Skeletal System

The adult human skeletal system consists of 206 bones, as well as a network of tendons,
ligaments and cartilage that connects them. The skeletal system performs vital functions —
support, movement, protection, blood cell production, calcium storage and endocrine regulation
— that enable us to survive.
Long Bones
A long bone is one that is cylindrical in shape, being longer than it is wide. Keep in mind,
however, that the term describes the shape of a bone, not its size. Long bones are found in the
upper limbs (humerus, ulna, radius) and lower limbs (femur, tibia, fibula), as well as in the hands
(metacarpals, phalanges) and feet (metatarsals, phalanges). Long bones function as rigid bars that
move when muscles contract.

Short Bones
A short bone is one that is cube-like in shape, being approximately equal in length, width, and
thickness. The only short bones in the human skeleton are in the carpals of the wrists and the
tarsals of the ankles. Short bones provide stability and support as well as some limited motion.
Flat Bones
The term flat bone is somewhat of a misnomer because, although a flat bone is typically thin, it is
also often curved. Examples include the cranial (skull) bones, the scapulae (shoulder blades), the
sternum (breastbone), and the ribs. Flat bones serve as points of attachment for muscles and
often protect internal organs.

Irregular Bones
An irregular bone is one that does not have any easily characterized shape and therefore does not
fit any other classification. These bones tend to have more complex shapes, like the vertebrae
that support the spinal cord and protect it from compressive forces. Many bones of the face,
particularly the jaw bones that contain teeth, are classified as irregular bones.

Sesamoid Bones
A sesamoid bone is a small, round bone that forms in tendons (sesamo- = “sesame” and -oid =
“resembling”). Tendons are a dense connective tissue that connect bones to muscles and
sesamoid bones form where a great deal of pressure is generated in a joint. The sesamoid bones
protect tendons by helping them overcome excessive forces but also allow tendons and their
attached muscles to be more effective. Sesamoid bones vary in number and placement from
person to person but are typically found in tendons associated with the feet, hands, and knees.
The patellae (singular = patella) are the only sesamoid bones found in common with every
person.

THE ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY OF THE FACIAL BONES OF THE SKULL

The facial bones of the skull form the upper and lower jaws, the nose, nasal cavity and nasal
septum, and the orbit. The facial bones include 14 bones, with six paired bones and two unpaired
bones. The paired bones are the maxilla, palatine, zygomatic, nasal, lacrimal, and inferior nasal
conchae bones. The unpaired bones are the vomer and mandible bones. Although classified with
the brain-case bones, the ethmoid bone also contributes to the nasal septum and the walls of the
nasal cavity and orbit
Functions:

 All the muscles for the facial skeleton including the most important group that gives the
distinct facial expressions are attached to the facial bones.
 They hold the upper teeth in place.
 Each maxilla contains a sinus, which is a small hole in the bone that helps drain fluid
from the nasal cavity.
 Provide a frame on which the soft tissues of the face can act to facilitate eating, facial
expression, breathing, and speech.
 Serves to protect the brain; house and protect the sense organs of smell, sight, and taste.
Palatine Bone Anatomy

Palatine Bones are facial bones that are located between the palatine processes of the maxillary
bones and the pterygoid processes of the sphenoid bones.

Maxilla Bone Anatomy

The two maxilla or maxillary bones (maxillae, plural) form the upper jaw (L., mala, jaw). Each
maxilla has four processes (frontal, zygomatic, alveolar, and palatine)

Nasal, Vomer, and Inferior Turbinate (Concha) Bones Anatomy

Compared to the maxilla and mandible, the other facial bones are relatively small and have few
distinctive markings.

Hyoid Bone Anatomy

The hyoid bone is a small, U-shaped bone that is located between the mandible and larynx and
anterior to the third cervical vertebra

Mandible Bone Anatomy

The mandible is the facial bone that forms the lower jaw and contains the lower teeth.

Zygomatic Bone Anatomy

The zygomatic bones are two facial bones that form the cheeks and the lateral walls of the orbits.
Paranasal Sinuses

The paranasal sinuses are cavities of various sizes that function to secrete mucous into the nasal
cavity, lighten the skull, and resonate the voice.

Lacrimal Bone Anatomy

The lacrimal bone is a small facial bone that forms a portion of the anterior medial wall of the
orbit. The lacrimal fossa is a depression along the junction of lacrimal bone that holds the
lacrimal sac. The orbital plate forms a portion of the medial wall of the orbit posterior to lacrimal
fossa.

VASCULATURE OF THE HEAD

Blood is carried from your heart to the rest of your body through a complex network of arteries,
arterioles, and capillaries. Blood is returned to your heart through venules and veins.
The one-way vascular system carries blood to all parts of your body. This process of blood flow
within your body is called circulation. Arteries carry oxygen-rich blood away from your heart, and
veins carry oxygen-poor blood back to your heart.
In pulmonary circulation, though, the roles are switched. It is the pulmonary artery that brings
oxygen-poor blood into your lungs and the pulmonary vein that brings oxygen-rich blood back to
your heart.
In the diagrams, the vessels that carry oxygen-rich blood are colored red, and the vessels that
carry oxygen-poor blood are colored blue.
Tortora, G.J. & Derrickson, B. 2010. Essentials of Anatomy and Physiology. 8th Ed. Asia: John
Wiley & Sons (Asia) Ptc Ltd, pg118-160.