CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 GENERAL

Light weight Fly Ash blocks are made of fly ash, Quarry dust, cement and vermiculite.
These can be extensively used in all building constructional activities similar to that of common
normal fly ash blocks. These light weight fly ash blocks are comparatively lighter in weight and
stronger than normal fly ash blocks. Since fly ash is being accumulated as waste material in large
quantity near thermal power plants and creating serious environmental pollution problems, its
utilization as main raw material in the manufacture of blocks will not only create ample
opportunities for its proper and useful disposal but also help in environmental pollution control
to a greater extent in the surrounding areas of power plants. The excellent engineering property
and durability of fly ash block enlarges its scope for application in building construction and
development of infrastructure, construction of pavements, dams, tanks, under waterworks, canal
lining and irrigation work etc. Enormous quantities of fly ash are available in and around thermal
power stations in all the states. The demand of blocks could be met by establishing small units
near thermal power stations and to meet the local demand with less transportation costs.

There is a general exodus of rural population to the cities with the rapid industrialization
in developing countries. The infrastructure to support these cities, such as buildings for housing
and industry, mass transit for moving people and goods, and facilities for handling water and
sewage will require large amounts of construction materials. Enhanced construction activities,
shortage of conventional building materials and abundantly available industrial wastes have
promoted the development of new building materials. The rapid increase in the capacity of
thermal power generation in India has resulted in the production of a huge quantity of fly ash,
which is approximately 50 million tons per year. The prevailing disposal methods are not free
from environmental pollution and ecological imbalance. Large stretches of scarce land, which
can be used for shelter, agriculture or some other productive purposes, are being wasted for
disposal of fly ash.

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1.2 FLY ASH MATERIAL

Fly ash is one of the numerous substances that cause air, water and Fossil pollution,
disrupt ecological cycles and set off environmental hazards. The combustion of powdered coal in
thermal power plants produces fly ash. The high temperature of burning coal turns the clay
minerals present in the coal powder into fused fine particles mainly comprising aluminium
silicate. Fly ash produced thus possesses both ceramic and pozzolanic properties. When
pulverised coal is burnt to generate heat, the residue contains 80 per cent fly ash and 20 per cent
bottom ash. The ash is carried away by flue gas collected at economiser, air pre-heater and ESP
hoppers. Clinker type ash collected in the water-impounded hopper below the boilers is called
bottom ash. The World Bank has cautioned India that by 2015, disposal of coal ash would require
1000 square kilometres or one square metre of land per person. Since coal currently accounts for
70 per cent of power production in the country, the Bank has highlighted the need for new and
innovative methods for reducing impacts on the environment. The process of coal combustion
results in fly ash. The problem with fly ash lies in the fact that not only does its disposal require
large quantities of land, water, and energy, its fine particles, if not managed well, by virtue of
their weightlessness, can become airborne. Such a huge quantity does pose challenging
problems, in the form of land usage, health hazards, and environmental dangers. Both in
disposal, as well as in utilization, utmost care has to be taken, to safeguard the interest of human
life, wild life, and environment.

1.2.1 Availability of Fly ash in India

 Over 75% of the total installed power generation is coal-based

 230 - 250 million MT coal is being used every year

 High ash contents varying from 30 to 50%

 More than 110 million MT of ash generated every year

 Ash generation likely to reach 170 million MT by 2010

 Presently 65,000 acres of land occupied by ash ponds

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  Presently as per the Ministry of Environment & Forest Figures, 30% of Ash is being used
in Fillings, embankments, construction, block & tiles, etc.

Fig 1.1 Fly ash

1.2.2 Availability of Fly ash in Tamil Nadu

Tamil Nadu is the fourth largest State of the country. It has a population of 62.11 million,
about 6.05 per cent of the total Indian population, and 30 administrative districts. Agriculture is
the mainstay of the economy, with most of the population dependent upon it for their livelihood.
Nevertheless, Tamil Nadu is among the most industrialized States and ranks next to Maharashtra
in terms of the contribution made by the manufacturing sector to net state domestic product. Per
capita income was below the national average during the 1980s but crossed the national average
since the 1990s. Therefore thermal power stations are under great pressure to find useful
applications of fly ash. The technology utilizing fly ash in high volume fly ash concrete can
provide an avenue for utilization of fly ash on a bulk scale. There are four major coal based
thermal power plants in the state with a capacity of around 2200 MW.

1.3 QUARRY DUST

Quarry dust is rock particles. When huge rocks brake into small is used for construction
from quarries. It is like sand but mostly grey in colour and properties are similar with river sand.

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 Today, we also use rocks to make the very important things on which we depend. Just
about everything we make or build can be traced back to rocks. Rock is one of our most
abundant natural resources and quarries provide rock products including crushed rock, sand,
gravel, clay and building (or dimension) stone.

Quarrying refers to the method of digging and processing rock or sand and gravel.
Mining is similar in some ways to quarrying, but mining usually refers to digging for metal
minerals or coal. Quarries are also usually smaller than mines and much nearer to our towns and
cities where we use most of the rock materials they provide. When quarrying has finished, the
site is rehabilitated. Many old quarries are used for entirely different purposes such as landfill
and recycling centres, nature conservation and residential development.

1.4 VERMICULITE MATERIAL

Vermiculite is a naturally-occurring mineral composed of shiny flakes, resembling mica.

When heated to a high temperature, flakes of vermiculite expand as much as 8-30 times their
original size. The expanded vermiculite is a light-weight, fire-resistant, and odourless material
and has been used in numerous products, including insulation for attics and walls. Sizes of
vermiculite products range from very fine particles to large (coarse) pieces nearly an inch long.

Fig.1.2 Vermiculite

Vermiculite is a unique, naturally occurring, inert laminar mineral that finds use in many
construction, industrial, home, agricultural and garden products and systems. Chemically a

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hydrated magnesium aluminum silicate, vermiculite exfoliates (expands) when heated to form
ultra lightweight aggregate. This product is non-combustible, compressible, highly absorbent and
non-reactive and it may also have high cation exchange capacity.

Exfoliation occurs when vermiculite's interlayer water is transformed into steam. The
pressure of the steam forces the silicate layers in the mineral apart and the flake forms an
elongated concertina-like particle up to 30 times its original thickness

1.4.1 History

Vermiculite and its unique properties were known as early as 1824, when Thomas H.
Webb experimented with it in Worcester, Massachusetts. It was Webb who gave the mineral its
fanciful name because he thought the long strands looked like a mass of small worms.
Vermiculite was regarded as not much more than a scientific curiosity until the early 1900s when
more practical uses were sought. The first commercial mining effort occurred in 1915 in
Colorado. The material was sold as tung ash, but did not find sufficient buyers, and the venture
failed. The first successful vermiculite mine was started by the Zonolite Company in Libby,
Montana, in 1923. The mine continued to operate until 1990.

The largest vermiculite mining operation in the world is located in the Phalabowra (also
sometimes spelled Palabora) district of the Republic of South Africa. Other countries producing
significant amounts of vermiculite include the United States, China, Russia, Brazil, Japan,
Zimbabwe, and Australia.

In 1999, there were three active vermiculite mining operations in the United States, two
in South Carolina and one in Virginia, which shipped concentrated vermiculite ore to exfoliation
plants located throughout the country. In addition to using concentrated vermiculite from
domestic mining operations, these plants also imported about 77,000 tons (70,000 metric tons) of
concentrated vermiculite from foreign sources—mostly South Africa.

1.4.2 Raw Materials

Technically, vermiculite encompasses a large group of hydrated laminar magnesium-

aluminium-iron silicates, which resemble mica. There are two keys to the unique properties of

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vermiculite. The first is its laminar (or layered) crystalline structure, which provides the hinged
plates that make the material expand or unfold in a linear manner, like an accordion. The second
is the fact that it contains trapped water, which flashes into steam when heated to force the layers
open. There are a great many naturally occurring vermiculite minerals and soils, and their
identification often requires sophisticated scientific analysis.

One of the most common forms of vermiculite is generally known as commercial

vermiculite. This is the form that is mined and processed for various end uses. It is derived from
rocks containing large crystals of the minerals biotite and iron-bearing phlogopite. As these rocks
are exposed to the weather, they start to decompose, allowing water to enter and react with the
various chemicals present. As the decomposition and chemical reactions proceed, vermiculite is
formed.

A typical chemical analysis of commercial vermiculite shows it contains 38-46% silicon

oxide (SiO2 ), 16-35% magnesium oxide (MgO), 10-16% aluminium oxide (Al 2 O 3 ), 8-16%
water, plus lesser amounts of several other chemicals.

When commercial vermiculite flakes are heated and expanded, they undergo a colour
change that depends on the chemicals present and the temperature of the furnace. The resulting
expanded vermiculite granules are usually a gold-brown colour with a bulk density of about 4-10
lb/cu ft (64-160 kg/cu m), depending on the size of the granules.

1.4.3 Manufacturing Process of Vermiculite

The manufacturing process used to produce commercial expanded vermiculite consists of

two separate operations. The mining and concentrating operations that produce raw vermiculite
flakes are conducted at one location. The exfoliation and classifying operations that produce
various sizes of lightweight, expanded vermiculite granules for use in other products are
conducted in another location. Sometimes these two locations can be half a world apart.

There are many different methods used in both of these operations. The exact methods
vary from mine to mine and plant to plant. Here is a typical manufacturing process used to
produce commercial expanded vermiculite.

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Step 1: Rocks containing vermiculite are dug from a huge open pit in the ground. The soil on top
of the rocks, called the overburden, is removed with power shovels or earth scrapers. The
exposed rock layers are then drilled with large pneumatic or hydraulic drills, and the holes are
filled with explosive charges. When all personnel and equipment have been moved out of the
area, the explosive charges are detonated.

Step 2: The resulting heap of loose rocks are scooped up with power shovels and dumped into
trucks or train cars, which carry the rocks to a nearby processing plant.

Step 3: The rocks are fed through a series of crushers and screens to reduce their size. The
vermiculite is separated from the surrounding rocks and dirt using various wet or dry techniques
depending on the particular mining operation and local environmental regulations. These
techniques may include froth flotation, gravity separations, winnowing, or electrostatic
separation. In each of these techniques, either the vermiculite itself or the other materials are
trapped and separated from each other until the resulting vermiculite flakes are about 90% pure
by weight.

Step 4: The vermiculite flakes extracted from various sections of the mine may be blended
together before further processing to ensure uniformity of the product.

Step 5: The separated vermiculite flakes are sorted by size. This may be done with a series of
screens or it may be done in a long enclosed wind . In the wind tunnel, the flakes are fed into the
upstream end of the tunnel and are carried along the length of the tunnel by the flow of air. The
larger flakes, being heavier, fall out of the air stream first and are caught in a hopper at the
bottom of the tunnel. This separation by weight continues down the length of the tunnel until all
the flakes are caught in hoppers. By controlling the length of each hopper opening and the
velocity of the air, the flakes can be sorted into various sizes, or grades, ranging from about 0.63
in (16 mm) down to about 0.02 in (0.8 mm) in diameter. If the particular vermiculite being mined
tends to form a high percentage of large flakes, the flakes may be slightly crushed to delaminate
them and reduce their size. This process is called debooking and allows the flakes to be quickly
heated during the exfoliation process.

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Step 6: The graded vermiculite flakes are dumped into large plastic bags or other containers for
shipping to various exfoliation Plants. If the flakes are to be shipped to plants overseas, they are
loaded in bulk into the holds of ships for transport.

Step 7: The vermiculite flakes are transported by truck or train from the port or mine to the
exfoliation plant, where they are offloaded and stored in a covered area to protect them from
contaminants and the weather. It is important to prevent the flakes from absorbing moisture.
Otherwise, it will take too much energy to heat the flakes to the required temperature to make
them expand.

Fig 1.3 Diagram Depicting the Processing of Vermiculite.

Step 8: The flakes are loaded onto a conveyor belt and lifted to the top of a 20-25 ft (6.1-7.6 m)
high vertical furnace lined with ceramic bricks. As the flakes fall down the length of the furnace,
they pass through one or more burners fired by natural gas. The temperature inside the furnace
reaches approximately 1,000-1,500°F (540-810°C), which is sufficient to make the trapped water

8
in the flakes flash to steam and cause the flakes to expand into worm-like particles. At the bottom
of the furnace, the particles slide down an inclined plane. This delays the exit of the particles
from the furnace and allows the vermiculite to be heated further in order to reach full expansion.
Other exfoliation plants may use different furnace configurations, but the general sequence of
operations is similar.

Step 9: The hot, expanded vermiculite particles are then drawn up a vertical tube by a vacuum.
Any small stones or other solid contaminants are too heavy to be carried upward by the gentle
flow of air and fall out the bottom of the tube. The air flow also acts to cool the hot vermiculite.

Step 10: If a customer or application requires fine particles, the vermiculite may be ground and
screened to produce a specific size or range of sizes before it is packaged for shipping. In some
exfoliation plants, the larger particles may also be screened or sorted into various sizes,
depending on the final use.

Step 11: The sorted, or classified, vermiculite particles are then deposited into storage hoppers,
where they are dispensed into individual 4-6 cu ft (0.10-0.15 cu m) paper or plastic bags for
retail sales or placed into larger 50 cu ft (1.3 cu m) bags for use in various commercial
applications. The bags are sealed, labeled, and moved to a warehouse for shipping.

1.4.4 Health Aspects

Vermiculite ore deposits may also contain a variety of other materials such as mica,
quartz, and feldspar. These deposits vary from one mining location to another. During the
manufacturing process, some of these materials may pose potential health hazards to workers. In
the United States and many other countries, these hazards are defined in Material Safety Data
Sheets (MSDS), which identify the hazard and provide information on the safe handling and
disposal of the material.

One of the most common health hazards in processing vermiculite comes from quartz,
which is crystalline silica. It is usually only present as larger particles, but when it is ground into
finer particles, the dust can be inhaled and cause a lung disease called silicosis. As a result, strict
dust control and personal protection measures are incorporated into those areas of the

9
vermiculite-processing operation where the materials are ground, sifted, and bagged. At the
consumer level, exposure to silica dust is negligible and does not pose a health hazard.

In some vermiculite ore deposits, there may also be certain amounts of various forms of
asbestos. None of the ore bodies currently used by major vermiculite producers pose an asbestos
health risk to workers when the material is processed in accordance with the applicable MSDS.
In August 2000, the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) issued a report
regarding vermiculite sold as a soil amendment. In the report, they concluded there was little or
no risk to consumers from asbestos.

1.4.5 The future

Although there are several other materials that may be used as a substitute for vermiculite,
vermiculite's extremely low density and thermal conductivity continue to make it attractive for
many applications. In 1999, it was estimated there were approximately 55 million tons (50
million metric tons) of vermiculite reserves in the world.

1.4.6 Fire Protection uses of Vermiculite

Because of its low density and good insulation properties exfoliated vermiculite is used in
building boards. These boards are often used as a 'core' in fire doors, to build fire barriers, to
encase or construct ductwork and to protect steel building elements from the effects of fire Low
pressure spray applied commercial and industrial structural steel fire protection products use
exfoliated vermiculite to improve the application characteristics and to impart a high degree of
fire resistance Exfoliated vermiculite is very efficient at retaining moisture, and in the event of a
fire this turns to steam which has a cooling effect on the steel substrate and thus delays its
temperature rise. Vermiculite concentrate is also used in the production of fire resistant gypsum
plasterboard.

1.5 AIM
 To maximize reuse of fly ash waste.
 To reduce the weight of fly ash brick by adding additives.
 To reduce time, cost and increase the speed of construction.

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1.6 OBJECTIVES
 To manufacture the sustainable product that results in reducing environmental
impacts, integrates efficient use of resource, resists earthquakes, is locally responsive
and promotes greater equity.
 To reuse the industrial waste and also to minimize it.
 To facilitate localized production and material usage.
 To suit individual needs and aesthetics

1.7 APPLICATIONS – LIGHTWEIGHT BLOCKS

The finer grades of exfoliated vermiculite can be used with Portland cement and other
aggregates, placing aids and water to produce roof and floor concrete screeds or concretes which
have the benefit of being both lightweight and insulating. Roof screeds containing vermiculite
are often used in conjunction with other insulation materials such as polystyrene board to form a
total roofing system

When combined with bituminous binder exfoliated vermiculite can be used as a dry, lightweight
roof screed which has the advantages of low thermal conductivity, low moisture content and ease
of placement by pouring from the bag and then tamping.

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 CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW

Vijayabharathi.P ,Aravindhkumar.J , Joshua Amarnath.D and Jayaprakash.H “Eco

Friendly (Green Building) Material In Construction” Department of chemical engineering,
Sathyabama University, Jeppiar Nagar, CHENNAI-6000119(T.N) INDIA International
Journal of Engineering Research and Applications (IJERA) ISSN: 2248-9622 Vol. 3, Issue
2, March -April 2013, pp.1270-1272 1270 .
In this journal various proportions of quarry dust, fly ash and cement were made to find out
compressive strength of concrete. It will not only reduce the cost of concrete but at the same time
will save large quantity of natural sand. It will also reduce the pollution created due to the
disposal of the quarry dust on valuable fertile land. Manufactured sand achieving mean target
strength at 14th days itself. The workability of concrete mixes decreased with an increased in
percent of manufactured sand as partial replacement of sand. Concrete with this replacement can
attain compressive strength more than the target mean strength Test result indicates that
manufactured sand can be used effectively. Manufactured sand due to their angular surface
texture increase the concrete strength thus reflecting good bond strength. The results are
indicative of the satisfactory performance of fly ash bricks as load bearing elements. This type of
bricks uses 100% fly ash without mixing with clay and shale. It therefore provides a large venue
for the disposal of fly ash in very efficient useful and profitable way. The mechanical properties
of fly ash bricks have exceeded those of the standard load bearing clay bricks. Notable among
these properties are the compressive strength and the tensile strength compressive strength was
25% better than good quality clay bricks. Tensile strength was nearly three

Barry E Scheetz* and Russell Earle t “Utilization of fly ash” Current Opinion in Solid
State & Materials Science 1998,Volume 3-510-520 .
In this journal greatest utilization, by far, for fly ash is as an additive to cement and concrete,
and in 1996, 49% (8.02) of all re-utilized fly ash was used for this purpose. Exhaustive research
has been devoted to the subject of fly ash admixture concrete and the properties that it exhibits.
Due to the overwhelming information that is available on the topic of fly ash addition to
concrete, it is beyond the scope of this paper to do anything more than highlight some of the

12
available research. Research has found that fly ash used as an additive to Portland cement has a
number of positive effects on the resulting concrete. These positive effects are detailed below. A
decrease in water demand, decreasing the water: cement ratio. An improvement of the particle
size packing (due to the smaller size of the fly ash particles, in comparison to the aggregate)
decreases the air entrainment in the concrete. Although research has indicated that decreased air
entrainment adversely affects the initial freeze thaw durability of the concrete, if the fly ash
concrete is allowed to fully cure the effects are minimal and the concrete mix will perform
satisfactorily. A savings of Portland cement material needed for concrete, resulting in a decrease
in project cost Fly ash increases resistance to corrosion and ingress of corrosive liquids by
reacting with calcium hydroxide in the cement to become a stable, cementitious compound of
calcium silicate hydrate. The original calcium hydroxide was soluble, whereas the calcium
silicate hydrate is less soluble in the fly ash concrete, thereby reducing the possibility of calcium
hydroxide leaching from the concrete.

Sarkara.A, K.K Ruma Rano,A, Mishra.B. “Particle size distribution profile of some Indian
flyash—a comparative study to assess their possible uses” Sinha Fuel Processing
Technology 86 (2005) 1221– 1238.
In this study, particle size of fly ash is determined to measure the efficiency and possibility of
work areas to be determined. For this purpose, particle size distribution profiles of the as
received fly ash, the size fractionated ones as well as the magnetic and nonmagnetic components,
were determined. From the foregoing discussions it is apparent that fly ash obtained from
Farakka Super Thermal Power Plant (FSTPP) has much superior PSDPs than the others.
Dishergarh Power Supply Corporation (DPS) produces ash which has poor PSDPs while fly
ashes from BTPP have intermediate PSDPs. From the utilisation potential point of view, fly
ashes from FSTPP have better applications concerning construction industry. Size fractionation
using sieve no. 350 yields an undersized (for FSTPP), which is likely to be very useful for the
above mentioned purpose (Fraction E). Fly ashes from DPS may not have any potential for use
in the development of Construction material, but because of their large particle size and porous
nature may have Use as adsorbents.

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Kaniraj.V, Havanagi.R. “Compressive strength of cement stabilized fly ash-soil mixtures”
Cement and Concrete Research 29 (1999) 673–677.

In this paper, Cement, varying from 3–9% was added to stabilize the fly ash-soil mixtures.
Cylindrical samples were prepared at optimum moisture content and maximum dry density and
were cured for different duration. Unconfined compression tests were conducted on these
samples. Correlations for unconfined compressive strength and secant modulus as Functions of
curing time, Fly ash content, and Cement content have been established. The data were
analyzed with other correlations recommended in literature and comparisons between the
correlations have been made. Correlations for water content as functions of curing time and
cement content have also been established.

Jerzy Sobczak.K, Robert M. Purgert “The use of fly ash as an aggregate for foundry sand
mold and core production” June 1, 2001 thru April 30, 2002.

In this paper Coal is the major fuel burned for power production in the United States. In
1998, power production generated nearly 45 million tons of fly ash and over 10 million tons of
bottom ash as part of the coal combustion byproduct waste stream. This material is composed of
non-crystalline oxides of silicon (SiO2), aluminum (Al2O3), iron (Fe2O3), calcium (CaO) and
minor quantities of other metal oxides (magnesium, sodium, titanium, potassium). The precise
composition of fly and bottom ash varies depending on the source of the coal being burned. The
physical properties of the ash vary with the type and uniformity of the coal, the operating
parameters of the power plant and the collection methods employed to separate the ash from the
combustion stream. Although some portion of this ash is used in beneficial applications primarily
in the construction industry, significant portions are disposed of in landfills.

Cultrone.G, Sebastián .E, “Fly ash addition in clayey materials to improve the quality of
solid bricks” Construction and Building. Materials 23 (2009) 1178–1184.

In this paper , technical quality of two compositionally different groups of solid bricks fired
between 800 and 1000 _C was evaluated. Five weight percentage of fly ash was added to both
groups and they were compared with similar bricks with no added fly ash. The textures of the
bricks with fly ash were very similar to the textures of those without it, except that the samples

14
with the additive contained spherical fly ash particles with diameters ranging from 0.1 to 10 lm.
Materials 23 (2009) 1178–1184 These particles led to a reduction in the density of the bricks and
a substantial improvement in their durability, with less decay being caused by salt crystallization
in the pores. This is because fly ash causes a reduction in the number of micropores, the pores
that make porous materials most vulnerable to salt-induced decay. Use of this additive could
have practical implications as a means of recycling and for achieving cost savings in brick
production.

Evaggelia Petavratzi, Scott Wilson “Sustainable Utilisation Of Quarry By-Products”

International Journal of Engineering Research and Applications ( 2009) vol -3 1123-1324 .
This study investigated the potential use of quarry fines in unbound and bound applications.
Quarry fines may find their most economically viable use in quarry restoration. Certain types of
quarry fines may be suitable for a variety of end uses with an associated profit for the aggregate
producer. Literature review has shown that quarry fines are suitable for use in bulk fill
applications (for example, backfilling, infilling, general fill), in road pavement construction, in
remediation and for the production of artificial soils and compost. To some extent, quarry fines
are currently supplied into these end uses depending on the availability of aggregate resources
within geographical proximity in the market. Other end uses such as fillers in paper and paint or
the use of quarry fines in Portland cement have been trialled or have been used on single
occasions. The inclusion of quarry fines in innovative products (such as, green roofs, cob
building) have not been implemented as yet. Bound applications reviewed in this report include
various construction products such as concrete, heavy ceramics, and manufactured aggregates, in
flow able fills, hydraulic mixtures and asphalt. Trials have been undertaken for all these
applications and some of them are in use in individual cases.

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 CHAPTER 3

EXPERIMENTAL WORK

3.1 MATERIALS AND METHODS

The following material are used for making light weight fly ash blocks specimens ,

 Cement
 Fly ash
 Water
 Quarry Dust
 Vermiculite

3.1.1 Cement

Cement is a well-known building material and has occupied an indispensable place in

construction works. Cement is an extremely ground material having adhesive and cohesive
properties, which provide a binding medium for the discrete ingredients. It is obtained by
burning together, in a definite proportion, a mixture material of naturally occurring argillaceous
like limestone or chalk and calcareous materials like shale or clay to a partial fusion at high
temperature of 13000c to 15000c. The product obtained by burning, cooled and ground to the
required fineness to produce materials known as cement.

3.1.2 Fly ash

Large scale use of ash as a fill material can be applied where Fly ash replaces another
material and is therefore in direct competition with that material. Fly ash itself is used by the
power generating company producing the fly ash to improve the economics of the overall
disposal of surplus fly ash. Filling fly ash into trucks 5 Fly ash disposal is combined with the
rehabilitation and reclamation of land areas desecrated by other operations. Fills can be
constructed as structural fills where the fly ash is placed in thin lifts and compacted. Structural
fly ash fills are relatively incompressible and are suitable for the support of buildings and other
structures. Non-structural fly ash fill can be used for the development of parks, parking lots,
playgrounds and other similar lightly loaded facilities. One of the most significant characteristics
of fly ash in its use as a fill material is its strength. Well compacted fly ash has strength

16
comparable to or greater than soils normally used in earth fill operations. In addition, fly ash
possesses self-hardening properties which can result in the development of shear strengths. The
addition of cement can induce hardening in bituminous fly ash which may not self-harden alone.
Significant increases in shear strength can be realized in relatively short periods of time and it
can be very useful in the design of embankments.

3.1.3 Water

The quality of the water is important because impurities in it may interfere with the
setting of the cement, may adversely affect the strength of the concrete or cause straining of its
surface, and may also lead to corrosion of the reinforcement. For this reasons the suitability of
water mixing and curing purposes should be considered.

Water for mixing and curing shall be clean and free from injurious amounts of oils, acids,
alkalis, salts, sugar, organic materials they may be deleterious to concrete or steel permissible
limits for solids is based on IS456-1978.

3.1.4 Quarry Dust

The quarry rock dust can be an economic alternative to the river sand. Quarry or other
non-voluble waste material after the extraction & processing of rocks. All the sand particles
should have higher crushing strength. The surface texture of the particles should be smooth. The
edges of the particles should be grounded. The ratio of fines below 600 microns in sand should
not be less than 30%. There should not be any organic impurities. Silt in sand should not be more
than 2%, for crushed sand. In manufactured sand the permissible limit of fines below 75 microns
shall not exceed 15%.

3.1.5 Vermiculite
Vermiculite is a hydrous, silicate minerals that is classified as a phyllosilicate and that
expands greatly when heated. Roof and floor screeds and insulating concrete. Lightweight roof
screed which has the advantages of low thermal conductivity, low moisture content and ease of
placement by pouring from the bag and then tamping. As a lightweight aggregates for plaster
proprietary concrete compounds, fire stop mortar and cementitious spray fireproofing.

3.2 PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS

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3.2.1 Specific gravity of Cement

Specific gravity is defined as the ratio of the weight of a given volume of a substance to
the weight of an equal volume of some reference substance, or, equivalently, the ratio of the
masses of equal volumes of the two substances. Specific bottle is used determining the specific
gravity of cement.

The empty specific gravity bottle is weighed as W 1 gram. The bottle is filled is filled one
third quantity of cement and weighed as W2 grams. And then the bottle is filled with kerosene
and stirred well to remove the air voids and then weighed as W 3 grams. Clean the bottle and
filled kerosene up to the neck portion of the bottle and weighed as W 4 grams. Specific gravity of
the cement was calculated from the following formula.

Specific gravity of cement =

Observed values for specific gravity of cement is given in the following Table 3.1

Table 3.1 Specific Gravity of Cement

Sl.No Description Trial 1 Trial 2

1 Weight of empty bottle W1 (g) 49 49

2 Weight of bottle + Cement W2 (g) 76.5 77

3 Weight of bottle + Cement + Kerosene W3 (g) 146 146

4 Weight of bottle + Kerosene W4 (g) 127 126.5

5 Specific Gravity 3.23 3.19

Average Specific gravity of cement = 3.21

3.2.2 Fineness of Cement

18
 Fineness of cement indicates the amount of grindings done on the cement. It has an
important bearing on the rate of hydration. 100 grams of cement is taken in a standard IS Sieve
No 90µ. The air which get lump is broken down and the material is sieved continuously
for 15 minutes using sieve shaker. The residue left on the sieve is weighed.

Percentage of residue left on the sieve = (Weight retained / Weight taken) × 100

Observed values for fineness of cement is given in the following Table 3.2

Table 3.2 Fineness of Cement

Sl.No Observation Sample 1 Sample 2 Sample 3

1 Weight of sample taken 100 100 100
2 Weight of material retained after sieving 2 0.7 0.85
3 % of residue left on the Sieve No 90µ 2 0.7 0.85

3.2.3 Standard Consistency

Using Vicat apparatus the standard consistency of cement was found. Consistency is a
general term to indicate the degree of fluidity or the degree of mobility.

400gms of cement is taken and a paste with a weight quantity of water (say 24%) is prepared.
The paste is filled in the mould within 3 to 5 minutes. The mould is shook well to exit air. A
standard plunger of 10mm diameter and 50mm long is attached to the Vicat Apparatus and
brought down to touch the surface of the paste in the test block and is quickly released to sink
into the paste by its own weight. The depth of penetration of the plunger is noted. The second
trail is conducted by adding 25% of water and the depth of penetration is noted. Similarly,
numbers of trails were conducted, till the plunger penetrates to a depth of 33mm to 35mm. The
particular percentage of water which allows the plunger to penetrate to a depth of 33mm to
35mm is the percentage of water required to produce the cement paste of standard consistency
(P).Needle used: Plunger size 10mm diameter and 50mm length.

Observed values for standard consistency of cement is given in the following Table 3.3

Table 3.3 Standard Consistency

19
 Trial Weight of cement % of water Amount of Pointer reading from
No (grams) added water (ml) bottom(mm)
1 400 24 96 38
2 400 25 100 36
3 400 26 104 33
4 400 28 112 13
5 400 29 116 11
6 400 30 120 4
Standard consistency = 30%

3.2.4 Specific gravity of Fly ash

Observed values for specific gravity of fly ash is given in the following Table 3.4

Table 3.4 Specific Gravity of Fly ash

Sl.No Description Trial 1 Trial 2

1 Weight of empty bottle W1 (g) 49 49

2 Weight of bottle + Fly ash W2 (g) 76 76.5

3 Weight of bottle + Fly ash + Kerosene W3 (g) 146 146

4 Weight of bottle + Kerosene W4 (g) 128 127

5 Specific Gravity 3.24 3.23

Average Specific gravity of cement = 3.23

3.2.5 Fineness of Fly ash

Fineness of fly ash indicates the amount of grindings done on the fly ash. It has an
important bearing on the rate of hydration. 100 grams of fly ash is taken in a standard IS Sieve
No 90µ. The air which get lump is broken down and the material is sieved continuously
for 15 minutes using sieve shaker. The residue left on the sieve is weighed.

20
Percentage of residue left on the sieve = (Weight retained / Weight taken) × 100

Observed values for fineness of fly ash is given in the following Table 3.5

Table 3.5 Fineness of Fly ash

Sl.No Observation Sample 1 Sample 2 Sample 3

1 Weight of sample taken 100 100 100
2 Weight of material retained after sieving 2 0.7 0.85
3 % of residue left on the Sieve No 90µ 2 0.7 0.85

3.2.6 Specific gravity of Quarry Dust

Observed values for specific gravity of quarry dust is given in the following Table 3.6

Table 3.6 Specific Gravity of Quarry dust

Sl.No Description Trial 1 Trial 2

1 Weight of empty bottle W1 (g) 0.468 0.468

2 Weight of bottle + Quarry dust W2 (g) 0.838 0.854

3 Weight of bottle + Quarry dust + Water W3 (g) 1.460 1.480

4 Weight of bottle + Water W4 (g) 1.240 1.240

5 Specific Gravity 2.47 2.84

Average Specific gravity of cement = 2.56

3.2.7 Fineness Modulus for Quarry Dust

The sample be brought to an air-dry condition before weighing and sieving this may
be achieved either by drying at room temperature or heating at a temperature of 100ºc to
110ºc.The air-dry sample shall be weighed and sieved successively on the appropriate sieves
starting with the largest size sieve. If sieving is carried out with rest of sieves on a machine not
less than 10 minutes sieving will be required for each test.

Observed values for fineness of quarry dust is given in the following Table 3.7

21
Weight of sample taken = 1Kg

Table 3.7 Fineness Modulus for Quarry dust

Sl.No IS Sieve Weight %of Weight % of Weight Cumulative % of

Size retained(g) retained passing Weight retained
1 4.75mm 28 2.8 97.20 2.80
2 2.36mm 0 0 100 2.80
3 1.18mm 312 31.2 68.80 34
4 600µ 84 8.4 91.60 42.40
5 300 228 22.8 77.20 65.20
6 150 206 20.6 79.40 85.80
7 Pan 136 13.6 86.40 100

Fineness modulus for quarry dust = 2.70

3.2.8 Specific gravity of Vermiculite

Observed values for specific gravity of vermiculite is given in the following Table 3.8

Table 3.8 Specific Gravity of Vermiculite

Sl.No Description Trial 1 Trial 2

1 Weight of empty bottle W1 (g) 0.468 0.468

2 Weight of bottle + Vermiculite W2 (g) 0.721 0.736

3 Weight of bottle + Vermiculite + Water W3 (g) 1.390 1.398

4 Weight of bottle + Water W4 (g) 1.240 1.240

5 Specific Gravity 2.46 2.43

22
 Average Specific gravity of vermiculite = 2.445

3.2.9 Moisture content for Vermiculite

The empty china dish is taken and weighed as W 1 grams. Some amount of sample is
placed in the china dish and weighed as W 2 grams. The above sample is placed in an oven for 24
hours. After 24 hours the dry sample is weighed as W 3 grams. The moisture content is calculated
from the following formula

Moisture content =

Observed values for moisture content of vermiculite is given in the following Table 3.9

Table 3.9 Moisture Content for vermiculite

Sl.No Description Trial 1 Trial 2

1 Weight of china dish W1 (g) 12 12
2 Weight of china dish + Wet Sample W2 g 42.2 43
3 Weight of china dish + Dry Sample W3(g) 41 41.6
4 % of Moisture content 4.2% 4.7%

Percentage of moisture content = 4.45%

3.3 CASTING OF SPECIMENS

3.3.1 Mix Ratio for Blocks

23
Mixing ratios for fly ash block preparation by adding cement, fly ash and quarry dust is given in
the following Table 3.10 and Table 3.11.

Table 3.10 Mix Ratio (a)

Trial Cement In % Fly Ash In % Quarry Dust In %

1 0 60 40

2 05 60 35

3 10 60 30

4 15 60 25

5 20 60 20

6 25 60 15

 I shaped 6 numbers of paver blocks (220 mm x 120 mm x 65 mm) are casted to compute
the 7th day compressive strength for various mixes are below table.
 I shaped 6 numbers of paver blocks (220 mm x 120 mm x 65 mm) are casted to compute
the 7th day compressive strength for various mixes are below table.

Table 3.11 Mix Ratio (b)

Trial Cement In % Fly Ash In % Quarry Dust In %

1 0 60 40

2 05 60 35

3 10 60 30

4 15 60 25

5 20 60 20

6 25 60 15

 I shaped 3 numbers of paver blocks (220 mm x 120 mm x 65 mm) are casted to compute
the 14th day compressive strength for the mix (60% fly ash, 35% quarry dust, 5%
cement).
24
  I shaped 3 numbers of paver blocks (220 mm x 120 mm x 65 mm) are casted to compute
the 21st day compressive strength for the mix (60% fly ash, 35% quarry dust, 5% cement).
 I shaped 3 numbers of paver blocks (220 mm x 120 mm x 65 mm) are casted to compute
the 28th day compressive strength for (60% fly ash, 35% quarry dust, 5% cement).
 I shaped 3 numbers of paver blocks (220 mm x 120 mm x 65 mm) are casted to compute
the 14th day compressive strength for the mix (60% fly ash, 35% vermiculite, 5%
cement).
 I shaped 3 numbers of paver blocks (220 mm x 120 mm x 65 mm) are casted to compute
the 21st day compressive strength for the mix (60% fly ash, 35% vermiculite, 5%
cement).
 I shaped 3 numbers of paver blocks (220 mm x 120 mm x 65 mm) are casted to compute
the 28th day compressive strength for the mix (60% fly ash, 35% vermiculite, 5%
cement).

3.3.2 Preparation of Block

Preparation of test specimen includes the following procedure

Fig 3.1 Preparation of the Paver block

1. Weighing of sample materials fly ash, cement, vermiculite and quarry dust.
2. As per water cement ratio the cement, fly-ash & quarry dust mixed by using pan-mixer.
3. After 10 min mixing we get an mortar to prepare a brick, witn in a room temperature.
4. The mortar is put on a block making machine to under the pressure of 40 tonnes.
5. The blocks are made in a wet condition so we can dry the blocks in normal temperature
in 24 hrs.
6. After 24 hrs the blocks are curing by water for 7 days and 21 days in a curing chamber.

25
 Fig 3.2: Paver Block Drying and Curing Process
3.4 TESTS FOR BLOCK

 Compressive Strength
 Water Absorption Test

3.4.1 Compressive Strength Test

Compressive strength is defined as the capacity of material to withstand axially directed

pushing forces.

The casted specimens are tested after curing of 7, 14, 21 and 28 days. For compressive
strength test the cubes are casted with dimension of 220 mm x 120 mm x 65 mm. The test is
carried out at 7, 14, 21 and 28 days in compression testing machine and the applying load is
noted (The load carrying capacity of the specimen). Then the compressive strength is calculated
and tabulated. Table shows the results of compressive strength at 7, 14, 21 and 28 days.

3.4.2 Water Absorption Test

Cool the specimen to room temperature and find its dry weight (W1). Specimen warm
to touch shall not be used for the purpose.
Immerse completely dried specimen in clean water for 24 hours, 7, 14, 21 and 28
days.
Remove the specimen and wipe out any traces of water with damp cloth and weigh the
specimen (W 2 ). Complete the weighing within 3 minutes after the specimen has been
removed from water.
Calculate water absorption percent by weight using the formula.
CHAPTER - 4

26
 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

4.1 SPECIFICATION OF PAVER BLOCK (TRADITIONAL)

In this Chapter, the test results are presented and discussed. The test results cover the effect
of various parameters on the compressive strength. The parameters include

 Width 120 mm

 Height 60 mm

 Length 220 mm

 Weight 3.2 kg to 3.5kg

Fig 4.1 Fly ash Paver block

4.2 PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS

4.2.1 Properties of cement

Specific Gravity = 3.10

Fineness of Cement = 1.425%

Initial Setting Time = 31 minutes

Final Setting Time = 502 minutes

27
4.2.2 Properties of fly ash

Specific Gravity = 3.23

Fineness Modulus = 2.65

Water Absorption (%) = 1.235

Moisture Content = NIL

4.2.3 Properties of vermiculite

Shape = Accordion-shaped granule

Bulk density = 738 kg/cu.m

pH (in water) = 6.5

Specific Gravity = 2.45

Moisture Content = 4.5%

Combustibility = Non-combustible

4.2.4 Properties of quarry dust

Specific Gravity = 2.56

Fineness modulus = 2.70

Absorption = 1.2 to 1.5%

Bulk density = 1790kg/m3

Moisture Content = NIL

28
4.3 COMPRESSION TEST RESULT:

4.3.1 Mixing proportion for paver blocks by using quarry dust

Observed values of compressive strength of fly ash block is described in the Table 4.1 with the
mix ratios of 60% fly ash, and varying proportion of cement and quarry dust with 7 days curing.

Table 4.1 Fly ash (60 %) mixes with cement and quarry dust (7 days)

Trial Cement in % Fly ash in Quarry Dust in % Compressive Weight

% Strength N/mm2
Kg

1 0 60 40 2.21 3.614

2 60 35 8.60 3.515
05

3 10 60 30 6.78 3.874

4 15 60 25 5.54 3.125

5 20 60 20 3.25 3.025

6 25 60 15 4.25 3.25

4.3.2 Mixing proportion for paver blocks by using vermiculite

29
 Fig 4.2 Vermiculite Paver Block

Observed values of compressive strength of fly ash block is described in the Table 4.2 with the
mix ratios of 60% fly ash, and varying proportion of cement and vermiculite with 7 days curing.

Table 4.2 Fly ash (60 %) Mixes with Cement and Vermiculite (7 days)

Trial Cement in % Fly ash in Vermiculite in % Compressive Weight

% Strength N/mm2
Kg

1 0 60 40 2.45 2.624

2 05 60 35 6.97 2.415

3 10 60 30 5.08 2.874

4 15 60 25 4.58 2.925

5 20 60 20 3.51 2.852

6 25 60 15 3.05 2.945

30
Fig 4.3 (60%) Fly ash mix with Cement and Quarry dust

Fig 4.4 (60%) Fly ash mix with Cement and Vermiculite

31
Observed values of compressive strength of fly ash block is given in the below table 4.3 with the
curing time of 7, 14, 21 and 28 days curing.

Table 4.3 Compressive of Material using Quarry Dust

S.NO Curing Time Area(mm2) Weight Breaking Compressive

Kg load(KN) strength
N/mm2
1 7th 25200 3.515 215 8.65
2 14th 25200 3.647 260 10.31
3 21th 25200 3.556 365 14.28
4 28th 25200 3.447 455 18.14

Fig 4.5 Proportion of material using quarry dust

Observed values of compressive strength of fly ash block is given in the below table 4.3 with the
curing time of 7, 14, 21 and 28 days curing.

32
 Table 4.4 Proportion of material using vermiculite

S.NO Curing Time Area(mm2) Weight Breaking Compressive

Kg load(KN) strength
N/mm2
1 7th 25200 2.415 175 6.97
2 14th 25200 2.587 235 9.24
3 21th 25200 2.681 286 11.34
4 28th 25200 2.592 375 14.88

Fig 4.6 Proportion of material using vermiculite

33
 Fig 4.7 Comparison Of Compressive Strength at Various Days

4.4 WATER ABSORPTION TEST

4.4.1 Fly ash with cement and quarry dust

In this table 4.5 60% fly ash, 35%Quarry Dust, 5% Cement and Water absorption time:
24 hours, the specimens tested on 7th,14th,21th,and 28th day.

Table 4.5 Fly ash with cement and quarry dust

S.NO Water Absorption Initial weight(kg) Final weight(kg) Water absorption

days W1 W2 %

1 7th 3.315 3.598 6.62

2 14th 3.397 3.647 6.35
3 21th 3.015 3.257 7.01
4 28th 3.354 3.546 6.96

4.4.1 Fly ash with cement and vermiculite

34
 In this table 4.5 60% fly ash, 35% Quarry Dust, 5% Cement and Water absorption time:
24 hours, the specimens tested on 7th,14th,21th,and 28th day.

Table 4.6 Fly ash with cement and vermiculite

S.NO Water Absorption Initial weight(kg) Final weight(kg) Water absorption

days W1 W2 %

1 7th 2.517 2.739 8.80

2 14th 2.614 2.829 8.24
3 21th 2.475 2.697 7.91
4 28th 2.484 2.705 7.86

CHAPTER 5

CONCLUSION

35
From the above investigation, the points were concluded,

 In this project, the various mix proportion are used in fly ash paver blocks to get
economic and high compressive strength. The proportion of 60% fly ash with cement
5%and vermiculite 35% gives an economic as well as good strength.
 Our project main concept is to reduce the self weight the blocks
Normal Blocks Weight is 3.556 Kg
Vermiculite Blocks Weight is 2.518 Kg
 Compressive strength testing result is
Normal Blocks is 18.14 N/mm2
Vermiculite Blocks is 14.88 N/mm2

 Light weight Fly ash blocks are one of the best alternatives to the normal fly ash block as
the results of an experimental investigation, the compressive strength is more or less
equal to the normal fly ash paver blocks.

 These blocks are lighter in self weight and water absorption is less than when compared
with normal fly ash paver blocks..

 By using these light weight fly ash paver blocks can reduce the material cost and
increase the strength.

 Since it is lighter in weight, transportation cost and burden of workers gets reduce.

 From these results the block construction are to simplify the construction, increase the
speed of construction, environmentally friendly and energy efficiency.

REFERENCES:

1. Behera.B and Mishra.M.K / International Conference on Chemical, Civil and

Environment engineering (ICCEE'2012) March 24-25, 2012 Dubai.

2. Burnt Clay Fly Ash Buliding Bricks—Specification - IS 1489(part 1) :1991

36
3. Cultrone.G, Sebastián.E / Const. and Bldg. Materials 23 (2009) 1178–1184

4. Fly Ash-Lime Bricks—Specification - IS 13757 :1993

5. Kaniraj.S.R, Havanagi.V.G,/Cement and Concrete Research 29 (1999) 673–677

6. Karasawa, A., Suda, S., Naito, H. and Fujiwara, H. /International Conference on Concrete
Block Paving 12th – 15th October 2003.

7. Lingling.X / Construction and Building Materials 19 (2005) 243–247 IS 12894 : 2002

8. Marinkovic.S, Kostic-Pulek.A / Journal of Physics and Chemistry of Solids 68 (2007)

1121–1125

9. Nazar.M.E, Sinha.S.R / International Journal of Fatigue 29 (2007) 953–961

10. Portland-Pozzolana Cement—Specification - IS:1905-1987

11. Professor Jerzy Sobczak and Mr. Robert M. Purgert / June 1, 2001 thru April 30, 2002.

12. Pulverized Fuel Ash-Lime Bricks –Specification - IS 12894 :1990

13. Shen.P / Construction and Building Materials 21 (2007) 1480–1485

14. Turgut.P / Powder Technology 204 (2010) 42–47

37