurement. As a thumb rule, for every 10 degrees
decrease in temperature, IR becomes double. Also measure the IR value of power
cables.
SHORT CIRCUIT TEST :

By knowing the % impedance and HV side voltage, calculate current that would flow in
HV when 415 V three phase applied with LV side shorted. Repeat this test (i. e.
measurement of three line currents )for all taps. This test will confirm contact
engagement on all taps.
FUNCTIONAL TESTS :
Contacts of respective components shorted and operation of either lamp indication or
alarm or both is noted. Similarly oil/windings thermometer, cooling fans/pumps starting
can be simulated.
ENERGIZING :
After satisfactory completion of all the tests, PI value of the transformer should be
measured. It should be greater than 1.2 (irrespective of IR value). If not, oil filtering is
required. Now the transformer can be energized on no load. It is preferable to keep
settings of all respective relays to minimum. It should be allowed to run on no load for 3-
4 hours, during which period transformer should be keep under close observation for
any abnormalities in the hum and gas collection in Buchholz relay and oil leakage. After
that it should be deenergized and air /gas to be released from all released points. It
should be energized again and all relays set at their desired settings. The transformer
should then be loaded gradually to reach its full load in about 3 hrs. time. Check MOG,
OTI & WTI reads properly and that all radiators are uniformly hot. Then, transformer can
be kept working.
V. G. PATEL
08-03-2001

PAGE 94

VGP - Book1

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Description:

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

VGP - Book1

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

General information regarding relay type

English Electric Relay Identification:

Example ----------------> CMM42PF3A5

A --Phase Angle I --Directional Current S --Slip Frequency

(b) Basic Movement :

By V.G.Patel TRANSFORMER COMMISSIONING BOOK.DOC

A triple pole over current relay has the Number 3.

The second number indicates the particular characteristics of one of a group of

(f) Case Size:

A -- Size 1 draw out single ended 10 terminals

(g) Case Mounting :

F -- Flush Vertical P -- Projecting Vertical

By V.G.Patel TRANSFORMER COMMISSIONING BOOK.DOC

Distance Protection Schemes

INTERNATIONAL NOMENCLATURE ADOPTED FOR PROTECTION SCHEMES

2 --Timer 60 --P.T.Fuse failure

By V.G.Patel TRANSFORMER COMMISSIONING BOOK.DOC

2) NEED FOR PROTECTION: Protection to a motor is necessary from the

Overloading of driven auxiliary

Short Circuit Protection: This takes care of phase-to-phase faults and

High set instantaneous relays:

Earth fault Protection: Although the fuse to provide earth fault

By V.G.Patel TRANSFORMER COMMISSIONING BOOK.DOC

In case of an ineffectively earthed system, the

Overload Protection: Any overload protection, basically tries to

By V.G.Patel TRANSFORMER COMMISSIONING BOOK.DOC

Oil Dash pot electromagnet:

Static overload alarm relay:

By V.G.Patel TRANSFORMER COMMISSIONING BOOK.DOC

Blocked Rotor Protection : This is generally achieved very easily by a

Application of the relay sometimes become

Negative Sequence Protection : As discussed earlier, any unbalance arising

As discussed earlier in some relays a

Condition monitoring devices: Although this can hardly be classified as

By V.G.Patel TRANSFORMER COMMISSIONING BOOK.DOC

By V.G.Patel TRANSFORMER COMMISSIONING BOOK.DOC

By V.G.Patel TRANSFORMER COMMISSIONING BOOK.DOC

CAPACITOR RATING IN KVAR WHEN MOTOR SPEED IS:

By V.G.Patel TRANSFORMER COMMISSIONING BOOK.DOC

Sr. Nature/Type of Instruments Use of Instruments

b) Growler b) For motor rotors - bars - healthiness checking.

By V.G.Patel TRANSFORMER COMMISSIONING BOOK.DOC

CHARACTERISTIC OF TRANSFORMER FAULTS

(ii) Discharges 2 Due to

By V.G.Patel TRANSFORMER COMMISSIONING BOOK.DOC

By V.G.Patel TRANSFORMER COMMISSIONING BOOK.DOC

By V.G.Patel TRANSFORMER COMMISSIONING BOOK.DOC

Identification of problem (finding out types of faults and its location)

Evolving to the solution (paper work for its rectification)

Implementation of solution (actual repairing work)

Drying out, testing and commissioning. Electrical insulation of Electrical machine in

Electrical impurities like voids, foreign particles etc.

Environmental factors like humidity, temperature etc.

Tan delta is the measure of the effectiveness of transformer oil as an insulating

Acidity is measured in terms of neutralization number. Oxidation of oil causes acid

By V.G.Patel TRANSFORMER COMMISSIONING BOOK.DOC

Interfacial Tension (IFT) :

Dissolved Gas Analysis (DGA) :

Core loss test :

Short circuit Impedance of H..V. & L.V. :

Capacitance and tan-delta may be measured periodically and compared with

Winding resistance may be measured periodically and compared with previous