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BTZ
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Man ual F
Manual or Mushr
For oom Culti
Mushroom Cultivv a tion

Authors

Mr. Chenjerayi KASHANGURA

Dr. Edna Kunjeku
Dr. Audrey Mabveni
Mrs. Tsungai Chirara
Mr. Arnold Mswaka
Mrs. Vimbai Manjonjo-Dalu
Copyright@ 2004
Biotechnology Trust of Zimbabwe
151 Sam Nujoma Street
Harare
Zimbabwe
ISBN

Citation:
Biotechnology Trust of Zimbabwe 2004
Mushroom Production Manual

Authors: KASHANGURA C, Kunjeku E, Mabveni A, Chirara T, Mswaka A, Manjonjo-Dalu V

Edited by Professor C. J. Chetsanga

Cover design pictures: upper right: A farmer from Wedza with a bumper oyster mushroom crop, upper left:
oyster mushrooms fruiting through cut vertical slits.centre: double beam system of hanging bags. Oyster
mushroom crop. centre low: thatch-grass mushroom growing house. low right upper: farmers spawning
banana substrate. low right lower: brick mushroom growing house.
Printed by:

Available from Biotechnology Trust of Zimbabwe

151 Sam Nujoma Street
Harare

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
CKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The authors would like to thank the following institutions –University

of Zimbabwe (UZ), Scientific and Industrial Research and Development
Centre (SIRDC), Biotechnology Trust of Zimbabwe (BTZ), AREX
(Agricultural Research and Extension) for making the Mushroom
Project a reality and not a dream. We thank all the farmers in the
pilot areas (Hwedza and Buhera) for the co-operation shown in
the research and adoption of oyster mushroom cultivation technology.
This manual and the Mushroom Project were supported by a grant from
the Netherlands Ministry of Foreign Affairs through Biotechnology Trust
of Zimbabwe (BTZ). We also thank the founding members of the
Mushroom Project team who include Dr. Allen. Y. Mswaka (the initial
Principal Investigator), Mrs. Chigogora (collaborator at BRI [SIRDC])
and Mr. Gerald Ashley (the initial technician for the project).

Biotechnology Trust of Zimbabwe is a not for profit organisation

The Intended users of the manual are:

Development workers, Extension Workers and individual growers and
mushroom trainers

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OR GANISA
ORGANISA TIONS
GANISATIONS

Collaborators

1. University of Zimbabwe (Biological Sciences Department): This is where spawn

was produced in conjunction with BRI (SIRDC). Research in oyster mushrooms and
other mushrooms was done in the Biological Sciences Department. Oyster mushroom
cultures were also maintained here. The department offers spawn and mushroom
training. The department was the main research center for the Mushroom Project.

2. Biotechnology Research Institute (BRI) [SIRDC]: Spawn was also

produced here. The BRI was a collaborating institute during the mushroom
project lifespan.

3. Biotechnology Trust of Zimbabwe (BTZ): This is a not-for-profit organization

which facilitated the project through the provision of funding and other
assistance.The primary objective of the organisation is to provide funding for
agricultural projects that are need driven and which benefit the resource-
disadvantaged farmers (RDFs) in Zimbabwe.

4. Agricultural Research and Extension (AREX): This organization, through

its network of extension personnel, was involved in the initial set up of the
project and provided the necessary linkage between the farmers and the
project team.

DEDICATION
DEDICATION

Dedicated
To all the mycophiles (Mushroom Lovers)
And oyster mushroom cultivators

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PREFA CE
PREFA

T he Mushroom project was practically initiated

in Hwedza and Buhera in 1998 after
thorough consultations among all the
stakeholders (UZ, SIRDC, BTZ, AREX and
farmers). This manual is a result of some of
the experiences encountered during the
mushroom project lifespan (1998-2002). The
manual is intended for all those who are
interested in cultivating oyster mushrooms. If
one is only interested in starting to cultivate
oyster mushrooms right away then one can
concentrate on chapters 4 and 5. The other
chapters can be read by one who is already
cultivating the oyster mushrooms. A bonus
section on spawn production has been
included and a brief section on button
mushrooms has also been included.
Zimbabwe is a land-locked country
bounded by Zambia on the north,
Mozambique on the east, South Africa on the
south and Botswana on the west. It also shares
a small border with Namibia at the point of
the Caprivi Strip. Zimbabwe is situated
between south latitudes 15o36' and 22o25' and
it covers an area of 390 757 square
kilometres (sq km). Its altitude ranges
between 197 m and 2592 m. Most of the country
lies more than 300 m above sea level, with 80
percent being higher than 600 m. Less than five
percent is above 1500 m and the peak is in Nyanga
in the Eastern Highlands.
The Mushroom Project started with 12
project sites in Buhera and Hwedza, which are
shown in the map above. Buhera and Hwedza
are districts in Zimbabwe located in the
provinces Manicaland and Mashonaland East
respectively. Buhera and Hwedza have land
cover of 537 058 ha and 256 271 ha respectively.
The project sites are not shown to scale in the
map relative to each other
There were six project sites in Buhera and six
project sites in Wedza. This manual contains
information on the technology that was developed
at the research institutes (UZ and BRI) in
conjunction with AREX with the collaboration
of the farmers themselves through participatory
techniques. The Project team learnt from the
farmers and the farmers also learnt from the
project team. As of 2003 the project sites had
increased drastically to close to 50.
The aim of this manual is
to facilitate the adoption of oyster
mushroom cultivation by
interested households in
Zimbabwe and the surrounding
region. Members of such
households can then share with
others the technology
experience that was achieved
in Buhera and Hwedza from
1998 to 2002. The authors
hope that this manual shall not
only provide pleasant reading
but also practical knowledge
which can be used by the
purchaser of this manual in
preparing oyster mushroom
recipes.

Chenjerayi Kashangura, Edna

Kunjeku, Audrey Mabveni, Tsungai
5 Chirara, Arnold Mswaka,Vimbai
Manjonjo-Dalu
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TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page
Trivia on Mushrooms 8
Nature’s Mushroom Cultivators 8

CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION
BACKGROUND TO MUSHROOMS 9

Common Features 9
Types and Uses 11
Edible Mushrooms 11
Non-edible and Poisonous Mushrooms 13
Common Features to note on Poisonous Mushrooms 13
Uses of Mushrooms 13
Importance of Mushrooms 15
Biological Efficiency 15

CHAPTER 2 THE BIOLOGY OF MUSHROOMS 16

Reproduction in Fungi 16
Fungal Growth Factors 18
Nutrition of Mushrooms 22

CHAPTER 4 OYSTER AND BUTTON MUSHROOMS 24

CHAPTER 5 MUSHROOM STRUCTURE DESIGN AND

MAINTENANCE 47

CHAPTER 6 UTILISATION OF SPENT MUSHROOM SUBSTRATE,

PRESERVATION AND PACKAGING OF MUSHROOMS 59

CHAPTER 7 PESTS, PROBLEMS AND DISEASES 62

BONUS Spawn Production 67

References

Appendices

Glossary

Contact Details

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NOTES ON THIS BOOK:

NOTES

Words that are written in italics are scientific names and need not intimidate
the reader who is not familiar with them. Scientific names enable people
worldwide to refer to the same organism without ambiguity. Thus maize
(‘chibage’) is called Zea mays all over the world. If you go to Russia, France,
Italy, Spain, Cameroon, Nigeria, Kenya, Tanzania and you ask for Zea
mays, they will all give you maize. If you ask for Pleurotus ostreatus, then
you will get the white oyster mushroom. Hope you will enjoy reading this
manual.

PHOTOGRAPHY AND ILLUSTRATION CREDITS

Anon, (Internet): Figures 2, 14
British Mycological Society: Figure 12

Chenjerayi Kashangura: Figures 9, 10, 11, 21, 28, 30, 41, 44, 49, 50a,
51a, 52a, 53a, 54a, 55a

FAO (Food and Agriculture Organisation): Figures 4, 15, 16, 17, 18,
26, 42, 58-62, 64, 71

Laszlo P. L.: Figure 3

Mushroom Project Team: Figures 5, 7, 19, 20, 22, 25, 27, 29, 31-40,
45-48, 50b&c, 51b&c, 52b,
53b&c, 54b, 55b-d, 69, 70, 72

Paul. Stamets: Figures 1, 6, 13, 43, 63

Paul. Stamets and Chilton. J. S: Figures 65-68

Peter Oei: Figures 8, 23, 24, 56

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MUSHROOMS
T he people of Efon Alaye, a town in Ekiti
Division in the Western State of Nigeria,
traditionally do not eat ewe mushrooms
(Termitomyces robustus). There was a tribal war
between the Ekiti people and the Ibadan people
who lived in separate provinces in Western State.
As news reached Efon Alaye that Ibadan warriors
were in pursuit of the Ekitis, the people of Efon
Alaye deserted the town. They all fled over a
common path, and by the time the Ibadan warriors
reached Efon Alaye, ewe already had grown over
this escape route and covered their footprints.
When the Ibadan warriors saw the mushrooms
they thought to themselves that if the people had
fled by that path the mushrooms would have been
crushed. They then turned back and went another
way. Thus the Efon Alaye people were saved from
being taken prisoner or killed during the war. For
this reason they have since considered ewe sacred
and have developed taboos against the eating of
N ATURE’S MUSHR OOM CUL
MUSHROOM TIV
CULTIV ATORS
TIVA
A ll the insects, which cultivate fungi, have
specialised structures called mycetangia, for
conveying fungi from one nest to the next (Smith,
1981). Wood-boring Ambrosia beetles, bore
tunnels in which they plant their fungi, and then
keep out any ‘weed’ fungi (Smith, 1981). The term
‘ambrosia’ comes from the glistening appearance
of the lining of the tunnels. The other main groups
of fungus gardeners, the termites and the leaf-
cutting ants, not only create special weed-free
chambers for their fungi, but also bring an
abundance of food from outside into the
chambers for their fungi (Smith, 1981). The
gardens of termites are often a mixture of two
fungi, Xylaria and Termitomyces (an agaric) both of
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this mushroom.Source: Oso (1975)
The mid-eighteenth century was still a time of
superstition and spontaneous generation. Secretive
saprobes hidden in humus were linked with the
devil. It was then that Otto von Münchhausen
investigated the essential nature of fungi and
concluded that these mysterious objects were the
houses of animals.Source: Ramsbottom (1954)
In olden days some inhabitants of West Africa
held the belief that there was a god who
controlled the growth of Termitomyces robustus.
Hence, in many of the villages there was an annual
offering of a white hen to appease this god. The
people were convinced that there would always
be a poor crop of mushroom during any year when
the offering was not made. Some natives in
Nigeria thought Termitomyces robustus drops from
the skies along with the rains.Source: Oso (1975)
which can break down cellulose and probably
lignin also (Smith, 1981). Leaf-cutting ants
provide less wood for their gardens than termites
and more of other, softer plant debris. They are
socially more complex than termites with more
of the insect castes having an individual role in
their myco-agricultural society (Smith, 1981).
Norris (1979) showed that the ambrosia beetle,
Xyleborus ferrugineus, produced no progeny unless
fed its own fungi, either Fusarium solani or
Cephalosporium (Smith, 1981). Leaf-cutting ants
cultivate fungi on cut leaf and flower parts in an
underground garden. Such a fungus produces
hyphae with inflated tips, which are used as food
by the ants (Muchovej, Lucia and Muchovej, 1991)
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CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION: Background to Mushrooms
In the eighteenth century, mushrooms were
cultivated in caves where composted animal
manure beds were prepared. A casing material
made up of rotten leaf litter was later added to
stimulate mushroom formation (Quimio et al,
1990). The rapid development and growth of the
mushroom industry from a primitive cave culture
into one using more highly technical and controlled
methods was stimulated in the 1960s. With the
establishment of laboratories for research on
mushroom growing, improved technologies on the
use of mushroom growing houses and use of pure
culture spawn resulted in the rapid and increased
production of mushrooms worldwide (Flegg et al,
1985 cited in Quimio et al, 1990). Mushrooms in
nature grow on roots of tress, in the soil as
mycelium, which, in the case of oyster
mushrooms, is white (Figure 1).
Mushrooms have been used and prized as a
delicacy for more than two thousand years. The
Chinese were the earliest growers of mushroom.
Literature references (Chang and Miles, 1987 cited
in Quimio et al, 1990) indicate that Auricularia
auricula was first cultivated in China in A.D 600.
Since then many species of mushroom have been
added to the ever-growing list of cultivated
mushrooms. Pleurotus species (common name:
oyster mushrooms) are no exception. Pleurotus
Figure 1 An illustration showing the occurrence of mycelium
(white stuff for oyster mushrooms) underneath the soil.
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comes from the Greek “pleuro” which means
formed in a lateral position, referring to the lateral
position of the stem relative to the cap (Stamets
and Chilton, 1983). Pleurotus ostreatus (white oyster)
was first cultivated in 1900 whilst Pleurotus
pulmonarius var. sajor-caju (brown oyster) was first
cultivated in 1974 (Quimio et al, 1990).
Mushrooms belong to a group of organisms
known as fungi. A mushroom is therefore the
visible reproductive structure of a fungus. When
people talk of mushrooms, we think of the edible
fungi. But in general, mushrooms include a wide
variety of other fungi some inedible which include
puffballs, stinkhorns and bracket fungi. These
fungi were once grouped together with the Algae,
but were split because they lack chlorophyll.
Common features of mushrooms
Mushrooms are visible reproductive bodies of
fungi. The fruiting body is found attached on logs,
soil, leaves or twigs. Most of the edible fungi
inhabit the soil. Several of the wood inhabiting
fungi are non-edible because of their tough context
tissue and have no taste. However, these
mushrooms have common features whether edible
or non-edible. Some of these features are shown
in Figure 2.
Figure 2 The common features of a mushroom
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(i) Cap:All mushrooms have a cap which can
be of various colours. The most common
colours are cream, white, brown, purple,
orange and various shades of red. The oyster
mushrooms, which are mainly cultivated in
Zimbabwe, are the white oyster and the
brown oyster. These have caps with colours
that range from white to gray-brown. The
colour and the morphology of the cap are
important in the classification of fungi.
Some mushrooms have smooth surfaces
while others have warts (little bumps) or
scales. The scales or warts are the remains
of the partial veil.
(ii) Gills: Underneath the cap surface are the
gills. These are very delicate and bear the
spores, which can be dispersed by wind or
rain on maturity. When oyster mushrooms
are fruiting, the Mushroom Growing House
(MGH) sometimes has a mist like appearance
inside when one enters the MGH. This is
due to the oyster spore mass. During these
periods people should not stay for long in
the MGH as some individuals may be allergic
to the high concentration of spores. The
spores are the actual mushroom seeds and
not the spawn that oyster mushroom farmers
buy.
The gills can be cream to white, brown or
pink. The oyster mushroom gills range from
white to pink to an off white colour.
However, most gills are pink when young.
If the gills are placed facing a piece of paper,
masses of spores are deposited onto the
paper. This is referred to as a spore print.
(iii) Stipe: This is the stalk/stem, which supports
the mushroom. Stipes can be fragile or
tough. Stipes can be smooth or rough.
Usually most mushrooms have stipe of the
same colour as the cap surface.
(iv) Ring: Most mushrooms have a ring when
young. This ring originates from a partial
veil, which envelops the whole young
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mushroom. When the mushroom opens, a
ring remains attached to stipe. Oyster
mushrooms do not have rings. However the
button mushrooms do have rings. It is
recommended that button mushrooms be
harvested before the veil breaks to increase
their shelf-life since spores, which mark the
end of the lifespan of the mushroom, will
not have been released. Some rings are
persistent e.g. in Amanita species.
(v) Basal bulb: This part of mushroom is found
in the soil. It is generally tough and has a
network of mycelia, which absorbs the
required nutrients for the fungus. In
cultivated mushrooms, the basal bulb where
present, will be attached to the substrate
being utilized.
(vi) Volva: This is only common in a few
mushroom species such as the Volvariella and
the Amanita species. In some species, the
volva may disappear with age. Its function
is to protect the basal bulb and part of stipe.
Oyster mushrooms do not have a volva
Types and uses of mushrooms
Edible mushrooms
The edibility of a mushroom should be treated
with great care. Many deaths have been recorded
caused by mushroom poisoning especially during
the rainy seasons. The rule of thumb is: “if in
doubt, leave the mushroom”.
Rural women who happen to be mushroom
collectors are more experienced with the edible
mushrooms. Most of the edible mushrooms are
the Agarics. Some tribes consume Schyzophyllum
commune.
Common genera with edible mushrooms
Termitomycete (Huvhe)
Chantharellus (Chihombiro/ Tsvuketsvuke/
Firifiti)
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Lactarius (Nzeveyambuya)
Agaricus
Macrolepiota
Boletus (Matindindi)
Russula
Amanita* (ie Nhedzi)
* This genus has more poisonous than edible
species. To date, only Amanita zambiana
(nhedzi) is known to be edible. In brackets are the
Shona names.
v Termitomycete (Huvhe) forms mycorrhizal as-
sociation with termite mounds and has a long
pseudorrhiza that grows down the anthill. The
cap can be very big i.e. T. titanicus can be ~
60 cm diameter. This mushroom however is only
in association with particular ants. The mush-
room is very tasty and ranked very highly by
most people.
v Chantharellus (Chihombiro/Tsvuketsvuke/
Firifiti) forms mycorrhizal association with
Brachystegia and Julbernadia (msasa and
munhondo) trees. It has very thick and decur-
rent gills and there is a depression at the Centre
of the cap. It has a nice yellow colour with a
fruity odour. This mushroom is very tasty and is
ranked high.
v Boletus (Matindindi) is a mycorrhizal mushroom
and can be found in pine plantations, or under
mupfura tree or miombo woodlands. The mush-
room has tubes instead of gills. Examples are
Boletus edulis that is very popular among rural
folk. Identification features are a very smooth
brown surface of cap, swollen base covered with
a network of veins.
Boletus edulis is very tasty and is preferred in
dried form with peanut butter. It is also on the
wanted list for making soups in Europe.
v Lactarius: (Nzeveyambuya) Identification fea-
tures are exuding milk when bruised, light brown
smooth cap with white to creamish gills and the
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small fruiting body. These are also mycorrhizal
in miombo woodlands.
v Russula: Few people eat this genus because it
is a mixed bag of both edible and non-edible
mushrooms. Only the experienced people
would like to collect this type of mushroom.
Identification features are colour, white gills, milk
exudates and the peppery taste. I would treat
this genus with extra caution for the mushroom
pickers!
v Macrolepiota: Mostly found in miombo or
muzhanje trees. Has a very tall stipe of up to
25cm, it has a swollen base without a volva. The
most striking feature is the prominent ring, which
is persistent. This group is often confused with
Chlorophyllum molybdate at young stage.
However, Chlorophyllum has a greenish tint of
gills when mature.
♣ Amanita zambiana (Nhedzi): Also popular
with the rural folk, it is identified by a
creamish surface with a light brown tint at the
centre of cap. The cap has to be peeled be-
fore cooking. This is a very tasty mushroom.
Non-edible and poisonous mushrooms
When one finds a mushroom, one often asks: Is
this edible?” Some mushrooms such as the
polypores are non-edible but not poisonous.
They have tough context which makes them
not popular with the locals. People have come
up with safety rules but these have no
guarantee. Some of the rules are:
- The blackening of a silver spoon while
cooking is supposed to show that the
mushroom is poisonous.
- If the mushroom carries signs of damage
by insects, then the mushroom is edible
- Eating small quantities before a large meal
may be revealing
- Feeding the mushroom to the chickens or
dogs can show if they will die or become sick.
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Mushroom poisoning can occur even with the
smallest quantities of the poison. Some toxins
cause vomiting, diarrhoea, hallucinations and
dizziness while others can be really fatal e.g.
muscarines and phalloides from Amanita muscaria,
Amanita phalloides and Chlorophyllum molybdates.
These toxins can cause death even when consumed
in small amounts. Some of the mild toxins can be
denatured by cooking. In Zimbabwe, most
mushroom poisoning is from confusion between
Agaricus rubescens and Amanita pantherina as well as
between Macrolepiota and Chlorophyllum.
Common features to note on poisonous
mushrooms
Poisonous mushrooms can be distinguished by:
• white gills
• presence of a ring
• presence of a volva
• warts on the surface of the cap
decomposing woody material into sugars and
mineral elements to be absorbed by plants.
n Primary decomposers: These are the first fungi
to colonise the log, twig or leaf. These are fast
growing and their mycelium ramifies into the
substrate as the lignocellulosic enzymes are
secreted. Examples are oyster mushrooms
(Pleurotus) shown in Figure 3, Shiitake (Lentinus
edodes) and all other wood inhabiting fungi.
n Secondary decomposers: These fungi
are dependent on the by-products of the
primary decomposers. They cannot
produce the enzymes to breakdown the
cellulose complex. They normally grow on
composted material with a lot of available
simple sugars. An example is Agaricus,”button”
mushroom
(Figure 4).

If one finds three or more of these characters on The secondary decomposers cannot utilize a
one fungus, then it is likely to be poisonous. substrate that can be utilized by a primary
However some edible mushrooms also have either decomposer. It is like going to school. A child cannot
one or two of these features making it very difficult start with secondary education and then start primary
for an amateur mushroom picker to identify the education after completing secondary education.
poisonous ones.
Therefore the rule is not to ingest any mushroom
unless it has been properly identified. Usually
the old folk in the villages know which
mushrooms are edible. One should thus only
eat those mushrooms that one has been eating
all along. One should avoid eating mushrooms
without proper identification by a mushroom
expert. The purpose of this manual is to
enable the mycophiles (Mushroom lovers) of
Zimbabwe to cultivate their own edible well-
identified oyster mushrooms.

Uses of mushrooms

1. Mushrooms as saprophyte/decomposers

Mushrooms help in the recycling of matter by Figure 3 White oyster mushroom (a primary decomposer)
in its natural setting, a tree.

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Figure 4 Button mushrooms (secondary decom-
posers)
This is also the case with primary and secondary
decomposers. Oyster Mushroom can use a substrate
that is not composted whilst button mushrooms
require a composted substrate.
2. Mushrooms in medicine
About 1 800 species are used as medicines. Some
cultivated mushrooms such as Lentinus edodes
(Shiitake) are medicinal because they lower blood
pressure and have low cholesterol content.
Reports have been made on the use of
Perenniporia mundula to treat pleurisy and
impotence in Zambia, Malawi and Zimbabwe.
The type of disease treated depends on the norms
and beliefs of different people. Some tribes use
the same fungus to cure nose bleeding and dizziness.
Fungi such as Ganoderma (Figure 5) species are
believed to boost the human immune system. The
Chinese and Japanese are carrying out a lot of work
in that area.
In Zimbabwe, a team of researchers (Mswaka, Duri
and others) is working on the same fungus to help
reduce blood pressure in the human body and boost
the immune system. Some non-edible fungi of
medicinal value are stinkhorns, which are reported
to cure bilharzia (Tagwira, personal communication).
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A lot of our indigenous mushrooms have medicinal
value. What is needed is a survey in the rural areas
to tap this information from the old rural folk.
3. Mushrooms as food source
About 2 000 - 5 000 species are used as food.
Mushrooms serve as the major protein source to
most Zimbabweans especially during the rainy
seasons (November to March). During this
period, informal mushroom markets sprout on
roadsides. Research has shown that mushrooms
are a good protein source. The mushrooms may
be consumed fresh or sun dried.
4. Mushrooms in bioremediation
Mushrooms secrete various enzymes which
hydrolyse unwanted waste material from industry.
Fungi also degrade polycyclic aromatic
hydrocarbons while some fungi produce oxidative
enzymes used in bio-bleaching and bio-pulping
to replace the unfriendly chemicals such as
chlorine which usually ends up in drinking water.
Fungi can also absorb heavy metals, thus they can
be used to clean up the environment.
5. Importance of mushrooms
Mushrooms provide a healthy source of protein,
vitamins (B, C and D) and carbohydrates.
Figure 5 A Ganoderma specimen maintained at the Biological
Sciences Department, University of Zimbabwe
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They also lower blood cholesterol level and are
low in sodium which makes them ideal for persons
with certain types of heart and kidney ailments.
On a dry weight basis, oyster mushrooms
(Pleurotus species) have substantial protein ranging
from 15% to 35% as well as significant quantities
of free amino acids. They are replete with assorted
vitamins such as vitamin C (30-144mg [milligrams]
per 100 grams) and vitamin B, niacin (109mg per
100 grams) (Stamets, 1993). In nature Pleurotus
species grow on living or dead parts of plants,
which are generally poor in nutrients and vitamins
(Chang and Hayes, 1978). For both mycelium
growth and fruit body development on lignin
cellulose (C: N–relationship, 1:50, 1:100 and
1:500) material such as corn cobs, all grain straws,
paper, wood shavings, sawdust, nutshells, and
vegetable wastes, as well as food industry wastes
are sufficient (Bano and Srivastava, 1962; Block,
1965; Block et al, 1959; Eger, 1965a; Kedyk and
Smotlachova, 1959; Schanel et al, 1966, cited in
Chang and Hayes, 1978). The different types of
Pleurotus are suited to growing within a temperature
range of 20oC to 30oC. Humidity levels of 80 to
95% are sufficient for growth (Chang and Hayes,
1978; Quimio et al, 1990). Most extra-ordinary
about Pleurotus species is their ability to convert
substrate mass into mushrooms with biological
efficiencies often exceeding 100%, some of the
greatest efficiencies in the world of cultivated
mushrooms (Stamets, 1993).
Biological Efficiency This is the percentage
measurement of the yield of fresh mushrooms
from the dry weight of the substrate. One
hundred percent biological efficiency is
equivalent to saying that from a substrate with
a moisture content of 75%, 25% of its mass
will yield fresh mushrooms having a moisture
content of 90% (Stamets, 1993).
• Biological Efficiency: E = D P / Mo ,
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where DP is the amount in kg of edible
mushrooms produced as fresh product and Mo is
the initial amount (kg) of raw material introduced
in the bag (as dry material) (Sanchez and
Gonzalez, 1996).
To achieve 100% biological efficiency, an oyster
mushroom farmer who collects 10 kg of dry wheat
straw substrate and uses it to cultivate oyster
mushrooms must harvest 10kg of fresh
mushrooms after three harvests. This level of
production can only be attained if optimal
conditions are maintained in the MGH.
A good strain and substrate combination should
operate within the 75% to 125% biological
efficiency for the mushroom farmer (Stamets,
1993). The best way to improve yield is to
increase the spawn rate and, for the mushroom
farmer, the target is not to seek the highest overall
yield. The first, second and third crops are usually
the best, with each successive crop decreasing in
yield. However the number of crops the farmer
allows depends on whether the mushroom
cultivation is for commercial or household
consumption. If it is for household consumption
then the farmer can allow the oyster mushrooms
to fruit until the substrate is well spent, whereas
the commercial farmer will only need to harvest
three harvests not exceeding five times for optimal
benefits and to be able to supply the market.)
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CHAPTER 2
T he Biolo
Biologg y of Mushr ooms
Mushrooms
Most mushrooms are saprotrophic, they obtain
organic matter from dead plants and recycle
carbon in the soil. The biology of this group of
fungi is therefore from mycelium to the
basidiocarp (fruiting body) (Figure 6).
Growth and reproduction of mushrooms
The reproductive unit of a mushroom is a spore.
The spore may be formed asexually, sexually or
vegetatively. When a mature spore is dispersed
and lands on suitable substrate, and with favorable
temperature and moisture, the spore will germinate
and send a germ tube, which attaches to the
substrate. This tube then elongates and forms
the hyphae. A hypha is a filamentous tube, which
divides mitotically to form other cells and cross-
walls form between cells to form septa. The
hyphae form side branches which later form net-
like threads called mycelium. Mycelium is the
vegetative body of the mushroom and is
responsible for its nutrition.
Reproduction in fungi
Figure 6 The life-cycle of a mushroom showing the transition
from a spore to hypha to primordial to fruitbody (mushroom
which we eat)
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A basidiospore germinates (Figure 6) to give rise to
a mycelium whose nucleus divides mitotically to give
a multinucleate mycelium. The mycelia is then
divided by septa so that each segment of the
mycelium is uninucleate. This mycelia is
homokaryotic. Each segment therefore is
monokaryotic. In basidiomycetes mushrooms,
homokaryotic mycelia do not fruit. For fruiting to
occur, two homokaryotic mycelia of different
mating types should fuse. When two compatible
mating types meet (Figure 6), cell walls breakdown
and nuclear migration follows. This is followed by
nuclear fusion called karyogamy, each mycelia
segment bearing two compatible nuclei. This
secondary mycelium for med is said to be
dikaryotic, and will further multiply mitotically.
Note: A culture from a single spore is incapable
of producing fertile fruiting bodies.
Spores germinate, and then there is mating between
compatible hyphae to form the secondary dikaryotic
mycelia. This mycelium will continuously grow up
to a certain stage where growth ceases due to decline
in heat and carbon dioxide. A drop in temperature
and carbon dioxide together with favourable
humidity and moisture will trigger formation of
fruiting bodies. Fruiting bodies enlarge and
differentiate into the different structures of a mature
mushroom such as cap with a partial veil.
Underneath the cap are the gills and stipe (stalk).
Gills contain the hymenium and this is a layer of
fertile cells bearing basidium. Basidium develops
four “arms” called sterigmata and the apices swell
to give four basidiospores.
Note: Each basidiospore has a haploid nucleus.
Mature spores become pigmented and are dispersed
by wind, water or animals. If prevailing conditions
are favourable, the spore germinates and cycle is
repeated.
Figure 7a next shows the white colour that becomes
familiar to every oyster mushroom cultivator
indicating that all is well in the Mushroom Growing
House (MGH). Figure 7a shows the hypha stage
shown in Figure 6. This is also the case during spawn
run when cultivating oyster mushrooms. Figure 7b
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shows two stages in the life cycle of the
mushroom, the mycelium stage (many hypha) and
the fruiting stage. The Petri dish in Figure 7b
shows the stages that an oyster mushroom farmer
should expect when cultivating mushrooms in a
Petri dish.
Fungal growth factors
Formation and growth of fruiting body is
dependent on genetic competence and
environmental factors such as moisture, pH,
temperature, light and aeration.
1. Availability of moisture
This is important in facilitating enzymatic
reactions. Enzymes work in an aqueous
environment where they digest the available
nutrients for advancement of the mycelium. In
the absence of water, the mycelium will desiccate
and die. The water in the logs, called matric
potential, will allow the spores to germinate and
colonise the substrate. The oyster mushrooms and
the button mushrooms require a lot of moisture.
a)
b)
Figure 7 Petri-dishes showing the stages that occur in mush-
room cultivation a) shows the mycelium stage (many hypha) which
is characteristic of the spawn run period whilst b) shows the two
stages of mycelium and fruiting which are the stages expected in
oyster mushrooms cultivated in a Petri dish.
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Successful cultivation of oyster mushrooms thus
requires a water source nearby. From Figure 8 it
can be seen that mushrooms have most of their
content being composed of water (90%). This is
why when the rains come the wild mushrooms
emerge and grow overnight because most of the
mass of fresh mushrooms is water. This again
shows why the MGH should be well watered
especially during fruiting because the mushrooms
require water to thrive.
Figure 8: A Pie Chart illustrating that 90% of
fresh mushrooms is water.
2. Favorable pH and temperature
This is required for the growth of the fungus. The
optimum pH for most fungi ranges from pH6 to
pH7. Under natural conditions, the fungus can
regulate its own pH. However, for a mushroom
grower, the pH has to be regulated before
spawning. For button mushroom cultivation the
pH has to be regulated before spawning. For oyster
mushrooms their wide optimal pH range enables
them to alter the pH to suit their growth
(Kashangura et al, 2002).
Temperature is very crucial for the stability of the
enzymes being produced by the fungus. The
ambient temperatures for most enzymes produced
by fungi are between 25 and 35 0 C. High
temperatures will denature enzymes and also leads
to high water evaporation hence desiccation of
the mycelium. It should, however, be noted that
the temperatures for mycelial growth are higher
than the temperatures needed for fruiting. Low
temperatures reduce mycelial advancement and
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also promote faster multiplication of the other
microorganisms such as Pseudomonas which
stimulate fruiting. The oyster mushrooms have an
optimal growth temperature of 250C. The button
mushroom is very sensitive to temperature
fluctuations. Thus it is not commercially viable to
try and cultivate button mushrooms without an
air conditioner installed in the MGH. On the other
hand oyster mushrooms can be cultivated in a
MGH without an air conditioner.
3. Aeration and light These two parameters are
important because oxygen is needed when
metabolic processes occur. In Oyster mushroom,
high carbon dioxide (CO2) content promotes
vigorous mycelial growth. Low CO2 is also very
important for fruiting to occur in most cultivated
fungi. Light intensity, duration and wavelength
are important for fruitbody production. Fruitbody
development is phototrophic (grows towards the
light source). and this is observed in most
hymenomycetes e.g. Flammulina, Coprinus species.
Oyster mushrooms exhibit a phototrophic
response to light. This means the MGH should
have adequate windows to enable enough light to
enter the MGH when the mushrooms are fruiting.
Nutrition of mushrooms
the organism is potentially being harmed.
2. Mycorrhizal fungi These fungi are
mushrooms which are in close association with
particular trees as shown in Figure 10. The
relationship can either be mutualistic or symbiotic.
Most of our edible mushrooms in Zimbabwe fall
under the latter. Research has shown that some
trees grow very slowly in the absence of certain
mushrooms and at the same time, some mushroom
like Chantharellus can only grow in Miombo
woodlands. Miombo woodlands comprise
Brachystegia and Julbenadia species (Msasa and
Munhondo). Another symbiotic association is
between termites and Termitomycetes. This genus
is only found on termite mounds forming some
pseudorrhiza “long root” which grows into the
comb of mound. Our indigenous mushrooms in
Zimbabwe are not being cultivated because most
of them are mycorrhizal.
Dead tree
Mushroom
Tree stump

Mushrooms do not have chlorophyll like plants as

they obtain food from dead plants unlike plants
Figure 9 Saprophytic mushroom on a dead tree and stump.
that manufacture their own food. Mushrooms are
The blue arrowheads show the site where the organism is
divided into the following three categories and benefiting.
these are:
1. Saprotrophic fungi These fungi secrete
lignocellulosic enzymes, which attack lignin and
cellulose complexes. Most of the fungi fall under
this group. The fungus is found attached to twigs,
leaves, fruit material, logs and bark of tree (Figure
9). Dead wood in a forest is reduced to humus by
fungi. Plants later absorb the resulting nutrients.
Saprophytes are therefore important in the
recycling of carbon for plants. Oyster mushrooms
are in this category. Blue arrowheads in Figures 9 Figure 10 Mychorrizal relationship between a living tree and
to 11 show the site where the organism is mushrooms. Both organisms benefit from the relationship. Such
benefiting whilst black arrowheads show where mushrooms are difficult to cultivate.
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They require a living substrate to survive whereas,
the saprophytic mushrooms like oyster
mushrooms can live on a dead substrate.
3. Parasitic fungi: This group of fungi is found
on living plants and may cause the death of the
plant as shown in Figure 11.
Figure 11 Parasitic mode of nutrition where the living tree is
suffering harm from the mushrooms. The blue arrowheads show
the site where the organism is being harmed.
A few examples in this group are Ganoderma,
Amillaria mellea and Phellinus species. Most of the
fungi will cause cankers on trees or cause the
drying of the tree followed by death.
Figures 9 to Figure 11 show the three modes of
nutrition of fungi. The example used is of a
mushroom growing on a tree. The saprophytic
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mushroom such as oyster mushrooms will grow
on a dead tree or the bark of a living tree since
the bark is just for protection and is more or less
dead material. It feeds on the tree and can reduce
the market value of timber plantations The host
tree will be downgraded for timber use as shown
in Figure 12. As the saprophytic mushroom does
not require a living organism to survive it can be
cultivated on a substrate that has been treated
and is no longer surviving.
The mycorrhizal mushroom requires a living
organism to thrive. It gives certain nutrients to
the tree or plant whilst receiving certain things
from the plant in turn. Scientific research needs
to identify what the mushroom gets from the tree.
This will enable scientists to incorporate such
ingredients in the media for cultivating the
mycorrhizal mushrooms, the main types of
mushrooms found in Zimbabwe.
Parasitic mushrooms receive nutrients from the
plants whilst mostly not giving anything benefical
to the plant. Some mushrooms after ‘parasitising’
a tree or plant will shift to a saprophytic mode of
existence.
The tree enjoys having a mycorrhizal mushroom
but it does not enjoy having a parasitic mushroom.
Figure 12 A photo showing a mushroom on a tree in a para-
sitic or mychorrizal relationship. This relationship lowers the
quality of the timber to be derived from such a tree.
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CHAPTER 3
W ha
hatt is Mushr oom Culti
Mushroom Cultivv a tion?
Mushroom development is enhanced by hot and
humid conditions. Under natural conditions, wild
mushroom growth is limited to the rainy season
in Zimbabwe. Zimbabwe has seasonal rainfall, with
a long dry season with low humidity and
temperatures. These conditions are not conducive
for mushroom growth. Humidity is therefore
limiting for mushrooms in the sub-tropical regions.
In the equatorial region, mushrooms grow
throughout the year.
Successful cultivation of mushrooms depends
on successfully isolating a mushroom species from
the natural world and growing it in an environment
that gives the mushroom advantage over other
competing organisms, such as other fungi and
bacteria. Mushroom culture draws heavily on what
happens in nature at the different growth stages.
A mushroom house, therefore, has to closely
approximate the mushroom’s ideal climatic
requirements of temperature, relative humidity,
light and air ambience.
The basic procedures for mushroom cultivation
are the same across all species and are basically as
listed below:
a) Isolation of pure mycelium
b) Preparation of inoculum by expansion of
mycelia and agar media and then placing onto
grain
c) Inoculation of sterilized or pasteurised
substrate with quality spawn
d) Spawn run until the substrate is fully colonised
e) Initiation of fruitbody - the mushroom - and
its development
Each of these stages has specific environmental
requirements
The choice of which mushroom to grow
depends on the resources available to the farmer.
Primar y decomposers, such as the oyster
mushroom, are able to colonise and decompose
dead plant tissue and are the choice for resource-
disadvantaged farmers (RDFs). They are not as
capital intensive as the button mushrooms, for
example. Because they are secondary
decomposers, button mushrooms are grown on
composted substrates. They also have strict
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temperature and air exchange requirements that
necessitate the provision of controlled
environments in the growing rooms. Oyster
mushrooms also benefit from controlled-
environment houses, but their cultivation is
possible with less sophisticated requirements.
Understanding the life cycle of mushrooms
helps one to appreciate why certain procedures
are carried out or why at a particular time. The
following are worth noting
:
• Mushrooms are the fruit of the mushroom
plant (the mycelia) and occur only briefly in
the life cycle of the plant.
• Fruiting only occurs under optimum conditions
of temperature, humidity and nutrition.
• The mushroom serves to perpetuate the species
by the production of spores.
• Mycelia can lie dormant for long periods of
time and only produce primordia following
periods of intense growth when nutrients,
temperature and humidity are ideal.
• Primordia formation is central to the yield of
mushrooms.
Successful mushroom cultivation entails imitating
what happens in nature. Mushrooms are present
in one of two forms throughout the year. However
we cannot see them when they are in the form of
mycelium (as shown in Figures 1 and 6) in the soil,
on the bark of trees or on the roots of trees and
other plants. When it rains the mushrooms will
sense the moisture. This will trigger them to start
fruiting and to appear above the ground or outside
the bark of trees. The fruiting will provide the
mycophiles in Zimbabwe with opportunities to
collect their ‘Nhedzi, Tsvuketsvuke and
Chihombiro.’
For us to be able to cultivate the oyster mushrooms
we should learn from nature. The mycelium can
be found attached to roots, or in the soil or above
the ground in the bark of trees and other plants
during most of the year. Mycelium growth is
favoured by dark conditions with no or little fresh
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air exchanges. When the rains come, the fruiting

body occurs above the ground where there is a
lot of fresh air and light. The fruiting body stage
requires light and lots of fresh air exchanges. Thus
we can say the oyster mushroom mycelium requires
dark conditions and little or no fresh air exchanges
whilst the oyster mushroom fruiting body stage
requires light and more fresh air exchanges. A
MGH that can have dark conditions and restricts
fresh air exchanges at one-stage and light
conditions and more fresh air exchange at another
stage is suitable for oyster mushroom cultivation.
However, the presence of light is not a requirement
for fruiting body formation for all mushrooms.
There are mushrooms that do not require light to
fruit such as the button mushrooms. With certain
mushrooms light will inhibit fruiting body
formation.
Types of oyster mushrooms
Production guidelines
Golden oyster (Pleurotus citrinopileatus)
Singer.
The common name is the ‘Golden Oyster
mushroom.’ Few mushrooms are as spectacular
as this type shown in Figue 13. It has a brilliant
yellow colour. It forms clusters hosting a high
number of individual mushrooms whose stems
often diverge from a single base. The stems are
white and centrally attached to the caps.

Important considerations in mushroom cultivation

1. Investment in mushroom house

2. Availability of substrate
3. Source and quality of spawn
4. Determination of desired production level
5. Disposal of mushrooms
6. Local or export market prospects
7. Knowledge of climatic conditions
8. Proper control of the environment in the
MGH
9. Means of financing and implementing the
project
The above considerations will determine
Figure 13 The Golden Oyster Mushroom
White oyster Pleurotus ostreatus (Jacq.: Fr.)
Kummer .
The common names are “ the oyster mushroom,
oyster shelf, tree oyster straw mushroom, hiratake
(Japanese for flat mushroom)”. This mushroom
has a whitish to gray to blue gray colour Colour is
a light determined factor in this mushroom (Figure
14) (Stamets and Chilton, 1983). Some strains form
clusters, while others form individual mushrooms
(Stamets, 1993).

• Which mushrooms to grow

• Whether to buy or produce spawn
• Which technology to apply
• Whether to grow the mushrooms year round
or on a seasonal basis
• The organization behind the project of
cultivating mushrooms

Each situation is different, thus the available

techniques have to be adapted to be appropriate Figure 14 White oyster showing a gray colour due to
to the prevailing local conditions. light effect
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Brown oyster Pleurotus pulmonarius var
sajor-caju (Fries) Singer.
It has a grayish white colour ranging from beige,
lilac gray to gray-brown, sometimes with pinkish
or orangish tones. At high temperatures, the cap
is lighter in colour (Stamets, 1993). Under cold
conditions with the same light, the cap becomes
very dark gray to grayish black (Stamets, 1993).
Colour varies according to the strain, lighting and
temperature conditions (Stamets, 1993).
In Zimbabwe the brown and white oyster
mushrooms are the types that are widely cultivated.
The white oyster mushroom is meant to be a low
temperature mushroom whilst the brown oyster
does well during the summer season. However,
this depends on the location of the MGH and its
size as this affects the resultant temperature in the
MGH.
Types of button mushroom
Production guidelines
Phase I involves building the raw composting
materials into piles which are periodically turned,
watered, and compacted (9-12 days) (Quimio et
Figure 15 Wetting, composting and mixing for button
mushroom production
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al,1990) (Figure 15).
The materials will later become pliable, dark brown
and begin putting out normally a strong odour of
ammonia.
Phase II is the pasteurization stage (Figure 16),
which is carried out inside a steaming room for at
least 2-4 hours.
Figure 16 Pasteurisation of compost in low cost
chambers using steam for button mushroom
production.
After pasteurisation the substrate is cooled. After
spawning (6 kg spawn per tonne of moist
compost), a thin plastic sheet is placed over the
spawned compost to prevent excessive moisture
loss. After 12 to 14 days of spawn run, the plastic
sheeting may be removed and the surface of the
compost allowed to dry out prior to the application
of the casing material which is usually a soil type.
Mushroom mycelium (white in colour) should be
visible on the casing surface in all areas, prior to
the introduction of fresh air. The temperature is
lowered to 24-250C to induce pin formation (Figures
17 and 18). The amount of water applied in the
MGH is now also slightly reduced.
Substrate Definition
Pleurotus species (oyster mushrooms) grow on a
wider array of forest and agricultural wastes than
species from any other group. They thrive on
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Figure 17 Fruiting of button mushrooms on beds. Cropping
containers of this nature are reusable.
Figure 18: A bumper harvest of button mushrooms. Only
achieved by maintaining the recommended conditions
almost all hardwoods, on wood by-products
(sawdust, paper, pulp sludge), all the cereal
straws, corn and corn cobs, on sugar cane bagasse,
coffee residues (coffee grounds, hulls, stalks and
leaves), banana fronds, cottonseed hulls, agave
waste and soy pulp. This is the basis for their high
suitability for cultivation. In Zimbabwe the main
substrates utilized for oyster mushroom
cultivation are wheat straw, banana fronds, maize
stover (stalks and leaves), ‘gondya’ grass (Figures
19 and 20), thatch grass and savanna veld grass.
The word ‘ substrate` means any material
that comes from a plant, since the oyster
mushroom naturally grow on trees (Hwowa
mutanda). This means all the above-mentioned
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substances can be utilised to cultivate oyster
mushroom. If one chooses to use wheat straw to
cultivate the mushroom, then the wheat straw is
the ‘substrate’. In other words the ‘substrate’ is
the material or substance, which provides ‘food’
for the growing mushroom mycelium. Thus we
have a wheat straw substrate, a maize stover
substrate, a thatch grass substrate and so on.
The properties of the substrate determine
which fungi and microbes can grow in them.
Environmental factors such as humidity of the
air, ventilation, shade or sun, and temperature,
together with the internal condition of the
substrate, determine whether the mycelium
can grow on the substrate (Oei, 1991). Some
fungi can use a broad range of substrates,
while others are very selective. Oyster
mushrooms (Pleurotus species) use a broad
range of substrates.
Importance of Mushrooms
Figure 19: Sacks of dry ‘gondya’ grass substrate ready for
oyster mushroom cultivation.
Figure 20: Pasteurised ‘ gondya’ grass substrate ready for cool-
ing down and then spawning.
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Importance of Mushroom Cultivation to
Resource-Disadvantaged Farmers (RDFs)
For the RDFs, mushroom cultivation will
enable them to have a balanced diet at a
relatively low cost. Mushroom cultivation will
also enable the RDFs to utilise organic
substrates, which would otherwise be
regarded as waste material (Mswaka,
Kashangura and Chigogora, 2001). In the
process environmental pollution will be
reduced because disposal of the agricultural
waste would become less of a problem. The
substrate recovered after mushroom
cultivation may also be recycled for use as
animal feeds, soil conditioning ingredients and
fertiliser (Quimio et al, 1990).
As the cultivation of edible saprotrophic
mushrooms does not take away farmland
designated for other crops, this renders
mushroom cultivation compatible with the
established small-holder agricultural system
in Zimbabwe.
Many edible species of wild mushrooms
are collected by mycophiles, who make it a
habit to learn to identify the edible species
(Alexoupoulous and Mims, 1979).
Occasionally, the mycophiles, might wrongly
identify a species leading to mushroom poisoning
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upon ingesting the mushroom. Thus, cultivation
of mushrooms by resource-poor farmers will help
to reduce the incidence of mushroom poisoning
by providing them with known, well-identified,
edible oyster mushrooms (Pleurotus species).
Pleurotus species can serve to reduce hunger in
developing nations and to revitalise rural
economies. To this end, worldwide oyster
mushroom (Pleurotus species) cultivation has
surged in recent years.
Despite their popularity, culinary and
financial appeal as well as primary dietary role
at small holder level, the amount of indigenous
mushrooms now being gathered continues to
decline due to deforestation (Mswaka,
Kashangura and Chigogora, 2001). National
reviews (Ryvarden, Piearce, and Masuka, 1994),
country reports (Masuka and Utete, 1996a, b) and
surveys (Mswaka and Tagwira, 1997) have also
independently arrived at this conclusion, and
highlighted the need to develop suitable
small-scale mushroom cultivation facilities to
meet the demand. The continued presence of such
highly rated mushrooms as Cantharellus, Amanita
and Lactarius species, depends on the conservation
of their host trees, as most have an obligate
symbiosis with the trees (Mswaka, unpublished).
Deforestation at the national level is estimated
to be 70 000 - 100 000 hectares annually. The
rates are higher in heavily populated areas such
as Buhera and Wedza..
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CHAPTER 4
Cultivation of Oyster Mushrooms (step by step)
Requirements for preparation of oyster mushroom done. Some farms sell bales of wheat straw.
substrate, spawning the substrate and subsequent Irrigation schemes sometimes have banana
processes plantations, which can be, visited in order to
buy banana fronds for oyster mushroom
The following equipment should be available cultivation purposes.
before embarking on cultivating oyster
mushrooms. If one has many MGHs it is advisable to have
1 . Metal drum to pasteurize the substrate a room or structure where substrates can be
2. Firewood stored in bulk to enable the production of
3. Substrates (Banana leaves, thatch grass, wheat mushrooms to occur throughout the year. The
straw or maize stover) substrates that do well in Zimbabwe are wheat
4. Devices for chopping the substrate straw, ‘gondya’ grass, thatch grass, banana
5 . Water fronds, maize stover (leaves and stalks).
6. Bricks or stones to submerge the substrate Banana leaves have been found to give a very
7. 2 x Plastic sheets (at least 1.5 m x 1.5 m) lengthy cropping period or flushing period
8. Wheel barrow (optional) whereas maize stover results in early fruiting.
9. Garden fork Wheat straw can also give a lengthy cropping
10. Jik bleach/ disinfectant period. However this is only true when the
11. 6 inch nails farmer follows the correct way of cultivating
1 2 .Plastic bag in which to pack the substrate oyster mushrooms and maintains the
1 3 .Mushroom spawn recommended conditions in the MGH. The
14. Strong string or wire to hang the bags size of the cropping container will also
1 5 .S c i s s o r s determine comparisons between farmers as
16.Two buckets one farmer may use a small bag with one
1 7 .Mushroom house / structure substrate and a larger bag with another
1 8 .Nozzle sprayer substrate. In such a case one cannot compare the
19. Muslin cloth two substrates due to the difference in the bag
20. Broom sizes.

Outline of steps in brief

1. Collecting of substrate 2.0 Drying of the Substrate
2. Drying of substrate
3. Chopping of substrate After the substrate has been collected, it
4. Watering of the substrate needs to be dried. The substrate is dried so
5. Pasteurisation that it stores better. Microorganisms are
6. Spawning active when a certain threshold of water
content is reached. This means more
1.0 Collecting of substrate microorganisms are active when there is more
water than when there is less water. If one
The substrates for oyster mushroom cultivation takes a leaf from a living tree and pours water
are agricultural wastes. Different substrates in on its surface,one will notice that the water flows
Zimbabwe are available at different times of the over the surface of the leaf. This is because leaves
year as agricultural crops are not cultivated year have a waterproof layer like wax or ‘vaseline’ that
round. The oyster mushroom farmer should prevents water loss from the leaf due to sunlight.
collect substrates after harvesting of the crops is Without this waterproof layer, plants would wilt

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immediately they came above the ground level 21) to prevent the sheet from being lifted by the
after germinating. Plants need the waterproof force of the wind. A log is then added which will
layer. In mushroom cultivation it is vice-versa, we be used as a template on which the cutting of the
do not want that waterproof layer. In mushroom substrate is done (Figures 21 and 24). The cutting
cultivation there is no need of the waterproof instrument is then used to chop the substrate on
layer. Mushrooms need a lot of water and the log with the chopped pieces falling onto the
humidity, hence the wet substrate. Drying of the laid out plastic sheet. Maximum concentration is
substrate also removes the waterproof layer or required when carrying out this exercise,no matter
‘vaseline’ which enables the subsequent process how many times one has gone through this
of watering the substrate to occur. exercise. The number of individuals cutting the
substrate mainly depends on the size of the plastic
3.0 Chopping of substrate sheet (Figure 24). If more than one person is
working on the sheet, then each individual should
The substrate is chopped in order to reduce the have enough space to work in.
pieces of the substrate so that when
Figure 21: Illustration depicting the use of logs, cutting instru-
spawning the substrate it will result in a
ments, plastic sheets to chop the substrate and put it into the drum.
compact bag simulating a tree trunk. If
the substrate is not chopped then there
is a high probability that gaps will be left
that will result in the oyster mushrooms
fruiting inside the bag. Chopping of the
substrate also increases the surface area
exposed to the water so that water
uptake by the substrate is enhanced. If
the substrate is also not chopped it might
pierce the bag when spawning the
substrate in the bags. Packing is also
difficult using a substrate that is not
chopped. With a very pliable substrate
one may get away with not chopping it
as it will become very soft after soaking
and pasteurization. This is not the case
with a rigid substrate, which will result
in a bag with a lot of gaps and thus
subsequent loss due to mushrooms
fruiting inside the bag.
To chop the substrate a plastic
sheet or a sheet of any material that
is pliable, cutting instruments such as
(knives, axes, hoes, machetes),
together with logs or stones are
required (Figure 21). The plastic sheet
or pliable material sheet is spread out
(Figure 21) on the ground. Stones or logs
are added to each corner or end (Figure

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4.0 Watering of the substrate
The substrate is placed into a drum after being
chopped to an ideal size of about 10cm).
Water is then added to cover the substrate.
The length of the pieces depends on the
texture of the substrate. If it is a substrate that
is easily pliable then 10cm pieces can be
chopped. If it is a very rigid substrate such as
some wheat varieties, then the wheat straw
of such varieties should be chopped to 5 cm
lengths or less. It is easier to fill the drum when
it is already mounted on the fire stand,to avoid
having to lift a filled heavy drum onto the fire-
stand.
Chopping of the substrate enables water
uptake to be faster as a greater surface area
is exposed to the water. Chopping of the
substrate also enables the mushroom farmers
to easily pack the substrate in containers. The
length to use for each substrate ultimately
comes with experience. Weights such as
bricks or granite stones are added to fully
submerge the substrate. Use natural stones
that will not flake off when submerged in water.
Similarly common brick is more ideal than
farm brick. To prevent the substrate from rising
and spilling over when water is added, sticks can
be used to pound the substrate in the drum to
compress it before water is added (Figure 22).
Figure 22: Use of sticks to compress the substrate.
The substrate is soaked overnight (12-24 hours).
This will result in a substrate with moisture
content of 70-80%. Hands can be used to
determine if the substrate is not too wet or too
dry. This can be done by squeezing the substrate
(Figure 23)
Figure 23: Use of hands to determine if the substrate is not
too wet or too dry. A) lots of water dripping shows that the
substrate is too wet. b) a few drops released with some pressure
show that the substrate is well watered. If it is too dry then no
drops will be released with pressure.
The soaking stage enables the substrate to take
up water, which is essential for successful
mushroom cultivation. Soaking of the
substrate also enables spores, which require
very high temperatures of a red-hot flame to
be rendered useless or killed to germinate
and thus be killed with the low temperatures
of boiling water. If the substrate is not soaked
overnight then these spores will not germinate
and will survive pasteurization and thus may
cause problems to the mushroom farmer. Thus
the mushroom farmer should not soak for less
than overnight that is for example 2 hours or 4
hours (recommended time is 12-24 hours).
Care must be taken not to exceed two days
of soaking as decay might be activated.

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a) a)

b)
Figure 24:Use of logs,
knives and a sheet to
b)
chop the substrate by
resource-disadvantaged
farmers. a)With a large
sheet many individuals
can work at the same
time b)If the sheet is
small, then only one
individual can work at a
time. Care should be
Figure 25: a)Pasteurization of the substrate using fire
taken to avoid having a
by resource-disadvantaged farmers. b) Removal of the
worker cut his finger
substrate from the drum using a garden fork previously
sterilised on a fire to kill contaminating organisms.

5.0 Pasteurisation is kept on the shelf. Fresh milk and pasteurized

The substrate is boiled for one hour (Figure 25).
However heating at 71-82°C for an hour is also
sufficient. The water does not need to
physically boil in the sense of observing
bubbles on the surface of the water. After an
hour, the water is removed and the substrate
is laid out in a shallow layer onto clean
surfaces to rapidly cool. Pasteurization of the
substrate does not kill all the organisms. It
enables the oyster mushroom mycelium on
spawn to have an advantage when spawning
is done.
One finds fresh milk, pasteurized milk
(‘Chimombe’) and sterilized milk in
Zimbabwe. Fresh milk and pasteurized milk
are kept in the refrigerator whilst sterilized milk
milk are kept in the refrigerator because they still
have microorganisms surviving in them. That is
why they become sour if kept on the shelf as
sterilized milk. However sterilized milk can be
kept on the shelf because it no longer has any
microorganism surviving in it. All of them have
been killed.
The soaked substrate can be likened to fresh
milk, as it has a lot of microorganisms in it. In
this case, it even has insect eggs and insects
in addition to the surviving microorganisms.
The pasteurized substrate can be likened to
the pasteurized milk, it still has some
microorganisms surviving but the heat will
have killed the insects during pasteurization.
A material that is likened to sterilized milk is
mushroom spawn. It is manufactured in a way
that the final product has no contaminating

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microorganisms. In the mushroom house, the floor
should have been swept and cleaned with clean
water and overlaid with a covering such as a plastic
sheet.
The utensils that are used for oyster
mushroom cultivation are cleaned with a
diluted disinfectant such as ‘Jik.’ The dilution
rate for JIK is 20 ml per 10 litres of clean water
(or approximately 2 ‘Jik’ large bottle
disinfectant lids per 10 litres). The pasteurised
substrate at this stage should have a moisture
content of 70%.
Prior to spawning, the temperature in the
substrate should be 25-30°C. If it is above
40°C the Pleurotus species (oyster
mushroom) mycelium will be killed. The
mycelium can survive up to 37°C. Human body
temperatures are around 36,5°C to 37°C. By
using our hands we can feel if the substrate is
still too hot to the touch. When the warmth of
the substrate feels comfortable in the hands,
then it is ideal to spawn. When pasteurising
bulk amounts of substrate, another batch of
Figure 26: A chamber steamer, which can be used to
pasteurise bulk substrates using steam.
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Figure 27: Tying of a plastic roll at the bottom to
result in a packet that can be used for column culture
method by resource-disadvantaged farmers.
substrate can be immersed into the still-hot water
from the previous batch. However, after two
soakings the water becomes toxic to the
mushroom mycelium and should thus be
discarded,( Figure 41).
When the cropping container is in the form of
a tubular plastic roll, the roll should be cut into
the dimensions decided upon by the
mushroom far mer. However the authors
recommend dimensions between 60cm – 100
cm (1 m). Dimensions greater than 1m will
require a mechanical substrate filler, since the
bag will become very difficult to handle.
Dimensions less than 60 cm will result in very
small bags, which the authors consider as
wastage of the plastic. When the plastics of
the required dimensions (e.g. 1m) have been
cut, one end of the tubular plastic is tied using
string or wire. The string should be strong. The
plastic should not be tied less than 60 mm
from the edge as the string might come off
during spawning when one is compressing the
substrate. After tying the plastic roll, a bag
results with one closed end and one open end.
The open end will also be tied after spawning
the substrate in the bag.
6.0 Spawning
This is the process of adding the ‘mushroom seed’
to the pasteurised substrate (Figure 28). It is one
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of the critical stages in the success or failure of
the mushroom cultivation process. At this stage
the ‘ mushroom seed’ (mushroom spawn) is added
according to the amount of pasteurised substrate
in the cropping container (in our case, the
mushroom bag). If too little mushroom spawn is
added, then there is increased chance of
competitor organisms invading the substrate.
Too little mushroom spawn also results in a
lower rate of colonisation of the pasteurised
substrate. A higher amount of mushroom
spawn increases the rate of colonisation of
the pasteurised substrate, and narrows the
opportunity for competitor organisms.
The recommended rate of inoculation
(spawning) is 3-7% of substrate (dry weight)
(Stamets, 1993). When using inoculation
rates of 8-15% or greater than 15%, care must
be taken because increased heat production
(thermogenesis) can occur by the advancing
mushroom mycelium, which might activate
growth of some molds (Stamets, 1993). Thus
very high inoculation rates must be avoided,
as they also contribute to wastage of spawn.
When a small bag is used, the bag is filled
with the substrate and the amount of spawn
(wet weight) is added for the desired
inoculation rate. When the cropping bag
becomes larger, the spawning should be done
so as to maximise rate of colonisation of the
substrate by a uniform and homogeneous
distribution of the spawn in the substrate. The
following diagram shows the method of
spawning a large bag
A bag is filled with a bottom layer of pasteurised
substrate (layer 1 in Figure 28, part b), followed by
uniform distribution of the spawn (layer A in
Figure 28, part b) above the bottom layer of
substrate. The spawn that is utilized per layer is
that which fills a clenched fist when the diameter
of the cropping container is 30 cm. If it is 40 cm
then a clenched fist plus a quarter of an open hand
of unheaped spawn is utilized. Another layer of
pasteurised substrate is added (layer 11 in Figure
28, part b), followed by a uniform layer of spawn
(layer B in Figure 28, part b). This alternate filling
of the bag of pasteurised substrate followed by
spawn is continued until the bag is full. It is
advisable to cover the top layer of spawn and not

Figure 28: Diagram of method of spawning a large bag. a) and c) show cross- sections of the bag whilst b)
shows the alternate layering of the substrate and spawn inside the bag.

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to leave it exposed.
One thing to note is that the phrase ‘layer of
spawn’ does not mean the substrate has to be
covered until it is no longer visible. It means that
the hand is used to uniformly distribute the handful
or half a handful of spawn at each layer (see Figure
28, parts a, and c,). Holes are punched in the
bottom and sides of the substrate bags for drainage
and aeration (see Figure 30 ). The holes should
have a diameter of at least 5mm to allow successful
fruiting of the mushroom outside of the
cropping container (bag) and to allow ease
of harvesting. Smaller holes can result in
mushrooms fruiting inside the bag and
becoming squashed by the bag. Very large
holes might increase drying of the substrate.
Slits can be used as an alternative to the
punching of holes (see Figure 30). Initially few
holes are punched after spawning the substrate.
Figure 29: Resource-disadvantaged farmers spawning banana
substrate.
When the substrate is fully colonised, more
holes are punched. If an iron rod is used to
punch the holes, it should be heated first and
then allowed to cool. The cooling is done in-
order to prevent the killing of the mushroom
mycelium when punching the holes. Also if the
hot iron is used immediately it will melt the
plastic bag around the point where the hole is
punched thus resulting in a hole with a very
large diameter. Six inch nails can also be used
to punch holes.
There are two methods for punching the holes,
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1. To punch the holes on the top and bottom of
the bag (approximately 8 on top and 8 on the
bottom) (top-bottom method).
2 . Few holes are punched throughout the body
of the bag. (Body method)
Both methods work. However the first method
has the advantage that if contaminant insects were
to enter the MGH, few would find the holes whilst
with the second method the insects would readily
find the holes. However the second method
has the advantage that there is a greater
chance that holes will remain open on the
body of the bag than on the top or the bottom
of the bag and also since they will be more
numerical in number than the first method
aeration is improved.
Which method to use? It all depends on the
individual oyster mushroom farmer. One can try
both methods and see which one suits their
conditions.
After the holes are punched, two openings
should be cut at the base of the bag to improve
drainage (see Figure 30).
Figure 30: iIlustration depicting punching of holes and cutting
of slits on the mushroom bags and their opening to improve
drainage.
Figure 31: tying of bags with
string to result in a fully enclosed bag
ready to be hung in the MGH
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However these openings are optional. Before See Table 1 for the required growing conditions
punching holes the bags are tied at the open end for oyster mushroom (Pleurotus species) and Table
to result in a fully enclosed bag (Figure 31). The 2 shows a conditions for a MGH with equipment.
bags are then tied in a mushroom house with the
conditions in Table 1 for spawn running.
Table 1: Growing conditions and duration of procedures for the Pleurotus species for a structure without equip-
ment. Procedure Conditions Period

Fresh air exchanges: 0 per hour

Spawn Running dark room

Relative humidity 90-100% until substrate
windows closed appears
white (2-4 Weeks)

Fruiting In mushroom house

Relative Humidity 90-95%
Windows opened
2-4 days
Moisture, -daily watering fruits picked

Table 2: Growing conditions and duration of procedures for the Pleurotus species for a structure with equipment

Procedure Conditions Period

Spawn running Fresh air exchanges : 0 or 1 per hour Until substrate appears
Incubation temperature : 24oC - 29oC White ( 2 - 4 weeks)
Dark conditions (Dark room)
Relative humidity : 90 - 100%
Substrate temperature : 26oC - 30oC
Carbon dioxide(CO2) : 5000-10000ppm

Fruiting In mushroom house 2 - 4 days fruits are

Relative humidity : 90 - 95% Picked once they open
Temperatures : 20oC or 25oC or 28oC
Moisture requirement : Daily misting
Carbon dioxide : < 1000ppm
Fresh air exchanges : 4 - 8 per hour
Light requirements : 700-1500 lux

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In mushroom growing houses without equipment
such as those of the resource poor farmers the
zero (0) fresh air exchanges are achieved by closing
all air outlets in the mushroom growing structure
such as windows. Fresh air exchanges greater than
zero are achieved by opening windows and other
outlets in the mushroom growing structure.
Spawn running
After spawning the substrate the bags are hung in
a MGH using the double or single beam system
(Figures 32 and 33)
The double beam system utilizes more space in
the MGH, but it can only be used for the bag
method. The column method cannot be used with
the double beam system but can be used with the
single beam system.
When using the double beam system, care is taken
that temperatures will not soar in the MGH due
to heat production by the growing mushroom
mycelium. This system is useful during winter time
when temperatures are low. The column culture
method is more common than the double beam
system mainly because more resources are required
to setup a double beam system than a single beam
system. The term ‘spawn run’ refers to the period
after spawning the substrate to the time the
substrate is fully colonized (with oyster
mushrooms it will have become white
throughout) (Figure 34). The spawn run period
simulates the mycelium underneath the ground,
attached to roots of trees and plants. The
conditions are shown in Tables 1 and 2. The
conditions are dark environment, little or no air
exchanges and high humidity. This means the
MGH has all the windows physically closed and
black plastic material that prevents light from
entering the windows be put in place. The door
should also be closed throughout this period.

Figure 32 : Single Initiation of Fruiting

hanging beam
method, which is After the bag appears completely white
the common (Figure 34) the mushroom farmer should
method. The punch more holes on the body of the bag or
bags in this punch holes on the bag.
photo are no
longer during the The diameter of the holes punched determines
spawn run stage whether clusters or singles will appear. Very large

Figure 34: Fully colo-

Figure 33 Double nized substrate marking
hanging beam method, the end of the spawn run
which increases the period.
number of bags in the
MGH and also
utilises more space.
The bags in this photo
are during the spawn
run stage since they do
not have holes punched
on the body of the
bag.

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holes will result in single mushrooms whilst Figure 35: A resource-

smaller holes will result in clusters. Slits promote disadvantaged farmer
single mushrooms. Such techniques can be used holding a nozzle sprayer
when one knows what their available market which is required to spray
the emerging primordia,
prefers. To a certain extent it is certain that oyster
pinheads and mushrooms to
mushrooms will continue to produce clusters even
prevent drying of the
when slits are being used. After punching holes pinheads, primordia and
the farmer should change the conditions in the mushrooms.
MGH. The windows should now be opened for
at least 5 to 10 hours a day. This depends on how
easy water is available, as opening windows will
result in the humidity levels in the MGH
decreasing fast. The external door of the double
door setup should be opened occasionally if the
internal door has a sieve to allow light and air to
pass into the MGH, and yet preventing insects
from entering the MGH. If the internal door is (Figure 35) is used to spray the bags.
solid throughout then there is no need of opening
the external door. The fruiting stage requires lots One should NEVER USE WATER
of moisture. The mushrooms emerging outside CONTAINING JIK OR A DISINFECTANT
the bag will be more vulnerable to the prevailing TO SPRAY THE WALLS, FLOOR AND
external environment in comparison to the CEILINGS. Water containing a diluted
mycelium in the bag. More water should be used disinfectant is only used when spawning the
during the fruiting period, as all the emerging pasteurised substrate. Mushrooms are 90%
primordia are likely to dry. water. Without water you will not get
The amount of water that should be applied in mushrooms that are appetizing. Figure 36
the MGH depends on the season, location of shows mushroom pinheads emerging from
the MGH, the dimensions of the house and its cut slits whilst Figures 37-39 show fully mature
design. However the rule of thumb is that the oyster mushrooms fruiting from black and
sand on the floor of the MGH should always clear plastic cropping bags.
show wetness, but not watered to flowing.
Free flowing water on a concrete floor covered
with sand shows that the water is too much.
On a floor that has no sand, water should not .
be more than 5 cm deep. Watering of the
MGH is done on the floor and on the walls.
During the fruiting period a nozzle sprayer

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Figure 36 :Oyster
mushroom pinheads
forming through cut
slits.

Figure 39: The golden oyster mushroom fruiting in black bags.

Figure 37: Fully

grown oyster
mushrooms fruiting
through slits.

Figure 40: Oyster mushrooms fruiting under low scale

cultivation conditions in jam-jars.

Figure 40 illustrates the use of jam –

jar bottles to screen for the suitability
Figure 38: Oyster of substrate to promote the fruiting
mushrooms fruiting of the oyster mushrooms on a small
through a clear scale. Figure 41 summarises the
plastic bag. The clear practical steps taken during the two
bags have the days of preparing the substrate and
advantage that the spawning of the substrates.
farmer can see what
will be going on in the
bag.

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Figure 41: Summary diagram illustrating oyster mushroom cultivation for the resource-disadvantaged farmer.

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Cropping containers: The cropping methods
that can be utilized to cultivate mushrooms are
shown in Figure 43. The tray method is the one
that is used for button mushrooms mainly because
a casing soil needs to be added during the
cultivation process. It is not ideal to grow
button mushrooms in an enclosed structure.
However bags can also be used for button
mushrooms (Figure 42).
If it is an urban based farmer with access to
electricity and has a humidifier, then all the
cropping methods shown in Figure 43 are possible.
However for the rural based farmer such as those
in Buhera and Wedza (pilot study areas for the
mushroom project) the column and bag methods
are recommended (Figure 43). The bags that are
recommended are those that are fully enclosed.
Bags, which have perforations already such as
potatoe sack, will result in more water being used
in the MGH and also they are more prone to
contamination even if another sack is used to
enclose them during the spawn run period.
Both black and clear bags are used in
cultivation of oyster mushrooms. The black bags
are better in a structure that has gaps that allow
light to enter the MGH during the spawn run
period where dark conditions should be
maintained in the MGH. On the other hand the
black bags have the disadvantage that the
mushroom farmer cannot see what is happening
inside the bag.

Figure 42: Plastic bag cropping containers for

the cultivation of button mushrooms.

For oyster mushrooms the bag and

column methods are the ones the authors
recommend. This is because during
spawn run less water will need to be
added into the MGH since the enclosed
bags will retain high levels of humidity
for a longer period than an open tray.
However the disadvantage of using bags
compared to trays is that bags are not
reusable because holes will have been
punched on the bags. All the cropping
containers or methods shown in Figure
43 can be used for oyster mushrooms but
it depends on the type of MGH and
equipment the mushroom farmer has.

Figure 43: Diagram illustrating the cropping methods used in mushroom cultivation. For
oyster mushrooms the authors recommend the use of the column and bag culture methods.

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It is advisable to have one clear bag when
cultivating in black bags so that one can see what
stage the spawn run has reached. No type of bag
(clear or black) is always better than the other.
This depends on where you are located, the
type of MGH that is there, how often watering
is done and the quantity of water applied.
Thus the statement ‘black bags are better than
clear bags’ is true for one individual whilst the
statement, ‘clear bags are better than black bags’
is also true for another individual. It is just like
the statement, ‘white oyster is better than brown
oyster in yield’ is true for one individual while
the reverse is true for another individual.
Use of Disinfectant to Disinfect utensils used
during Preparation of Substrate and
Subsequent Spawning
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Mushrooms are living organisms, which require
nutrients to survive. If other organisms are allowed
to thrive during mushroom cultivation. The invader
organisms will consume the substrate at the
expense of the growth of the oyster mushroom.
Thus when the substrate is being prepared
and spawned, disinfectants (DFT) should be
used (Figure 44). The disinfectant is diluted
in a pail (Figure 44) and then used to disinfect
first the MGH (walls, ceiling, floor) using a new
clean broom (Figure 46), whilst the substrate
is being pasteurized. If a broom is not
available then the hand is used as a scoop to
throw the water containing disinfectant onto
the walls, ceiling and the floor. When the
substrate has been pasteurized, but still in the
drum, the wheelbarrow (Figure 45), 2 plastic
sheets (one to put in the wheelbarrow to
transport the substrate to the MGH and the
other to be laid in the MGH in order for the
substrate to cool) (Figure 44), garden fork and
scissors are all washed with the diluted
disinfectant. The garden fork is also put in the
fire after washing with disinfectant to kill any
contaminating organisms. Thereafter the
disinfected fork is used to place the pasteurised
substrate onto the disinfected plastic sheet in the
disinfected wheelbarrow. The fork is then
transported to the MGH to be laid onto the
disinfected plastic in the disinfected MGH. This
disinfecting process is very important for
successful cultivation of oyster mushrooms.
Figure 44: The use of disinfectant to disinfect uten-
sils. The dilution rate is two lids of a large bottle (e.g.
Jik bleach and disinfectant for every 10 litres).
Items labeled with blue should never come in contact
with disinfectant.
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Figure 45: Resource-disadvantaged farmers cleaning a
wheelbarrow with a diluted disinfectant
Figure 46: disinfecting the walls, floor and ceiling of the
MGH using a diluted disinfectant and a new broom.
Whilst the substrate is cooling the farmers will
tie their bags and disinfect. When the substrate
has cooled the farmers will spawn the substrate
followed by tying their bags at the top and then
hanging them onto the beams using wire or string.
Six-inch nails or an iron rod are washed in
disinfectant followed by being heated on fire. The
disinfected nails are used to punch holes on the
bags. A muslin cloth or some clean cloth is dipped
into the diluted disinfectant and used to wipe the
bottom of the bags. Thereafter the MGH is
cleaned and the bags are left for the spawn
run period with daily watering being done and
monitoring for pests and diseases. There are
certain things that should never be washed
with diluted disinfectant. Spawn is the major
input that should never be washed with
disinfectant. Also the nozzle sprayer should
never be filled with diluted disinfectant. The
items that should never come in contact with
disinfectant are labeled with blue in Figure 44.
The sprayer should always be filled with clean
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cooled previously boiled (5 min) water.
For successful oyster mushroom cultivation a
clean water source is required which should
preferably be near the MGH. Figure 47 shows
a well, which is situated about 5 m from the
MGH at a project site in Wedza.
Figure 47: Water is very important for oyster mushroom
cultivation. Here a well serves as a water source.
Do’s and Don’ts of Preparation of Substrate
and Subsequent Spawning
Preparation of substrate
1. Do not use a substrate that is not dry.
2. Chopping the substrate requires good care.
3. Fill the drum with substrate and water when it
is already mounted onto the fire stand
4. Continuously check that the surface substrate
is submerged in water as water will be taken
up by the dry substrate during soaking thus
lowering the water level. Also during
pasteurization monitoring of the water level
should be done with additional water being
added accordingly.
5. Never pick any pasteurised substrate that falls
to the ground when filling the wheelbarrow
with substrate using the garden fork
6. Provide a foot bath at the entrance of the MGH
containing disinfectant diluted with water
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Spawning of the Substrate and subsequent mushrooms.

stages (spawn run and fruiting) 6. Do not use water with a disinfectant during
spawn run and fruiting periods.
1. Never step onto the disinfected plastic in the 7. Do not apply excessive water in the MGH.
MGH. To collect pasteurized substrate at the 8. Do not stay for too long in the MGH when
center of the plastic, place your feet there is a puffy mist emitted by the mushrooms
underneath the plastic. You can transport
pasteurized substrateto the MGH in a
wheelbarrow overlaid with plastic, avoiding to
step onto the plastic.
2. Do not start spawning the substrate whilst it
is too hot.
3. Use small amounts of spawn per each layer,to
avoid the stimulation of heat leading to the growth
of contaminating organisms due to the increase
in temperature.
4. Pack substrate and spawn into the plastic using
cooled pasteurized substrate.
5. Punch holes 5 cm apart to allow the emerging
pinheads to have enough room to develop into

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CHAPTER 5
Mushr oom Str
Mushroom uctur
Structur
ucturee Design and Maintenance

Choice of Growing Structure is Based on: conditions and is more prone to crop
failure
- Building costs - Choice based on farmer’s resources,
- Type of technology available technology, cost of production
- Materials include tray, bag, rack, and price of product.
column, mound/ bed, log
- Environmental requirements of Structure introduction
mushrooms:
- temperature For tropical countries, houses for mushroom
- moisture cultivation depend on the local resources and
- light the climatic conditions. The size of one’s
- aeration mushroom growing house is determined by
- humidity the capital investment at hand. For a low cost
- substrate MGH, without any equipment to control the
ambient conditions in the mushroom growing
General Aspects of a Mushroom House/Farm structure, dimensions of 3m (height) x 8m
(length) x 6m (width) are ideal. Dimensions of
In selecting a site for the mushroom house/ 2.5m (height) x 4m (length) x 2m (width) could
farm , consider the following: also be used.
- Desired capacity of the structure (including
possibility for future expansion) Environmental factors conditioning mushroom
- Ready availability of clean water growth
- No source for biological contaminants that can
pollute the air should be nearby (e.g. waste n Light
dumps, compost piles, sawmills) n Temperature
- Outside temperature should be as close as is n Humidity
possible to the desired temperature of the n Carbon-dioxide
mushroom to be cultivated
- Availability of substrate Appropriate levels of the above-mentioned
- Distance to market of product environmental factors are the conditions that
must be provided in the growing structure.
Indoor versus outdoor cultivation In place of air conditioning, buildings with high
ceilings will be appropriate to provide the required
- Indoor cultivation for regulation of cooler temperatures for growth and fruiting of
environmental conditions the mushroom. A 2-pane window is ideal for
- Indoor cultivation is becoming increasingly ventilation. The most important requirement
expensive with increasing control over is high humidity of the air at all times,
climate especially after primordia formation in order
- Indoor cultivation has more stable yield and to prevent the drying out of the surface of the
production can be spread substrate.
- Outdoor cultivation is less costly. In Water sprays in the room are necessary.
Zimbabwe outdoor cultivation may be tried Even steam from a boiler can be used to
in areas such as Nyanga . humidify the mushroom growing structure. If
- Outdoor cultivation depends on natural none of these are available, then the floor must
always be kept wet and the substrate watered

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frequently. Spraying of water also produces
evaporative cooling which helps to lower the
temperature necessary for certain strains.
Installation of artificial light is necessary if the
structures do not have sufficient natural light.
Oyster mushrooms and virtually all the gourmet
mushrooms require a lot of moisture for them to
thrive. That is why mushrooms fruit during the
rainy season. The oyster mushrooms are no
exception to the rule of high humidity in order to
fruit. Short term mushroom cultivation does not
require the permanent growing structures
used for long-term cultivation. The cultivation
is generally for home consumption or selling
to the local community, commercial or for
export.
One room for all phases versus a room for each
phase
There are two concepts on how substrate and
climate are treated. one involves leaving the
substrate in the same place and changing the
surrounding conditions. The other concept
involves having a room specifically for storage,
room 2 for soaking or watering of the substrate,
room 3 for pasteurization and spawning, room 4
for spawn run and room 5 for fruiting. Such a
complex has five rooms (Figure 56). Room 1 will
have sliding doors and dimensions that allows
entry by delivery trucks which come to deliver
the substrates. The fruiting room may have fans
installed and may have a translucent panel on the
roof to enable light to enter the room for initiating
fruiting.
The roofs of rooms 1, 2, 4, and 5 are slanted
to allow proper drainage of water during heavy
rains (Oei, 1991). The advantages of this
setup are that
• a continuous production of mushrooms
simultaneously performed.
• the setup of separate compartments
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Figure 56: Room for each phase mushroom growing complex.
provides good sanitation measures.
• If contamination occurs in one room, it can
b e eradicated without affecting the
stages in the other rooms.
This chapter will concentrate on a MGH for
the RDFs. A brief section will concentrate on
commercial and high-tech MGHs.
The beams in the MGH are used to hang the bags
containing the spawned substrate. The beams are
spaced in a way that does not affect the freedom
of the oyster mushroom farmer to move in the
MGH. The beams should be placed anti-parallel
(Figure 49) to the door so that when one enters
the MGH, one is not greeted with an oyster
mushroom bag right at the entrance. The
recommended spacings are for bags with a
diameter of 30-40 cm.
If the farmer wishes to use bags with a larger
diameter then the spacing should be adjusted.
The authors recommend use of bags with 30-
40 cm diameters. The spacing of the beams
is such that all those that are next to the walls
should be 50 cm from the wall to allow the
bags hung to fruit freely and also that the
person harvesting will not have problems
accessing the mushrooms on the MGH wall
side. The beams that are not against the MGH
walls are spaced for every 100 cm (1 metre).
is These spacings allow a worker to freely move
among the fruiting bags and will also allow the
mushrooms to fruit without the constraint of
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lack of space to fruit. The beams should be placed
2 m from the floor surface and the bags hung on a
beam should be 50 cm apart (Figure 49) to allow
free fruiting and development of the oyster
mushrooms.
• The general shape is rectangular being
twice as long as it is wide. The structure of
the MGH could also be rounded with a thatch
grass roof.
• Materials used include brick, fibreglass,
polycarbonate, acrylic, glass, galvanised metals,
thatch grass.
• At least two doors with the bottom one fitted
with a brush-skirt that discourages insects from
entering).
Figure 48: Double doors
recommended for a MGH.
The inner door has a
screen that will pre-
vent insects from en-
tering the MGH and
yet will allow air and
light to pass through.
On the windows of the MGH are placed screens
or any material that will prevent insects from
entering the MGH and yet allowing light and air
to enter the MGH. The numbers of windows that
must be placed on a MGH depend on the size of
the MGH. If it is a large MGH then windows
should be placed on every side of the MGH
sometimes actually having two windows on one
side (Figure 51a, 52a). However the general rule
is that the number of windows should be able to
let adequate light enter the MGH during the
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fruiting period. Window dimensions should not
exceed 70 cm by 70 cm. The ideal dimensions of
the windows depend on the size of the MGH.
The beams in the MGH should be very strong
and rigid with minimal room for movement. A
fully spawned 1 m bag may have a mass of 10-15
kg depending on the substrate. If a beam has five
bags then the beam will be carrying 50 – 75
kg. They can be wooden beams or metal
beams. The beams if wooden should have at
least a diameter of 7 cm. The strength of the
beam will depend on the size of the MGH.
• Completely insulated environmental control
systems function far better in growing
rooms that are insulated than in those that
are not.
• Floors done in cement or concrete, should
be sloped slightly to a central drain. Floors
should not be sloped if water sprays on the
wall and on the floor maintain humidity.
Sand floor can be used until a cement or
concrete floor is built. However a sand floor
can only be utilized if the water source is very
near the MGH as more water will be used than
when a solid floor is used in the MGH.
Depressions can be put on the floor whilst it
is being made to hold water.
The floor should be made of rough concrete.
It should not be of a fine finish like the one in
residential houses. The authors recommend
putting a layer of clean sand on top of the
concrete floor. This helps in retaining water. .
• If a humidifier is being used, then the roof
should be well slanted or the walls should be
curved to eliminate condensation from dripping
onto the crop.
• A footbath is placed before entering the
growing room to disinfect footwear. Shoes are a
major source of contaminants into the growing
room. A 60cm x 60cm x 5cm (depth) footbath is
ideal. The footbath is filled with bleach (chlorine).
Formalin, Jik or dettol diluted in water to
disinfect. A plastic or metal sponge- like grate
should be placed to help remove debris from
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the feet (the grate is optional).

• The height of the growing structure should
b e at least 2.5m, but preferably 3.6m to 4.8m
At least 1.2 m of free air space should be
above the uppermost plateau of mushrooms.
• Good personal hygiene is required in
managing the growing room.
• Use of environmentally friendly insect traps
and rat traps is advised.
• Use of a water spray to spray the growing
primordia is advised for the growing room
without any humidifier.
• Use of many growing houses for continuous
production is advised.
• The walls in the MGH should also be left
rough and not smooth. The walls should also
be not painted as a painted wall tends to have
water rolling over it, especially when it is oil
paint. The walls are just plastered. If the MGH
is made of bricks, internal plastering should
be done. Outside plastering is optional.

MGHs

This section will concentrate on the different

mushroom growing houses. All photographs in
this section are of houses at the project and
adopter sites in Buhera and Wedza districts of Figure 49: illustration depicting the spacing of beams inside a
Zimbabwe ,except Figure 52, which shows a MGH and the recommended height for the beams. The beams
house at the University of Zimbabwe against the wall are placed 50 cm from the wall whilst the beams
(Biological Sciences Department). thereafter are placed 1m apart to allow an individual space to
walk among the bags. The mushrooms need to have adequate
space to fruit. The beams should be placed 2 m from the floor
The MGHs in this section are classified as
surface. The bags on a beam should be 50 cm apart.
1 . High –tech structure (Figure 50).
2 . Recommended gable-roof brick structure
(Figure 51).
3 . Alternative flat-roof brick structure (Figure
A. High-Tech MGH
52).
4 . Modified brick hut structure (Figure 53).
Such structures can be available in urban areas.
5 . Low-cost Pole and dagga flat-roof structure
The one shown in Figure 50 shows a humidifier
(Figure 54).
(round structure visible behind a bag), which
6. Low-cost gable-roof thatch grass structure
maintains high levels of humidity. This humidifier
(Figure 55).

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can be connected to a humidistat, which will
automatically control the humidity. If a humidistat
is not available, then a hygrometer should be
bought (Table 3). Also in Figure 50 is an air
conditioner to regulate the air temperature in the
high-tech MGH. Thus one can set the room at
90% humidity level and a temperature of 250C.
The humidifier is connected to a water source
such as a tap.
An extra high-tech system (Table 3), which is
mainly available in developed countries
consists of a computerized system that the
mushroom farmer only needs to punch the
conditions they want to prevail in the MGH on
a computer and the system does the rest.
B. Gable Roof Brick MGH
A MGH with a gable roof structure is the one that
is recommended by the authors for RDFs. Such a
MGH has the advantage of facilitating rainfall runoff.
Rain will not collect on the roof. A gable roof MGH
will cost more than a flat roof MGH but the investment
is well worth it as repairs are minimal when compared
a)
b)
Figure 50: A high-tech MGH. A humidifier (circular equip-
ment) is visible behind the black bag on the right of the photo.
Below the humidifier is an air conditioner.
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to a flat roof.
From Figure 51a it can be observed that a
footbath is illustrated at the door, but Figures
51c does not have a footbath at the entrance.
In such a case the farmers use an old dish or
some apparatus that is movable as a footbath.
Diluted disinfectant is added to not more than 5
cm depth and the people enter the MGH after
stepping with their shoes in the footbath.
Asbestos roofing sheets should never be used on
any MGH. Since there is a lot of moisture in the
MGH the sheets will have flakes peeling off and
falling in the MGH which when inhaled by anyone
working in the MGH can cause the disease called
asbestosis. If asbestos sheeting has to be used,
then a kaylite ceiling should be installed below it.
Oil paint can be used to paint the asbestos ceiling.
The oil paint coating must be maintained with
new coatings having to be done now and again.
a)
b)
c)
Figure 51: The recommended MGHs (the heaped/gable roof
structures), which will result in minimum problems arising.
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The normal ceiling that is used by the RDFs of the windows is placed directly opposite the
consists of sacks cut open then sewn together or door and the other two windows are placed on
a plastic sheet serves as a ceiling. The ceiling is the diameter that is parallel to the door.
placed above the beams, but below the thatch A ceiling is also placed in the hut and beams
grass roof. installed in the hut running antiparallel to the door.
The fireplace, which was used for cooking, is also
C. Flat Roof Brick MGH filled with concrete and any crevices or gaps at
the floor edges must also be filled with concrete.
The MGH in Fig. 52 is the same as the one A footbath may be added. If not added then an
with the gable roof brick MGH. The only old dish or some old container may be used as a
difference is that the MGH has a flat roof and footbath.Modifying a hut has the advantage that
not a gable roof. When using thatch grass as the structure already has the recommended gable
the roofing material, the flat roof may collapse roof.
as rainfall may accumulate in depressions in
the roof making the roof to collapse. E. Low-cost Pole and Dagga MGH
Figure 52b shows a MGH with a flat thatch
grass roof in Buhera. The oyster mushroom The authors do not recommend this kind of
farmer at this site had to go for some time structure since it may collapse easily. It is okay
without cultivating oyster mushrooms because for a project that does not need lots of water in
the roof had collapsed. If one decides to put a the MGH.
flat thatch grass roof on their MGH then they
a)
should build a MGH that has small dimensions
(Figure 52c). A small MGH has less chances
of the roof collapsing whilst very large MGHs
have a greater chance of the thatch grass roof
collapsing. If iron sheets are used as the
roofing material then a flat roof MGH has no
problems of the roof collapsing
b)
The beam poles are visible from the outside
on Figure 52c. Also from Figure 52c one can
see a black plastic sheet placed on the door.
This was done because the door was not well
fitted. When the door is closed on this MGH,
gaps are left at the top and side of the door.
c)
D. Modified Brick Hut MGH

Any modifications of an existing structure are

unique to that structure. However generalizations
shall be made in the section. Most huts in the rural
areas of Zimbabwe have small triangular
windows. These windows need to be widened a Figure 52: Flat roofed MGHs, which can result in the roof
collapsing. a) Drawing of a flat roof MGH b) very large flat
little and the MGH requires three of them. One
roofed MGH that has greater chances of the roof-collapsing c)
small flat roofed MGH, which has less chances of the roof
collapsing
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However the problem of it possibly collapsing
may be alleviated by placing plastic sheeting on
the walls and floor to prevent water from going
onto the pole and dagga walls.
F. Low-cost Thatch Grass MGH
For the individual who wants to enter the oyster
mushroom cultivation industry without having
a lot of capital to start the project, a thatch grass
MGH is the ideal structure. This structure
comprises using thatch grass to construct the roof
and walls of the MGH (Figure 55). Plastics sheets
must be placed in the MGH on the walls. It is
recommended to have a gable roof.
a)
b)
c)
Figure 53: MGH resulting from modifications of huts. A)
Drawing of a hut b) some RDFs with a mushroom harvest
and some members of the mushroom project team c) a young
man proudly stands outside their modified hut MGH.
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However these MGH are not permanent
structures and the grass will occasionally require
being maintained or replaced with fresh thatching
grass.
Siting of MGH
• A large MGH has the capability of buffering
environmental fluctuations of temperature
and humidity. This means a small MGH will
heat up quickly and it will cool down quickly.
If it is hot outside, the small MGH will
become hot faster than a large MGH. This
should be considered when siting your
MGH.
• The other point to take into account is that
the MGH should be near a water source.
• The weather conditions in an area and
climatic data should also be considered
when siting ones MGH.
• The house should be placed far from
rubbish dumps and areas where other waste
a)
b)
Figure 54: A pole and dagga house constructed with a re-
source-disadvantaged farmer.
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materials are stored.
• The MGH should be far from livestock
areas
• The MGH should be built in an open place
and not under a tree or some shelter. Debris
from the tree may bring contaminants and
also the tree may prevent adequate light
from entering the MGH.
• One group in Wedza built their thatch grass
MGHs over a small running stream such
that they did not need to water in their MGH
as humidity was always in the MGH due to
the running stream.

Figure 55: low-cost thatch-grass MGHs .

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Table 3 : Summary of equipment and methods to control the essential environmental parameters affecting
mushroom growth for a low -cost, high -tech, and extra high-tech mushroom structures.

Parameter Low cost High-tech High-tech

Dual system
Humidity -bags -Humidifier+humidistat -Dual system of
-spraying walls and -fogging equipment+ humidistat and
floor humidistat thermostat
-evaporative mats, -duct system spraying controlling a duct
oldblankets,etc humidified air system that releases
-water spray pre-humidified

Temperature -ambient conditions -air conditioner Air at a desired

-evaporative cooling -Thermal exhaust fan temperature
of water syatem with thermostat according to the
-duct system with humidity and
heating coils+ temperature
thermostat prevailing in the

Light -natural daylight Light of 700-1500lux

Measuring -human body -Mercury bulb Mushroom growing

equipment temperature thermometer structure and its'
sensors(a rather -wet and dry bulb volume.
crude method) hygrometer
-Sensing of moisture -Digital thermometer
in the air (again -Digital hygrometer
another crude -Digital thermo-hygro
method)

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CHAPTER 6
Utilisation of Spent Mushroom Substrate,
Har vesting and Pr eser vation of Mushr
Preser ooms
Mushrooms
The substrate from which mushrooms have been
harvested is called spent substrate (Figure 57).
1. The spent substrate is used as fertilizer in
gardens and fields
2. The spent substrate of Oyster mushroom has
been used to remove Dioxines, PAHs
(Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons) and PCBs
(Polychlorinated biphenols) wastes from the
environment. These are very toxic and
persistent wastes.
3. The spent substrate used as animal feed.
Figure 57: Spent oyster mushroom compost.
When the oyster mushrooms begin to fruit it takes
about 3 months – 8 months for the substrate to
be spent depending on the prevailing conditions
in the MGH and the type of substrate being used.
The substrate is declared spent when the bag can
be squeezed to a great extent such that the diameter
is drastically reduced. You can also help
confirm the spent substrate status by noting
the nature of the mushrooms coming out is
not of a good quality.
Harvesting
The oyster mushrooms are harvested by hand.
The hand is used to pull the mushroom or
mushroom cluster from the substrate. The
harvester holds the mushroom right at the
base of the stipe on the bag, followed by
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pulling it so that the stipe comes off with some
substrate. If the stipe does not come off with
some substrate then that hole will not have any
new primordial material coming out from it. If
the mushroom does not come off with some
substrate, there are high chances of
contamination occurring on the piece of the
stipe that remained there.
Never harvest the oyster mushrooms using a
knife to cut the stipe. This usually results in
yeast and bacterial infection on the remaining
stipe piece.
When mushrooms are fruiting you will see that
they will be mushrooms at different stages of
maturity on the bag. Only harvest the
mushrooms that are mature. The smaller
mushrooms will usually be mature in two-three
days if adequate watering is done in the MGH.
Mushrooms come out in the flush period.
Oyster mushrooms harvesting can be done
throughout the week, as mushrooms at
different stages of growth will be maturing.
The mushroom fruiting in nature (Figure 6)
has the role of releasing spores into the
environment to perpetuate the mushrooms
existence. If harvesting is delayed the
mushroom will release spores and begin to
die or shrivel even if you are watering
adequately in the MGH.Therefore mushrooms
harvested at this stage have a very short life
span. Young oyster mushrooms store better
than old oyster mushrooms.
If the farmer is planning to harvest mushrooms,
he should not water the MGH a day or two
before harvesting to lengthen the storage time
for the oyster mushrooms. For button
mushrooms, it is advisable to pick the button
mushrooms before the veil breaks. This will
lengthen the shelf life of the button mushrooms
as the button mushrooms can only release
spores after the veil breaks. There are certain
strains of button mushroom which are sporeless
and have long shelf lives.
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Cultivated oyster mushrooms are so clean that 1. Mushrooms can be packaged in perforated
they can be fried in a pan straight after harvesting. plastics (Figure 62).
The authors recommend frying oyster mushrooms 2 . Mushrooms can also be packed in
and not boiling them. Styrofoam trays (Figure 63).
3 . For the export market, canned mushrooms
Preservation of Mushrooms are the best.
4 . Soon after harvesting the mushrooms
Mushrooms may be consumed fresh, or preserved should be chilled, then transported in a
by drying, canning, or pickling in vinegar. refrigerated truck to the customer.
5. For the RDFs packaging is done in plastics as
1 . Refrigeration at 1-4 0 C will make oyster they mainly sell to the local community (schools,
mushrooms last for 1 to 2 weeks depending on hospitals and other individuals and
the stage at which the mushroom was harvested. organizations). The RDFs usually sell their
2. In a freezer (-200C) mushrooms can last for 2 mushrooms in kg portions.
weeks. Such oyster mushrooms suffer from chilling
injury, and will break into little pieces when
removed from the freezer. The water in the form
of ice crystal thaws at room temperature.
3. Canning is a long-term storage method. This
involves cleaning, blanching, sterilization, canning,
cooling, labeling and packing (Figure 58).
4. Drying: Mushrooms preserved by drying have
a good flavour and the drying prevents
deterioration. Dried mushrooms are suitable for
long-term storage and transportation. Drying
can involve sun drying (Figure 59) or thermal
power drying (Figure 61). The RDFs can only
employ the sun-drying method which becomes
problematic during spells of cloudy days. Drying Figure 58: Canning of mushrooms in China.
of mushrooms is usually done when a farmer has
surplus mushrooms.

Packaging and Marketing

The way you package your product plays an

important role in whether you will get a
reasonable market share. An individual with
a product not as good as yours, but well
packaged will take the market from you.
Attractive package is the key to those who
would like to enter the export industry of
mushrooms. Quality control is also an issue
with those that import your mushrooms and those Figure 59: Sun drying of oyster mushrooms in ‘tswandas.
local possible contract customers.

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mushrooms. To get a good share of the market,

one must not compromise on quality, reliability
of delivery and market communication. If
exporting is considered, it is important to have
direct contact between producer and buyer.
Middlemen will make the price for the buyers
higher, without having the original producer
benefit. The producers have to communicate
directly with the canning factory or importer
about quality, way of packing and other
specifications.

Figure 60: Drying of mushrooms on beds or racks.

Figure 61: A modern mushroom dryer.

Figure 62: Mushrooms packed in plastics.

Most people in Zimbabwe were used to the white
button mushroom until recently. Oyster
mushrooms have been introduced in Zimbabwe
mainly through the efforts of the BTZ funded
Mushroom Project in Wedza and Buhera. Oyster
mushrooms are now available in certain retail
supermarkets in the country fetching a price
similar or higher than button mushrooms.
Zimbabwe has a good market for cultivated
mushrooms. The mushroom cultivators are
supplying one-third of the requirement of the
country. Many inquiries are regularly received from
neighbouring SADC countries. This means even
if every household in Zimbabwe were to grow
mushrooms, they would still be a demand for

Figure 63: Oyster mushrooms packed in Styrofoam trays.

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The weight of oyster mushrooms also differs. The

white oyster mushroom is heavier than the brown
oyster mushrooms. For the RDF a Kg of
mushroom is quickly achieved when cultivating
white oyster than when cultivating brown oyster.
The short storage time for the oyster mushroom
means a ready market should be available. If not
available then the mushrooms should be sun dried
for storage.

Hygiene

• Pick mushrooms from the young substrate

and end with the older substrate.
• Apply the spent substrate at considerable
distance from the MGH
• Heavily contaminated substrate should be
burnt.
• Remove undeveloped primordia from the
substrate. Keep the floor of the MGH clean
• Do not touch sick fruiting bodies during
picking. Collect them at the end of the
picking and dispose of them immediately.

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CHAPTER 7
Pests and Diseases
Pests
Mushrooms are living organisms, which do not
manufacture their own food as trees and other
plants. Mushroom require a food source to
survive. This is why substrates are used in
cultivation of mushrooms. The point to
remember is that the substrate is not only food
for the mushroom but it can be colonised and
utilised by other organisms. Low water content
is a method of preservation. That is why dry
Figure 65: The cecid fly and its mother larva.
grain will remain unspoiled for longer periods
than wet grain. The dry substrate cannot be
utilised by the mushroom and also other
organisms. However once it becomes wet it
can now be used by the mushroom and other
organisms thus the need to pasteurise the
substrate. The MGH requires special care in
order to prevent devastating losses
‘prevention is better than cure.’ It is better to
follow strict hygienic practices than to throw
away a whole batch of contaminated spawned Figure 66: The phorid fly and its larva.
substrate.

The MGH should have screen on the windows,

which can be wire mesh with a very small pore
size in order to prevent insects from entering the
MGH and yet allowing the required fresh air
exchanges and light to enter the MGH. Potato
sacks can be also utilised but these require at least
three to be stacked on a single window to reduce
the size of the openings on the sacks as a
single potato sack will allow insects to enter Figure 67: The sciarid fly and its larva.
the MGH.

The major pests problems and diseases for

oyster mushroom cultivation are:

1. Insects, which can also be the cause of worms

visible on the substrate. The worms will be the
larva of the insects. The main insect pests are
the phorid, sciarid, cecid flies and mites (Figures
65 to 68)
Figure 68: The mite.
2. The insects and their larvae eat the mushroom
mycelium. A once white bag can

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become clear as if it was spawned yesterday.
In such a case the composting organisms
usually take over the substrate resulting in the
substrate becoming black. Insects enter the MGH
through inadequately protected windows,
a door which leaves gaps when closed,
uncovered openings on the roof-wall interface (the
wall plate). Insects can also be attracted to
inadequately pasteurised substrate. The
cultivator can also bring insects into the MGH.
That is why it is advisable to exercise good
hygienic practices.
It is essential to close all outlets, to fully pasteurise
the substrate and to check the netting on the
windows so that they do not allow insects to enter
3. Mushrooms are fungi. Other fungi also
compete with the oyster mushrooms for the
substrate (‘food’). Molds can occur on the
substrate. The major type of mold infestation
is the green coloured mold. Molds affect the
bread left for some time in the open at room
temperature. The molds looking like black pins
begin to colonise the bread. This is a type of
mold. The green mold that mainly occurs
in oyster mushroom cultivation is mainly due
to inadequate pasteurisation. In other instances
it is due to a MGH, which is not well closed.
The solution is to fully pasteurise the substrate
and not to leave the MGH door open for long
periods.
4. Nematodes are very small worms which
cannot be seen with our eyes.Nematodes can be
a problem in button mushroom cultivation.
However for oyster mushroom cultivation the
oyster mushrooms release substances that kill the
nematodes.
5. Virus infection causes a very deadly disease
characterised by losing of the white colour,
which shows that the mycelium is being lost.
The substrate will end up black.
The room needs to be sanitised using
diluted hypochlorate mixed with Jik. The room
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also needs to be steamed for two weeks. The
spent substrate should not be
discarded near the MGH.
6. Rats are a problem soon after spawning as they
eat the mushroom bags along the spawn layers.
The oyster mushrooms are organically
grown. Thus no rat poison should be utilised as
the dying rat might have enough strength to
contaminate the mushrooms, which may
prove fatal. Rat trap can be used but the
rats are able to learn that these traps are dangerous
and they are able to adapt to such an extent that
some will set the trap of and then ingest the food.
Some farmers in Buhera and Wedza
are using a mixture of mealie meal and cement
to kill the rats. The other solution is to have a
MGH with out gaps that can allow the rats to
find their way into the MGH to cause havoc.
Once the bags are fully colonised and the
mushrooms are coming out rats are no longer
a problem. Cats can also be utilised to control
the rats.
7 Mushrooms fruiting inside the bag: This
problem arises because the substrate would not
have been well compressed during the
spawning stage. This leaves gaps large enough
for the mushrooms to fruit inside the bags.
Such a problem results in loss of yield. The
solution to this problem is to compress well t he
substrate when spawning in the future so
that gaps large enough to allow the mushrooms
to fruit will not occur.
8 Substrate becomes black in the bags: The
blackening of the substrate can be due to
several reasons.
a) When the substrate has been pasteurized, it is
cooled in the MGH. Occasionally the farmers
will spawn the substrate whilst it is still hot.
This will cause the mushroom mycelium to be
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killed, losing the added advantage to the
mushroom mycelium to colonise the substrate.
b) If composting organisms come in then the
substrate will be composted. Such a problem
results in the whole length of the bag having black
substrate. Solution: wait for the substrate to cool
down sufficiently.
c) Blackening of the substrate in the whole length
of the bag may also be due to the fact that the
farmer will have forgotten to punch the holes for
aeration and drainage which results in the bag
favouring anaerobic (no oxygen environment)
organisms which will ferment the substrate
resulting in the black colour. Solution: make
sure that holes have been punched on the bags
before leaving the MGH.
d) Low spawning rates will result in the
mushroom mycelium being unable to colonise
the substrate resulting in other contaminating
organisms taking over the substrate. The solution
is to use higher spawning rates
.
e) Bag has black substrate at the bottom half or
quarter and the rest of the substrate is being
colonized well by the mushroom mycelium.
This problem may be due to that the holes
punched at the bottom of the bag closed after
being punched such that the water did not drain
enough resulting in the bottom half or quarter
of the bag being water logged. This water
logging will result in the substrate decaying
and hence the black colour.
The solutions are to make sure the holes punched
in the bag remain open. It is advisable to twitch
the nail or iron rod to make sure the holes
remain open. Make sure the substrate has
cooled sufficiently before spawning.
f) Blackening of the substrate may also be due
to insects and their larva, which will devour
the mushroom mycelium resulting in
contaminant organisms taking over the
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substrate.
The solution is to practice good hygiene and make
sure the MGH does not have openings through
which insects can enter.
9. A farmer might experience fast growth
during spawn run and then at another time
there is very slow growth during the spawn
run period. The farmer should check to see
what season they are in. The oyster mushrooms
or any mushrooms would slow in growth rate
as the temperatures are reduced. This means
winter will result in slow growth rates whilst
summer will result in fast growth rates.
1. Abortive mushroom pinheads on clusters:
When a cluster forms, the oyster mushroom will
tell itself that some pinheads have to be
sacrificed for the other pinheads to have
enough room to grow and to grow well with
the nutrients available and also for light access.
Thus an oyster mushroom cluster will in most
cases have a few pinheads that shrivel and die.
However in some cases all pinheads will
mature to form a fine bouquet.
2. Abortive mushroom pinheads as single
mushroom fruits: If the mushrooms are
fruiting as single mushrooms and not clusters
and then dying, then the problem may be due
to that the substrate is becoming spent. If the
abortive pinheads alternate with a normal flush,
the reason could be due to strain tiredness or
that the mushroom will be accessing more
nutrients from the substrate being spent.
The solution is to continue harvesting until the
substrate is fully spent if the cultivation is for
household consumption. For commercial
cultivation the substrate should be discarded and
new substrate spawned.
3. Long stipes and small caps: This problem can
be avoided if farmer opens the windows
sufficiently enough to allow enough fresh air to
enter the MGH. Stipes move towards areas with
low carbon dioxide. If windows are not opened
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then high levels of carbon dioxide will be present
in the MGH.The stipe will waste energy and
resources by growing towards an area of low
carbon dioxide, which will initiate cap formation.
Thus the cap will be small, as most of the energy
will have been wasted.
The solution is to open the windows adequately.
4. Presence of pink or white foam after
spawning. This is due to yeast, which will be
fermenting the insufficiently pasteurized substrate.
This problem often does not persist.
The solution is to pasteurize the substrate
adequately.
5. The oyster mushroom stipes grow towards
regions with low carbon-dioxide and adequate
light. If the MGH is constructed in a way that
inadequate light enters the MGH, then the
mushroom will waste energy in developing a long
stipe exhibiting a phototrophic effect towards the
source of light.
The solution is for the farmer to make sure that
enough light enters the MGH during the fruiting
stage.
6. Differential growth rates for spawn in substrate
pasteurized in the same drum at the same time.
This is avoided by showing the oyster mushroom
farmer how to monitor the water level
during soaking and pasteurization of the
substrate.
It is important to monitor water level during
soaking and pasteurization.
Bonus: Outline of Spawn Production
Summary Section
1 Spawn production
The mushroom seed is generally referred to
as spawn (Oei, 1991). In nature, mushrooms
use spores for generative multiplication.
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These are extremely small entities that are difficult
to handle (Oei, 1991). Spores need time to
ger minate and competitor organisms may
germinate and grow faster than the spores during
that time. Using a pure culture of the desired
mycelium to start the culture is called spawning
and the pure culture is called spawn. Spawn
production is the limiting factor for mushroom
cultivation in many countries due to the enormous
capital required to setup a spawn laboratory or
plant (Oei, 1991).
Spawn production enables the exponential
increase of the mushroom mycelium required for
the production of mushrooms (Stamets, 1993).
Mushroom spawn is used to inoculate prepared
substrates, which are usually agricultural wastes
(Oei, 1991; Stamets, 1993). In most cases, cereal
grains (sorghum, millet, rice, wheat or rye) are used
as the carrier materials (Stamets, 1993; Stamets and
Chilton, 1983). The grain is not only a vehicle for
evenly distributing the mushroom mycelium, but
also a nutritional supplement.
There are two methods of inoculating
spawn, the agar-grain method and the grain-
grain method (Stamets, 1993). (a).The agar-
grain method is usually used to produce grain
masters (G1), which is spawn produced from
an agar culture (plate culture or agar slant
culture). (b). The grain-grain method is usually
used to produce second generation (G2) and
subsequent generation spawn (G 3 , G 4). For
grain-to-grain inoculations, a grain spawn
master (G1) can be used to inoculate 10 more
jars, identical in size to the grain spawn master
to produce second-generation spawn (G 2).
Each of these second-generation (G2) spawn
cultures (in bottles) can be used to inoculate
10 more jars, identical in size to the G2 bottles
(Stamets, 1993). This means a single grain
spawn master (G 1) can be used to produce
10 second generation (G2) spawn bottles and
100 third generation (G3) spawn bottles, thus
achieving the exponential increase in
mycelium required for mushroom cultivation.
It is of critical importance that the first set of
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spawn masters (G1) be absolutely pure for it may
ultimately inoculate as many as 1000 jars (G3).
Quality control in spawn making consists of
constant inspection to eliminate those units visibly
contaminated or those units exhibiting
unacceptable differences in appearance and
growth. Quality control must be done at each
of the spawn making process, from the
acquisition of grain to the usage and storage
of the spawn.
1.1 Insoluble calcium salts
These are added during cultivation of
mushrooms to raise the pH to neutrality and
thereby reducing the bacterial contamination.
The salts are also added to increase the
aeration by aggregation and to improve the
texture and porosity of the composted or
treated substrate (Bech and Rasmussen,
1968; Hayes, 1972 cited in Chiu et al, 1998).
Calcium carbonate, (CaCO 3 ) and gypsum,
(CaSO 4 . 2H 2 O) are the commonly used
insoluble calcium salts. They also help in
keeping the grain kernels separated. Calcium
sulphate slightly acidifies a substrate as
sulphuric acids evolve (Stamets, 1993).
The addition of these salts to spawn is
optional for most species including oyster
mushrooms (Pleurotus species).
1.2 Sterilisation time during spawn
production
1.3 Grain spawn preparation (summary)
Grain seeds (for example-wheat grain) are
soaked overnight. The following day they are
washed and boiled in water for 5-15 minutes
depending on the grain type and its source.
They are drained and allowed to cool. Wheat
grain is placed in a spawn container. CaCO 3
and gypsum; (1,5% each on weight basis) are
added to the grain. The grains are sterilized
in a pressure cooker or autoclave (Figures 69 to
71) for one hour at 121 oC (15psi) .The bottles
are then cooled in a sterile room, after which the
respective bottle containing grain is inoculated
with the oyster mushroom (Pleurotus species) and
left at room temperature until the substrate
appears white (Figure 72).
Table 1.2 : Sterilisation time at 15psi(121°C) in
relation to capacity of spawn container.
Spawn container Time (hours)
1
Milk bottle/ Jam jar /2
1000ml capacity 1
2000ml capacity 1 1/2
Autoclavable bag (5kg- 3 to 4
10kg)

Sterilisation time depends on the capacity of the

spawn container (Table 1.2). For a milk bottle or
jam bottle size container, (500ml) 30mins at
15psi (121°C) is sufficient. A 5kg autoclavable
bag will require 3-4 hours at 15psi (121°C) to
get all the grain sterilised.
This means that the more of grain to be
sterilised in a spawn container, the more time
required for sterilisation (Table 1.2).

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Figure 69: A regular autoclave. Figure 71: A homemade autoclave. This is very dangerous to be
made by any person. Should be made by experts in constructing
them or else they are chances that they may explode.

Figure 70: Autoclave room showing large capacity autoclaves Figure 72: Spawn stored in a cold-room.

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REFERENCES
Alexopoulos, C. J. and Mims, C. W. (1979)
Introductory Mycology. John Wiley and Sons, New
York.
Chang, S. T., and Hayes, W. A. (1978) The Biology
and Cultivation of Edible Mushrooms. Academic Press,
New York.
Chiu, S. W., Chan, Y. H., Law, S. C., Cheung, K. T.
and Moore, D. (1998) Cadmium and manganese
in contrast to calcium reduce yield and nutritional
values of the edible mushroom Pleurotus
pulmonarius. Mycological Research 102: 449-457.
Kashangura, C., Kunjeku, E. C., Chirara, T.,
Mabveni, A. and Mswaka, A. (2002) Optimising
mushroom cultivation conditions for smallholder
farmers in Zimbabwe. Biotechnology(A Publication of
the Biotechnology Trust of Zimbabwe) 5 (5): 6-12.
Masuka, A. J. and Utete, D. (1996) Overview of
mushroom production in Africa: constraints
opportunities and strategies. Keynote Paper. Regional
Workshop on Mushroom Cultivation and Mushroom
Germplasm Conservation Harare 23-27 September.
14pp.
Mswaka, A. Y. and Tagwira, M (1997) Mushroom
survey in Buhera and Wedza. A Report submitted to
the ZIMBAC Technical Committee. 38pp.
Mswaka, A. Y., Kashangura, C. and Chigogora, J.
L. (2001) Making use of locally available cellulosic
wastes: mushroom cultivation by resource poor-
farmers in Zimbabwe. Biotechnology(A Publication of
the Biotechnology Trust of Zimbabwe) 5 (2): 4 - 7.
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Muchovej, J. J., Lucia, T. M. D and Muchovej, R.
M. C. (1991) Leucaagaricus weberi sp. nov. from
a live nest of leaf-cutting ants. Mycological Research
95: 1308-1311.
Oei, P. (1991) Manual on Mushroom
Cultivation:Techniques, species and Opportunities for
Commercial Application in Developing Countries. TOOL
(Transfer of Technology for Development)
Publications, Amsterdam.
Oso, B. A. (1975) Mushrooms and the Yoruba
people of Nigeria. Mycologia 67: 311-319.
Quimio, T. H., Chang, S. T. and Royse, D. J. (1990)
Technical Guidelines for Mushroom Growing in
the Tropics: FAO Plant production and Protection Paper
106, Rome.
Ramsbottom, J. (1954) Mushrooms and Toadstools :
A study of the activities of fungi. Collins, London.
Ryvarden, L., Piearce, G. D. and Masuka, A. J.
(1994) An Introduction to the Larger Fungi of South
Central Africa. Baobab Books.200pp.
Sánchez, C. and Gonzaléz, G. V. (1996) Detection
of highly productive strains of Pleurotus ostreatus
by their tolerance to 2-deoxy-D-glucose in starch-
based media. Mycological Research 100: 455-461.
Smith, D. C. (1981) The symbiotic way of life.
Transactions of the British Mycological Scociety 77: 1-8.
Stamets, P. (1993) Growing Gourmet and Medicinal
Mushrooms. Ten Speed Press and MycomediaTM,
Berkelely.
Stamets, P. and Chilton, J. S. (1983) The Mushroom
Cultivator. Agarikon Press, Olympia, Washington.
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APPENDICES

Appendix A: reference for map in the preface of this manual

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Appendix B: formulae, determining water content of substrate and spawn rate

Spawn rate=mushroom spawn (wet weight)

substrate (dry weight)

mushroom spawn (wet weight) = spawn rate x substrate (dry wt)

The best thing to do is to weigh a dry amount of substrate, soak it overnight, then pasteurise it and weigh
it again. The percentage water excluding the inherent water content in the dry substrate will be determined
by:

Percentage(%) water = pasteurised substrate - dry substrate

pasteurised substrate

· Pasteurised substrate = dry substrate

1- % water

· Dry substrate = pasteurised substrate - ( % water x pasteurised substrate)

OR

Dry substrate = pasteurised substrate x (1- % water)

After calculating the percentage water, the pasteurised substrate is filled into a bag (cropping container).
The amount required to fill the bag is weighed. The weight of the dry substrate can then be determined
using the above formula. The weight of the mushroom spawn required can now be determined from the
spawn rate formula. This needs to be done only once for each type of substrate. After calculating the
amount of mushroom spawn required, everytime spawning is done you know you need one, two or three
handfuls of mushroom spawn for the size of bag being used.

Example of Calculations

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• % water = pasteurised substrate −dry substrate

pasteurised substrate

= (3,33−1,00) kg
3,33kg

= 0,6996
• Weight of dry substrate in = pasteurised substrate x (1− % water)
bag of known measurements

= 2,00 x (1− 0,6997)

=0,6006kg

Therefore the weight of the mushroom spawn required for a certain Inoculation rate can be determined
as follows:
For example the spawn rate is 7%

• Mushroom spawn (wet weight) = spawn rate x substrate(dry wt)

= 0.07 x 0.6006kg
=0.04204kg
=0,04204 x 1000g
=42,04g

By measuring the weight of spawn required to fill a handful, one can then know if one handful or two
handfuls are required to Inoculate the pasteurised substrate in the bag at 7%. This means, everytime the
bag with the same measurements is used and it is filled with the same substrate up to the same level, the
number of handfuls calculated is used for Inoculation with the spawn.
The recommended rate of Inoculation is 3-7% of substrate (dry weight). When using Inoculation rates
of 8-15% or greater than 15%, care must be taken of increased heat production (thermogenesis) by the
advancing mushroom mycelium which might activate growth of some molds. Thus very high Inoculation
rates must be avoided and they also contribute to wastage of spawn. When a small bag is used .The bag
is filled with the substrate and the amount of spawn (wet weight) is added for the desired Inoculation
rate. When the cropping bag becomes larger the spawning should be done so as to maximise rate of
colonisation of the substrate by a uniform and homogeneous distribution of the spawn in the substrate.

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Appendix C (prepared by Dr. A. Y. Mswaka)

Requirements for Cultivation of Button 6. Insect screens and air filters

Mushrooms
A. Infrastructure
1. Insulated mushroom house
Can be constructed using brick, concrete blocks
under corrugated iron or asbestos sheets. The
mushroom house must be insulated using suitable
materials that are non-wettable because the room
will be kept at over 90% humidity for long periods
2. Lights
Fluorescent lights must be fitted in the house
to provide light at stages when it will be
required.
3. Trays, beds or shelves
Trays that can be stacked on top of one another
can be constructed so that there will be no need
for shelves
4. Humidifiers
One humidifier will be required per room. Such
a humidifier can have an exposed fan or can
be connected to PVC or plastic tubing
ventilation systems.
5. Fans: inlet and exhaust
The air inside a mushroom house must be
controlled with precision and therefore there
is a need to fit inlet and exhaust fans capable
of at least four air exchanges per hour
Insects and air-borne contaminants must be
excluded from the growing room using the
above apparatus.
7. Composting sheds
The composting shed must have a roof of
corrugated iron or asbestos, which is at least
3.05 metres high, supported by iron bars or
wooden poles. The floor must be made of
concrete and must measure 5 x 4 m.
8. Peak heating room
This is the room where pasteurisation of
compost will be done using steam from a
boiler.
9. Thermometers
Monitoring of temperatures in the compost,
growing room and peak heating room is
absolutely essential.
10. Hygrometer
A hygrometer measures relative humidity,
which must be maintained at 80-90% in the
cropping room. Without this instrument one
cannot have any idea of the humidity available
which can lead to serious losses being incurred.
11. Steam boiler
A steam boiler supplied with the necessary
pipes and attachments will be used to supply
pressurised steam into the peak heating room
to achieve air and compost temperatures of
up to 70oC

Activity No. of Level Training

Workers
Composting 2 General required
Spawning 4 General required
Harvesting 4 General Not required
Supervision 1 Supervisor required

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B. Costs of Equipment and Materials (prices of equipment not supplied)

Qty Description Unit Price Total

10 5 ft twin fluorescent fittings
5 ULV Humidifiers MKIII 350
5 Thermometers
5 Hygrometers
1 Steam Boiler
5 Inlet and exhaust fans
5 Screen doors
200kg Agricultural lime
200kg Gypsum
200kg Spawn utilised per month
Sub Total
Sales Tax
Total
Additional Costs
1. Horse or Chicken manure
Acquisition and transport

2. Wheat straw
Acquisition and transport

3. Casing soils
If peat moss is used then it has to be purchased and fumigated.

4. Trays
Wooden trays can be manufactured and fitted on site

Dimensions

1.0 x 0.6 - 1.0 x 0.15 - 0.2 m for manual handling

3.0 x 1.2 x 0.15 - 0.2 m for machine handling

A. Manpower requirements

A total of 5 workers required.

B. Construction of 5 Mushroom Houses

To clear site, excavate topsoil, return refill and ram, cart away excess rubble, planking and strutting

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trenches. Construct slabs and screens. Brickwork. Fitting wall plates and brandering, erect asbestos
roofing, supply and fit ceiling and electrical components. Plaster walls and insulate walls and ceiling
with kaylite. Attend to the installation and fitting of steam boiler, exhaust fans, thermometers and
hygrometers as necessary.

Total Cost of Construction

GRAND TOTAL (Construction + Materials)

Each Mushroom House will carry at least 200 trays representing a total cropping area of 200 m2 per
house.

Total cropping area in 5 houses = 1 000 m2

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Appendix D:

REQUIREMENTS FOR A SPAWN LABORATORY

The laboratory is designed and built for the benefit of the mushroom mycelium. The role of the cultivator
is to launch the mycelium onto appropriate sterile substrates in the laboratory and then leave. The less
the non-essential time spent by humans in the laboratory, the better, as humans are the major factor of
contamination.
MAJOR REQUIREMENTS
1. Laminar air flow
2. Autoclave (gas or electrical)
3. Incubation room preferably controlled at 250C.
4. Inoculating room
5. External building specially designed for the purpose of spawn production
6. Mushroom cultures.
7. Refrigerator
8. Cold room (optional)
MINOR REQUIREMENTS
1. Incubation jars
2. Grain
3. Industrial alcohol (absolute)
4. Gas cylinders
5. Cotton wool
6. Inoculating needles and loops
7. Trays (rust proof) (stainless steel or coated with enamel or plastic)
8. Wire gauze sieves
9. Dishes or buckets to soak grain
10. Weighing balance (preferably analytical)
11. Gypsum (calcium sulphate)
12. Agricultural lime (calcium carbonate)
13. Water
14. Pots
15. Gas or electrical stove (e.g. two plate stove)
16. Cups or beakers
17. Oven (100-1700C) but can be more than this range.
18. Burnsen burner
19. Squirt plastic bottles
20. Aluminium foil rolls
21. Examination gloves
22. Asbestos or heat resistant gloves to remove things from the autoclave.
23. Clean lab coats
24. Soap (carbolic soap e.g. Unilever/ formerly Lever Brothers Lifebuoy)
25. Multiwipe tissue rolls
26. Petri-dishes
27. Malt extract and Potato dextrose agar media
28. Conical (Eppendorf) flasks
29. Incubator (20-300C) 66
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Appendix E

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GLOSSARY and Dictionary a substrate to encourage and enhance fruitbody

formation. It is used in button mushroom
A cultivation and not in oyster mushroom cultivation

Agar an extract from a seaweed used to solidify Compost (noun) a mixture of substrates that has
media; alternatively, gelatin may be used. Agar is undergone decomposition with the help of some
available in bar or powder form organisms

Agarics mushroom group which includes all Compost (verb) to allow a mixture of substrates,
mushrooms with true gills with the help of natural or artificially introduced
microorganisms, to undergo decomposition to
Autoclave a steam pressurized vessel used to produce a degraded but nutrient-rich mixture.
sterilize media during spawn production Button mushrooms use composted substrates
whilst oyster mushrooms use non-composted
B substrates

Bacteria microorganisms that may cause
contamination in culture work. Grain spawn and
substrates can be contaminated with bacteria.
However some bacteria are needed for the fruiting
of button mushrooms (Agaricus). The bacteria
are present in the casing soil.
Basidiomycetes all fungi which bear spores
externally upon a club-like cell known as a
basidium
Contamination any organism other than the
one desired to be cultivated
Cropping the fruiting stage of the mushroom
crop
Culture a growth of one organism for
experimental or industrial purposes
D

Basidium a unique fertile cell club like in form DFT disinfectant

in which sexual spores are produced
Basidiocarp the fruiting body of fungi that
reproduce through basidia. In oyster mushrooms
it is that which we harvest and eat.
Biological efficiency the percentage
measurement of the yield of fresh mushrooms
from the dry weight of the substrate
Dikaryotic mycelium possesses the nuclei of
both ‘sexes’ and can therefore yield fruiting bodies
Diploid a genetic condition where each cell can
undergo sexual reproduction by having a full set
of chromosomes (2N)
F

Button Stage the young button mushrooms Flush the sudden development of a lot of fruiting
which are covered with a veil. bodies which usually occurs in a rhythmic manner

C Fructification act of fruiting or fruit formation

Casing a layer of water retentive materials Fruiting production of the mushrooms

(usually soil or peat moss) applied to the surface of
Fruiting body an organized aggregation of myce-
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or with the organism) used for inoculating. In mush-

room cultivation it is the spawn.
lium containing the spores, in agarics the mushroom
itself, composed of the cap, stipe and gills where the L
spores are borne
Lux the amount of illumination received by a
G surface one metre from 1 foot candle equal to 1
lumen/square meter
Germinate to produce a germ tube from a M
spore, which will continue to grow and form
hyphae Meiosis the process of reduction division by
which a single cell with a double (diploid) nucleus
Gills the tissues or folds underneath the subdivides into four cells, with one single
mushroom cap which bear the spores (see page 9) (haploid) nucleus apiece

Gypsum calcium sulphate, a buffer used in MGH mushroom growing house

spawn making to keep grain kernels separated.
Mushroom a fleshy fungus that erects a body
H of tissue in which sexual spores are produced and
from which they are distributed
Hetero different
Mycelium network or mass of hyphae
Heterothallic a species that requires another
compatible organism for sexual reproduction Mycology study of fungi

Heterokaryotic having genetically different Mycophile a person who loves mushrooms

nuclei in the same protoplast or mycelium
Mycorrhizal showing a symbiotic relationship
Homo same between a mushroom mycelium and the roots of
a tree. A symbiotic relationship between fungi and
Homokaryotic individual whose nuclei are plants
genetically alike
N
Hymenium the layer of basidia or spore-
bearing cells on the gills Nucleus the central part of a cell containing
genetic information. The headquarters of the cell
Hypha individual filaments of a mycelium were all instructions come from

I P

Incubation the period after inoculation during Parasitic living at the expense of another, usually
which the organism grows causing harm

Inoculate to transfer an organism into a Pasteurisation a heat treatment applied to

substrate, spawning is a process of inoculating substrate to destroy some of the organisms. Not
the mushroom into the substrate all the organisms are killed (compare with steriliza-
tion). In mushroom cultivation achieved by steam
Inoculum the substance (usually the organism itself (12-24 hours) or boiling (1-2 hours).

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Spore the true seed of the mushroom which is able

to germinate and reproduce
Petri Dish a cylindrical glass or plastic dish with
an overlapping cover used for growing
Stipe the stalk of the mushroom
microorganisms in a laboratory
Sterilisation the process of completely
pH a measure of how acid a substance is. Pure
eliminating all organisms within the substrate or ma-
water has a pH of 7.0. A higher pH is alkaline –a
terial. Spawn always has to be sterile.
lower pH is acidic
Strain a group of individuals within a species
phototropic growing towards light
showing some common observable features or
characteristics different from the others.
Pinhead a term used to describe a very young
Equivalent to ‘race’ or ‘variety’ in plants
mushroom that is almost the size of the head of a
pin
Substrate the material, usually organic, on which
mushrooms grow
R
T
RDF resource-disadvantaged farmer
Thermogenesis the natural and spontaneous
RDFs resource-disadvantaged farmers
escalation of temperature in substances due to
metabolic heat released as fungi, bacteria and
Relative Humidity the amount of moisture in the
other microorganisms flourish
air compared with the maximum amount that the air
could hold at the same temperature, expressed as a
Top-spawning placing spawn as a layer on the
percentage
top of the substrate
S
V
Saprophyte an organism which lives on dead
Variety In mushrooms it is called the strains
organic matter
Veil a tissue covering mushrooms as they develop.
Spawn mushroom mycelium growing on a
Does not occur in all the mushrooms. Oyster mush-
substrtate which is used as the planting material
rooms do not have a veil, but button mushrooms
(inoculum) in mushroom cultivation
have a veil.
Spawn-run the period after spawning until the
CONTACT DETAILS (2003)
substrate is fully colonized by the mushroom myce-
lium. In oyster mushroom cultivation this is when the
bag appears white throughout. This marks that the Biological Sciences Department, University of
spawn-run period is over. Zimbabwe, P.O. Box MP167 Mt.Pleasant,
Harare, Zimbabwe. Tel (263-04)-303211 ext
Species a biologically discrete group of 1442 /6, Fax (263-04)-333407.
individuals which are cross-fertile, and give rise
to fertile progeny
2
Biotechnology Research Institute(BRI),
Spent substrate the remaining substrate when Scientific and Industrial Research and
the bag can be squeezed drastically and the bag Development Centre (SIRDC), 1574 Alpes Rd,
has become very soft. 70
Hatcliffe, Harare, Zimbabwe
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