A

SEMINAR REPORT
ON

“VERNACULAR BUILDINGS IN UTTARAKHAND AND HIMACHAL”

Submitted by

KRISHAN YADAV
M.TECH. (STRUCTURAL ENGINEERING)

Under the guidance of

Dr. SANJAY CHIKERMANE

Assistant Professor

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

INDIAN INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY ROORKEE
ROORKEE – 247 667, UTTARAKHAND, INDIA
APRIL 2018
 CANDIDATE’S DECLARATION

I hereby declare that the work which is being presented in this seminar report entitled,
“VERNACULAR BUILDINGS IN UTTARAKHAND AND HIMACHAL” submitted in
the Department of Civil Engineering, IIT Roorkee, is an authentic record of my own work under
the guidance of Dr. SANJAY CHIKERMANE, Assistant Professor, Department of Civil
Engineering, IIT Roorkee, Roorkee.

Dated: 12 April, 2018 KRISHAN YADAV

CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that the above statement made by the candidate is correct to the best of my
knowledge.

Dr. SANJAY CHIKERMANE

Assistant Professor

Department of Civil Engineering

IIT Roorkee

1
 ABSTRACT

Uttarakhand and Himachal are recognized as being highly vulnerable to earthquakes. In the
past the region has been jolted by great earthquakes. Communities residing in areas often
affected by earthquakes were quick to understand the fundamental premise of earthquake
safety, that the key to avoiding loss of human lives lies in ensuring safe construction. This
fundamental understanding led to the evolution of innovative practices for minimizing human
losses emanating from structural collapse.

Vernacular Architecture is the result experience, experimentation and accumulated knowledge

of our ancestors which have the all earthquake safety measures. But there is not much work is
done to understand this indigenous construction technique. This report summarize the work
from different literatures to give better understanding about these vernaculars.

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 CONTENTS

CANDIDATE’S DECLARATION ........................................................................................... 1

ABSTRACT ............................................................................................................................... 2
CONTENTS ............................................................................................................................... 3
LIST OF FIGURES ................................................................................................................. 4
1. INTRODUCTION......................................................................................................... 5
2. OBJECTIVE ................................................................................................................. 7
3. LITERATURE REVIEW ........................................................................................... 8
3.1 THATHARA HOUSES ........................................................................................ 8
3.2 KOTI BANAL ARCHITECTURE .................................................................. 14
3.3 KATH-KI-KUNI .................................................................................................. 20
3.4 DHAJJI DEWARI ............................................................................................... 23
3.5 SEISMIC PERFORMANCE OF DHAJJI DEWARI ...................................... 26
4. SUMMARY ................................................................................................................. 28
5. CONCLUDING REMARKS ..................................................................................... 29
REFERENCES ................................................................................................................... 30

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 LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1 Three-story Thathara house. 9

Figure 2 Hollow box-like frame (Thola) for Thathara construction. 12
Figure 3 Thola with stone and planks laid together 12
Figure 4 Thola with hand-packed stones. 12
Figure 5 A twin-Thola 12
Figure 6 Connection principle of the Thola: (a) Joint detail of two Thatharas using wooden
pins, (b) mortise and tenon joints. 13
Figure 7 Stones with mud mortar as infill material. 13
Figure 8 Wooden planks as infill in the upper storey - village Bharmour, Chamba 13
Figure 9 Dhajji-Dewari partitions, diagonal bracings made of wood. 13
Figure 10 Stone foundation rising above ground level. 13
Figure 11 Five-storied structure of Koti Banal architecture constructed 880 ± 90 yrs BP. 14
Figure 12 Housed and nailed joints used for fixing the wooden components of the 19
Figure 13 Vertical members (‘shear keys’) attached to theouter façade to prevent 19
Figure 14 Overhead view of kath-ki-kuni walls. This is a schematic representation of
interconnection between parallel and perpendicular/alternating wooden beams. 21
Figure 15 Corner construction detail of kath ki-kuni style housing.. 22
Figure 16 Shiva temple in Jungi village, Mandi district, H.P. 22
Figure 17 A temple in Karsog area of Mandi district, H.P. 22
Figure 18 Four and five story residential buildings in the Indian Kashmir city 24
Figure 19 Timber, stone laid in concrete. 25
Figure 20 Exploded view of full dhajji dewari model and model details. 26
Figure 21 Final building condition after earthquake time histories 27

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 1. INTRODUCTION

A defining feature of indigenous rural houses around the world is that they are nonengineered
structures, constructed by native artisans who primarily use locally available materials like
mud, stone, and wood. These indigenous and traditional construction practices evolved in the
context of local culture, environmental constraints and empirical knowledge. Over several
centuries of human settlement in the Himalayas, indigenous housing throughout the region has
a variety of adaptations and reinforcements which help in resisting damage during earthquakes.
Despite being located in the seismically highly vulnerable region, western-central Himalayas
shows an elaborate tradition of constructing multi-storeyed houses. Local dialects have unique
words for identifying four different floors of a building. This suggests common occurrence of
multi-storeyed structures in the region. Rajgarhi area, Uttarkashi District has a large number of
intact multi-storeyed traditional houses with marked antiquity and distinct construction style.
Detailed investigations suggest that the region had evolved a distinct and elaborate earthquake-
safe construction style as early as 1000 yrs. BP. The western-central Himalayas have several
indigenous types of construction which have earthquake-resistant or aseismic features. In
Himachal Pradesh, timber, slate, stone, mud and bamboo are used in traditional architecture.
The kath-ki-kuni style of housing in central Himachal Pradesh makes highly effective use of
timber beams as binding elements, and the pherols or koti banal of Garhwal’s Uttarkashi region
have similar architecture. Another type of construction found in Kashmir and Himachal
Pradesh is Dhajji-diwari, or structures with diagonal wooden bracing in the walls, which are
effective helping the building resist shear and tension during earthquakes.

Vernacular architecture of Himalayas exhibits elaborate procedures for site selection, preparing
the platform for raising the structure, as also for detailing the entire structure constructed on
principles somewhat akin to that of framed structures of the present times. Locally and then
abundantly available wood was judiciously used in these structures. The structural detailing
suggests that those responsible for designing these buildings had a fairly good idea about the
forces likely to act upon the structure during an earthquake.

However, the western-central Himalaya’s native heritage of aseismic construction techniques

is being rapidly lost, replaced by reinforced cement concrete (RCC) construction. This decline
is due to a variety of factors, including changing cultural values, demographic and economic
transitions, and rural development programmes. While RCC construction can be highly

5
earthquake-resistant, the manner in which this new technology has proliferated in the western-
central Himalayas has created vulnerability to earthquake disasters and poses many questions
of the sustainability and appropriate use of newer technologies. Indigenous construction
techniques still have much to offer in terms of their inherent sustainability and appropriateness.

Gosain and Ayra note that during the 1967 Kashmir earthquake buildings of three to five stories
traditional buildings survived while modern RC buildings collapsed. According to Arya, one
of the most important reasons for this was the damping of the motion of the building caused by
the friction induced in the masonry of the Taq walls when it begins to crack and move along
the mortar joints. Internal damping may be in the order of 20%, compared to 4% in uncracked
modern masonry (brick with Portland cement mortar) and 6%-7% after the masonry has
cracked. In Himalayan region, rigidity carries the potential for destruction. The more rigid a
building is, the stronger it must be in order to avoid fracture. Because the primitive materials
and means of construction used in Himalayan region did not provide strength, flexibility was
essential.

This report presents prominent examples of this architecture in Himachal Pradesh and
Garhwal, along with a discussion of their aseismic qualities, and some observations on
sustainability and appropriate technology aspects.

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 2. OBJECTIVE

Vernacular architecture imbibes almost all earthquake safety measures and they pass the test
of time by standing firm despite subjected to number of earthquakes. But there is limited
research to validate the performance of vernacular construction. A better understanding of the
structural behaviour of vernacular buildings is needed as a first step towards providing
confidence in this technology, and to identify those aspects which are critical to the reliable
performance of the building system. Some analysis showed that it is possible to model the
behaviour of traditional dhajji dewari buildings, and that form of construction can safely
withstand forces associated with earthquakes in high seismic regions when built properly.
Other structures like koti banal, kath-ki-kunni, thathara can also be modelled and their
performance can be checked using response spectrum, linear time history and pushover
analysis. By doing so, their potential weaknesses and further research areas are identified. As
it is important to develop evidence-based construction guidelines for this type of structures and
exploit the traditional knowledge so that we can improve the performance of modern
construction.

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 3. LITERATURE REVIEW

In Himachal Pradesh and Uttarakhand different type of indigenous built structures are there
like Kath-ki-kunni, Thathara houses, Dhajji Dewari, Taq and koti banal etc. In this review some
of the structures are discussed their structural features, construction techniques, and seismic
performance.

3.1 THATHARA HOUSES

The addressed building type has been identified in Himachal Pradesh, a northern state in India.
Nowadays, this type of construction practice can be seen for houses and temples, however,
earlier photographs suggest that the same style was adopted to build palaces, bridges as well
as various other structures. The construction style is named “Thathara” as this term is locally
used for wooden planks that make the vertical load-carrying members (columns) locally known
as Thola(s). Tholas (a peculiar combination of timber and stone) and wood are primarily used
for the vertical and horizontal frame elements, respectively. The region where this building
typology is found is characterized by cold climate and witnesses heavy rainfall during the rainy
season (from June to July) as well as snowfalls in winter (from October to March). These
effects have been considered well in the construction style, like e.g. small openings, a verandah
to take sun but prevent from rain and snow, wooden and mud interiors which are good
insulators and keep the interiors warm, sloping roofs with adequate projections as well as other
features. Being located in the Himalayan region, the area has experienced numerous strong
earthquakes and this construction technique has eventually evolved to resist seismic action.

General Information

Buildings of this construction type can be found in Ravi river valley in Chamba district of the
state Himachal Pradesh in Northern India. Though very few Thathara houses can be seen in the
town of Chamba itself, which is also the district headquarter, a fair number of these houses can
be found in the villages. In fact, more or less all villages in the remote parts of this region have
Thathara-style houses. Thathara style is a traditional construction technique being practiced
from ancient times. Some structures can be dated back 400 years, but owing to ban on tree
falling, this technique is outdated now due to the scarcity of wood. Moreover, people nowadays
are more fascinated by building houses with new materials which require lesser maintenance

8
and are more flexible in terms of planning. This type of housing construction is commonly
found in rural, sub-urban and urban areas. This construction type has been in practice for more
than 400 years. Currently, this type of construction is not being built.

Figure 1 Three-story Thathara house.

Structural System

The structural system of this building typology consists of 'Tholas' and wooden beams. Tholas,
the vertical load-carrying members (columns) which are made of stones and Thatharas (the
planks, logs or pieces of wood), are constructed in two different ways: Method I - Unfinished
wooden planks (Thatharas), generally of the size 500 x 350 x 100 mm, are placed on the edge
of two sides at a distance of 400 mm. In the alternate course, planks are placed across. Same
arrangement is repeated till about 2.5 m (height of storey) thus forming a hollow box-like
structure (Figure 2). This hollow structure is then hand-packed with stones without any mortar.
The Tholas thus formed have an unfinished appearance (Figure 3). Method II - Tholas are
constructed by laying wooden planks (Thatharas) and stones at the same time over a single
course. There is no mortar but stones are tightly packed in courses with stone chips. The

9
Thatharas are also hewn in such a case. Hence, the overall Thola has a very neat finish (Figure
4). Variant: Twin-Thatharas are also seen in some of the structures (Figure 5). These have two
planks in one direction (i.e. along the wall) but three on the other side in the alternate course
(i.e. across the width of the wall). Connection between Thatharas: The Thatharas have small
holes with wooden pins inserted into them (Figure 6a) so that the planks do not move and retain
their position. Another way is having mortise and tenon joints between two planks placed in
alternate course (Figure 6b).

Gravity Load-Resisting System

The main load-bearing system of this building typology consists of 'Tholas' and wooden beams.
Tholas are provided at corners and/or ridges of the building and support the horizontal beams
which in turn support the inclined rafters and purlins. A positive connection between Tholas
and beams has generally not been observed and the beams are simply kept over the Tholas.

Lateral Load-Resisting System

The resistance to lateral loads is provided by wooden framing or in-plane action of walls.
Although these walls are generally made of poor quality material, such as adobe or random
rubble, the large cross-sectional area with minimal openings provides adequate lateral
resistance if built and maintained well. The lateral load-resisting feature of these buildings are
horizontal members (ties) provided at several intermediate levels between the floors to support
the walls in out-of-plane action (Figures 7-8). This type of construction known as Kath-Kunni
has been traditionally used in the northern states Himachal Pradesh and Uttarakhand and has
been presented in the WHE report #150 (Rautela et al. 2009). In some cases, Dhajji-Diwari
construction (Figure 9), see WHE report #146; (Hiçyılmaz et al. 2012) is also used for partition,
in which diagonal braces are used in wooden frame. In the uppermost storey, generally wooden
frames and planks are used as partition material to reduce the seismic weight of the building.
The original construction practice involving use of wooden planks for roof covering was also
motivated from the concept of reducing mass at the top. In verandahs, where larger openings
are required, wooden frames are used in place of masonry walls. These wooden frames result
in reduced seismic mass and better lateral load resistance.

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Foundation

Foundation is entirely made up of dry stones. Trench of 1 to 1.5m depth, depending upon the
type of soil, and 500 mm in width is dug and courses of stones are laid generally without any
mortar, which rises up to 500 mm above ground level (Figure 10).

Seismic Vulnerability

The vulnerability of these buildings may vary from case to case, mostly dependent on the type
and quality of infill material between the Tholas. Generally, no reports on the behavior of these
buildings during past earthquakes are available. It may only be suspected that they behaved
fairly well as a number of larger earthquakes have happened in the past.

11
Figure 2 Hollow box-like frame (Thola) for
Thathara construction. Figure 4 Thola with hand-packed stones.

Figure 3 Thola with stone and planks laid

together Figure 5 A twin-Thola

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Figure 6 Connection principle of the Thola: (a) Joint detail of two Thatharas using wooden
pins, (b) mortise and tenon joints.

Figure 7 Stones with mud mortar as infill

material. Figure 9 Dhajji-Dewari partitions, diagonal
bracings made of wood.

Figure 8 Wooden planks as infill in the upper

storey - village Bharmour, Chamba district
(H.P.). Figure 10 Stone foundation rising above
ground level.
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 3.2 KOTI BANAL ARCHITECTURE

Despite being located in a high seismic risk area, a region in the Himalayan states of
Uttarakhand and Himachal Pradesh (Northern India) exhibits an elaborate tradition of
constructing multistoried houses. In the Rajgarhi area of Uttarkashi district (Uttarakhand) a
large number of intact buildings of the distinct construction type known as Koti Banal can be
found. Koti Banal is the name of a village in the Yamuna Valley which represents the
traditional knowledge and understanding of earthquake effects on buildings and their
earthquake resistant design. Investigations suggest that the region had evolved this elaborate
and magnificent earthquake-safe construction style as early as 1,000 years before present. This
architectural style further demonstrates the existence of elaborate construction procedures
based on principles somewhat akin to that of blockhouse construction. Many features of these
buildings are considered as the basics of modern earthquake-resistant design. Generally, ornate
multistoried houses with abundant use of wooden beams are characteristic of Rajgarhi area.
For buildings of the Koti Banal architecture, locally available building materials such as long
thick wooden logs, stones and slates were judiciously used. The height of these structures varies
between 7 and 12 m above the base platform which consists of dry stones.

The performance of these structures has also been corroborated by eye-witness accounts during
the 1991 Uttarkashi earthquake which had a magnitude of mb 6.6 in an epicentral distance of
30 km during which many new buildings collapsed while these structures did not suffer any
damage. The reasons that these buildings
outlived so many centuries mainly lie in
their structural configuration which clearly
demonstrate that their builders already had
the idea of dynamic earthquake actions,
particularly out-of-plane failure of masonry
walls. The buildings are further
characterized by a number of advantageous
design features such as regular plan shapes,
the sensible use of locally available
building materials, the integration of
wooden beams over the total height of the
building as well as small openings and the Figure 11 Five-storied structure of Koti Banal
arrangement of shear walls. architecture constructed 880 ± 90 yrs BP.

14
Construction and Structural details

Ornate, multi-storeyed houses with abundant use of wooden beams are characteristic of the
Rajgari area. Similarity in the architectural principles and structural details suggest their
possible evolution under a single architectural school referred to as Koti Banal architecture,
after the five-storied structure observed in Koti Banal village (Figure 11). The wooden frame
of the entire structure was finalized first and then the intervening voids were filled with stones,
which is similar to modern-day framed construction. This has resulted in a mixed structure with
two types of load-sharing mechanisms:
(i) vertical load taken care of by 1.5 ft thick walls running in all the four directions, and
(ii) horizontal load taken care of by interconnected wooden joists running in both directions.
On the two sides of the structure, wooden beams are provided from the outside. These beams
inserted from above were part of a special provision to enhance the seismic performance. The
multi-storeyed traditional structures are constructed on raised and elaborate stone-filled solid
platform which is the continuation of the filled-in foundation trench above the ground. The
height of the platform varies between 2 and 4 m above the ground and dry-stone masonry is
used for its construction. A massive solid platform at the base of the structure helps in keeping
the centre of gravity and centre of mass in close proximity and near the ground. This minimizes
the overturning effect of the particularly tall structure during seismic loading. The structures
are observed to be constructed on a simple rectangular plan with the length and width varying
between 4 and 8 m. The ratio of the two sides of the structures is observed to vary between 1.1
and 1.4. This is in keeping with the provisions of the building codes that suggest that the
building should have a simple rectangular plan and should be symmetrical both with respect to
mass and rigidity, so as to minimize torsion and stress concentration.

The height of these structures varies between 7 and 12 m above the platform and is restricted
to double the length of the shorter side (length or width). All the houses have a single, small
entry and relatively small openings which is in accordance with the provisions of the building
codes. Strong wooden empanelment is provided around all the openings to compensate for the
loss of strength. The internal architecture is split into staircase section and living section.

The walls are raised by placing double wooden logs horizontally on the edge of the two parallel
sides of the platform. The thickness of the walls is determined by the width of the logs (70 cm).
The other two walls are raised with well-dressed flat stones to the level of the logs placed on
the other two sides. The walls are further raised to 30 cm by placing heavy, flat, dressed stones

15
upon the wooden logs on the two sides and by placing another pair of wooden logs upon the
stones on the other two opposite sides.

The four walls of the structure are thus raised using the wooden logs and dressed-up flat stones,
alternately. The structure is further reinforced with the help of wooden beams fixed alternately,
that run from the middle of the walls on one side to the other, intersecting at the centre. This
arrangement divides the structure into four parts and provides for joists supporting the
floorboards in each floor of the building. On the fourth and the fifth floors a balcony is
constructed with a wooden railing running around on all the four sides. Specially designed
wooden ladders provided access to the different floors, with the roof being laid with slates.

Seismic Stability

The Koti Banal architecture is woven around judicious use of wood, which as a structural
material offers distinct advantage in earthquake performance over other materials. Wood being
both strong and lightweight, ground accelerations are unable to generate as much energy in
wood buildings as in the ones constructed with other materials. As an added advantage, wood
frame systems flex more than other materials, thus absorbing and dissipating energy.

The forces acting upon a structure during an earthquake are a function of the weight of the
structure as also the magnitude of ground acceleration, while the nature of building response
to an earthquake depends on the size of the building and its stiffness characteristics. The inertial
forces generated by the ground movement of the earthquake concentrate lateral forces in the
roof and floors, where most mass of the building is concentrated. This force must be resisted
by the walls and the entire structure must be adequately connected to the foundation. The Koti
Banal architecture incorporates a number of distinct features that improve its seismic
performance. These include:

i. The mass and rigidity are distributed equally and symmetrically; the point of the
resultant earthquake forces (during an earthquake) thus coincides with the point of the
resultant resisting forces. Torsion of the buildings is thus avoided or significantly
reduced, which helps in shock resistance.
ii. The timber beams are housed in the walls in both directions of the structure after 20–
30 cm of squared rubble dry stone masonry brought to courses. The linked timber beams
form a group of space stress system. The rigidity of the beams is nearly equal on cross

16
 ways, so that its entire rigidity tends to be identical and its ability to resist deformation
is coordinated.
iii. The beams used in the building are mostly rectangular in shape. The ratio of width to
height of these beams is 2 : 3, which is a suitable section for a bending member. Sections
of these wooden beams are larger than those needed for adequate safety. The building
system thus meets the required space rigidity as also strength requirements. This further
helps in shock resistance.
iv. Wood is a elasto-plastic material with ability to absorb the forces of earthquake. Both
housing and nailing techniques are resorted to for joining the wooden components
incorporated in these structures (Figure 5), which allows for minimal angular
displacement. This kind of joint incorporates advantages of both pin joint and rigid joint
and acts as a semi-rigid joint, which is an additional advantage for shock resistance.
v. If designed and used properly, wood has few structural limitations. Wood assemblies
offer a high strength-to-weight ratio over those built with steel and concrete. This
results in low inertial forces during an earthquake. The Koti Banal architecture utilizes
a number of wooden assemblies that help in resisting earthquake forces that are a
function of the inertial force acting upon the structure.
vi. Wood-frame construction, structural walls and floors sheathed with structural wood
panels employed in Koti Banal buildings are universally recognized as providing
superior performance against strong forces resulting from both wind storms and
earthquakes. These walls and floors maintain high stiffness and strength in the design
range, and if pushed to their ultimate capacity, tend to yield only gradually while
continuing to carry high loads. These assemblies have high ductility, which can absorb
a great deal of energy before failure.
vii. Wooden floors and roofs of Koti Banal buildings are flexible diaphragms. FEMA 310
treats such diaphragms as flexible but demands rigidity of the vertical elements. The
vertical elevation of these buildings consists of a rigid stone masonry wall that is
adequate for providing the required strong support in both directions of the building.
viii. The raised pedestal on the foundation together with the wooden beams at plinth level
restrict earthquake vibration effects on the superstructure. It is accepted that stiff soil
promotes effective isolation. The elevated, solid stone platform helps in consolidation
of the soil at the foundation level and thus helps in promoting isolation. The flexibility
of the structure determines its performance during a given earthquake motion. The form
of the earthquake motion at the base of the structure can however be modified by the
17
 properties of the soil through which the earthquake waves travel. If the soil underlying
the structure is soft, the high frequency content of the motion may get filtered out, and
the soil may produce long-period motion. Thus, it is safe to use stiff platform for
effective isolation.

Gravity Load-Resisting System

Gravity loads from the floor construction (dead loads) or from live loads on the roof (e.g.,
snow) are transferred to the massive wall system which basically consists of a hybrid timber
reinforced stone masonry system. In the lower parts of the walls the timber logs are
interconnected establishing a very solid cribbage while the timber elements on the upper parts
are mainly of a reinforcing purpose. The walls further transfer the loads to a stone-filled base
platform which is the continuation of the stone foundation.

Lateral Load-Resisting System

The system of horizontally pairs of wooden logs which are connected to each other by wooden
shear pins/tenons act like a wooden frame which is braced by well-dressed flat stones in
between the logs increasing the bearing and lateral capacity of the construction. This especially
in the lower parts of the walls where the wooden frame is continuous in three dimensions and
the stones do not carry any loads. The stones between the logs are mostly assembled without
any grout or mortar thus enabling a certain level of flexibility and allowing lateral deflections
of the building without damage effects. The bottommost wooden logs are embedded within the
base platform. Outer walls parallel to the floor beams are supported in out-of plane action by
vertical shear keys over several storeys (Figure 13).

18
Figure 12 Housed and nailed joints used for fixing the wooden components of the
Koti Banal architecture.

Figure 13 Vertical members (‘shear keys’) attached to theouter façade to prevent

out-of-plane failure of the walls.

19
 3.3 KATH-KI-KUNI
Kath-ki-kuni literally means “timber-cornered.” This type of architecture is found
predominantly in central Himachal Pradesh in the Kullu and Mandi districts, and parts of
Shimla and Solan districts. This type of architecture is very common in the Kullu valley, and
Picture 1 shows an example from old Manali town. Several of the buildings are about 100 years
old, and some of the more massive structures, like temples or palaces, are several centuries old.
This type of architecture was noticed by officers from the Geological Survey of India after the
1905 Kangra earthquake, who were impressed by the remarkable lack of damage to these
buildings.

The prominent aseismic features of this type of construction are as follows:

i. Timber tie-bands: A pair of parallel wooden beams traverse the entire length of the
walls at regular intervals. The pairs of wooden beams alternate in direction; the
alternating pairs are placed perpendicular to each other (Figure 15). The space between
the beams in the pair is usually filled with dry stone masonry, although there are
variations depending upon locally available materials. These also serve to course the
stone masonry in the walls. These beams act as tie bands and connect the superstructure,
helping the building resist tension and lateral forces.
ii. Interconnection & Corner Reinforcement: The pair of timber beams are interconnected
at regular intervals along the length of the wall with wooden pegs, and at the corners,
the perpendicular pairs of beams are interconnected vertically at four points at the
corners (Figure 14). This provides vertical as well as lateral tying of the structural
elements in the building. This helps in the strengthening of corners and distributing the
load vertically, and also in preventing the wall from splitting under high compressive
force. The joinery reflects the skilled craftsmanship of indigenous masons.
iii. Well-dressed stone masonry: Although the composition of the walls varies by location,
usually they are composed of dry stone masonry, and the stones used are long and flat
stones, which are well laid in order to evenly distribute compressive strain vertically
and prevent outward movement of stones in the wall (Figure 17). Many of the older
kath-ki-kuni buildings have massive, almost monolithic stone blocks which have been
well dressed. The massive construction stands testament to the technological capacity
of the indigenous masons. The walls range in thickness from 40 cm. to over 100cm. in
some cases, and the thickness of the walls give much-needed insulation from the cold
and also distribute compression in these load-bearing structures.

20
 iv. Small Openings & Low Storeys: Doors and windows are kept small and have heavy
wooden reinforced frames, which help bear the accumulated stress on the openings
during an earthquake. The placement of openings is also staggered so as to avoid
vertical alignment of the openings, which would weaken the wall (Figure 16). The
frames and doors have diagonal bracing elements also, which are exquisitely carved.
The heights of storeys are also kept low, which keeps the centre of gravity low.
v. Stable Geometry: The floor plans of kath-ki-kuni houses reveal that structures are very
nearly square, and the ratio of the sides usually lies within a 3:2 ratio. This reduces
excessive strain on longer walls, and maintains a shear centre close to the centre of
gravity. Taller structures have wide bases and a tapering construction, to reduce
overturning moments. Thus even massive structures like the temples of Jungi village in
Mandi district (Figure 16) are very stable.

Figure 14 Overhead view of kath-ki-kuni walls. This is a schematic representation

ofinterconnection between parallel and perpendicular/alternating wooden beams.
21
Figure 15 Corner construction detail of kath
ki-kuni style housing. The timber bands run
along both sides of the wall and are connected
by pins along their length, and at the corners.
Figure 16 Shiva temple in Jungi village,
Mandi district, H.P. Locals say this massive 50
foot tall temple is over 200 years old.

Figure 17 A temple in Karsog area of Mandi district, H.P.

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 3.4 DHAJJI DEWARI

Dhajji-Dewari comes from Persian and literally means "patch quilt wall." Dhajji dewari is a
traditional building type found in the western Himalayas. Such houses are found in both the
Pakistan and Indian Administered Kashmir. This form of construction is also referred to in the
Indian Standard Codes as brick nogged timber frame construction. Dhajji most commonly (but
not exclusively) consists of a braced timber frame. The spaces left between the bracing and/or
frames is filled with a thin wall (single wythe) of stone or brick masonry traditionally laid into
mud mortar. Completed walls are plastered in mud mortar. They are typically founded on
shallow foundations made from stone masonry. Dhajji buildings are typically 1-4 storeys tall
and the roof may be a flat timber and mud roof, or a pitched roof with timber/metal sheeting.
This building system is often used side-by-side or above timber laced masonry bearing-wall
construction known as taq, bhater, unreinforced masonry (Figure ) and is also used extensively
in combination with timber frame and board/plank construction or load bearing timber board
construction. The floors of these houses are made with timber beams that span between walls.
Timber floor boards, which span over the floor beams, would traditionally be overlain by a
layer of clay (or mud). Dhajji buildings are typically used for housing, often of large extended
families. In rural areas the lowest level may be used to shelter livestock. In urban areas they
are more equivalent to town houses. With time these buildings are usually extended. This
construction type was and is used extensively for commercial buildings, shops, workshops,
bazaars. Because the timber framing and/or bracing is first erected the masonry does not
directly carry vertical loads. Although this construction type is not formally engineered and is
a relatively basic construction system, well maintained ones performed reasonably well during
the 8th October 2005 earthquake in both Pakistan and India. The earthquake resistance of a
dhajji building is developed in the following ways. Because of the weak mortar, the masonry
infill panels quickly crack in-plane thereby absorbing energy through friction against the timber
framing, and between the cracks in the fill material and the infill material and the hysteretic
behaviour of the many mud layers. The timber frame and closely spaced bracing, which
essentially remains elastic, prevents large cracks from propagating through the infill walls and
provide robust boundary conditions for the infill material to arch against and thus resist out of
plane inertial loads. Because the framing and/or bracing is often extensive and close together,
particularly when rubble stone is used as the infill, it is possible for keep the masonry walls
relatively thin. This helps to reduce the mass of the building and therefore the inertial forces
that must be resisted during an earthquake. The flexible behaviour of the system has the

23
additional benefit of de-tuning the building from the energy rich content of earthquake
excitation. Good quality timber and experienced craftsmen are the vital components to ensure
the proper detailing of the buildings timber components during construction, as well as
resistance against premature decay. The technology to build such a house is simple. Builders
have a large degree of control over the quality of the building materials they use because the
materials are sourced locally from the natural environment and are not dependant on
manufacturing processes. It is often the owner who is responsible for the selection and purchase
of materials and therefore often he who decides on the timber quality to be used on a project.
It is rare that the Mistri (term used in Kashmir to describe craftsmen such as carpenters and
masons) have any significant say in the quality of the purchased materials. These structures are
environmental friendly and traditionally would not have incorporated any toxic products in
their construction, apart from the natural fungal and insect resistant chemicals in the timber
itself.

Figure 18 Four and five story residential buildings in the Indian Kashmir city of Baramulla
showing how the unreinforced masonry collapsed, leaving the dhajji dewari bridging over the
gap, while a tall rubble stone building reinforced with taq timber ring beams survived the 2005
earthquake undamaged.

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Gravity Load-Resisting System

The vertical load-resisting system is timber frame. Because the stone/brick masonry infill with
mud mortar is placed into the frames after the building frame has been built it is not thought
that the infill carries any of the vertical loads until the building settles, the timber frame deforms
under permanent gravity loads with time and the timber shrinks as it dries out. It is thought that
this compression of the infill panels is in part responsible for their stability during out of plane
shaking. In the case that a building is extended upwards at a later date some degree of vertical
loading of the complete infill wall system will occur.

Lateral Load-Resisting System

The lateral resistance of a Dhajji building comes from a combination of the extensively braced
timber frame with stone/brick masonry infill laid in mud mortar. This combination of timber
framing and masonry infill resists the earthquake loads in a composite way. Because of the
weak mortar, the masonry infill panels quickly crack in-plane under lateral loads and thereby
absorbing energy through friction between the infill material and hysteretic behaviour of the
many mud layers that form the mortar between the stones/bricks and timber framing and
bracing. The timber frame and closely spaced bracing, which essentially remains elastic,
prevents any large cracks from
propagating through the infill walls.
The framing provides robust boundary
conditions for the infill material to arch
against and thus resist significant out of
plane inertial loads. Because the
framing and bracing is so extensive it is
possible to build the walls out of
relatively thin masonry panels. This
helps to reduce the mass of the building
and therefore the inertial forces that
must be resisted by the building system
during an earthquake.
Figure 19 Timber, stone laid in concrete. This is not
traditional dhajji construction. There is a risk that the
entire panel may fall out as a rigid object during an
earthquake.
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 3.5 SEISMIC PERFORMANCE OF DHAJJI DEWARI

University degrees in engineering rarely touch upon such forms of construction and research
into dhajji dewari buildings is minimal. Design guides are limited and where there is guidance
it is based on anecdotal findings, common sense principles and rules of thumb. Although
valuable, these have not been properly validated through rigorous engineering testing and
analysis. This research project applied state of the art engineering analysis to a typical dhajji
dewari house, similar to those built after the 2005 Pakistan earthquake to establish whether the
building type could be accurately modelled and in so doing, determine its theoretical
performance when subjected to large earthquake loads. If this construction typology can be
shown to possess earthquake resistance then it merits detailed engineering investigation to
produce a construction guide. This would allow engineers to offer this construction type as a
credible alternative to modern expensive and technologically complicated modern construction
methods, such as reinforced concrete or steel framed construction.

Structural Analysis Model Description

A detailed LS-DYNA computer model was created as shown in Figure 20. The timber frame
and the masonry blocks were modelled as solid elements with contact surfaces between all
members to account for frictional behaviour. The light weight roof system was idealised as
beam and shell elements. Nailed connections were modelled as discrete elements with non-
linear material properties. The flexible mud mortar was not explicitly modelled. The masonry
infill was assumed to be incompressible and the timber was modelled as an elastic material.
The roof did not include horizontal diaphragm bracing as typically this is not a design feature
of these buildings.

Figure 20 Exploded view of full dhajji dewari model and model details.

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Full Building Response History Analysis

The building response was governed by the earthquake time histories that had been derived
accounting fornear source factors for which results are presented. The building was analysed
twice, once with nailed connections between the primary timber members and once without
nails. Graphical representation of the building performance is shown in Figure 21 after the
response history analyses. There is a distinct difference between the performance of the models
with and without nails, largely resulting from out of plane failure of the short walls in the case
without nails. In these locations, failure is initiated when infill at the top of the wall is dislodged.
The infill is only able to fall out when the timber pieces confining the infill pulls away from
the rest of the frame because of the out of plane inertia force exerted on the timber by the infill.
Nailed connections help keep the timber frame together which enables greater levels of
confinement to be maintained on the infill material. Hence greater overall structural stability is
ensured. Peak forces were found to be lower in the model without nails. The structure without
nails is more flexible and therefore has a longer period of vibration therefore attracting lower
accelerations from the earthquake records as well as having a lower strength capacity. The
model with nailed connections survives the earthquake with only minor local damage as shown
in Figure 21 because it is able to maintain the infill confinement.

With nails Without nails

Figure 21 Final building condition after earthquake time histories (roof not shown for clarity)

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 4. SUMMARY
The work of Hicyilmaz et al. has demonstrated that it is possible to model the behaviour of
vernacular buildings. The following points summarise the key findings from the research and
analysis conducted to date:

1. Vernacular buildings can safely resist earthquakes in high seismic regions of the world when
built properly and maintained adequately. This makes vernacular buildings a valid form of
construction in seismic areas.

2. The timber framing provides stable confinement to the infill masonry as long as it remains
together. Therefore, it is critical that the timber connections are detailed to have sufficient
strength and ductility. Strategic use of nails and /or metal straps improves the building
performance.

3. Seismic energy is dissipated through friction between the masonry panels and the timber
frame and within the yielding of the connections.

4. Increased levels of overburden acting on the masonry increases the energy absorption
capacity of the assembly, which provides evidence that the use of the system for two or even
more storey structures may be satisfactory.

Broadly, dhajji dewari is similar conceptually to ‘confined masonry’ construction which has
concrete ring beams and columns confining the unreinforced masonry infill. The main
difference is that in a ‘confined masonry’ system the sand cement mortar used to bond the
masonry pieces together is brittle and stiff while traditional dhajji dewari has mud mortar which
is very weak which allows it to start yielding even under relatively small lateral loads. Also, in
dhajji dewari construction the masonry panel sizes are typically much smaller than in typical
confined masonry construction, which can be advantageous. The energy in the dhajji dewari
system is dissipated mainly in friction between the infill and the frame, and in the mortar joints
of the infill itself, and not through the non-linear material deformations of the frame members
as would be the case in modern steel or reinforced concrete construction. Therefore, if key
connections can be prevented from falling apart, then the integrity of the timber frame is
secured and the infill dissipates the seismic energy through friction which is mobilised as the
masonry pieces slide across each other and against the framing members.

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 5. CONCLUDING REMARKS

If we are to create communities that are both sustainable and resilient, it is necessary to adopt
construction technologies that make best use of available resources and are safe. Vernacular
buildings offer hope to this cause by using durable renewable or recycled materials that are
likely to be locally available. Past research shows that it is a form of construction that can offer
significant seismic resistance. If damaged these buildings can be repaired relatively easily
because the materials are readily available.

Research of Hicyilmaz et al. (2015) is an important step in understanding the behaviour of

dhajji dewari structures and generating wider acceptance of this building system amongst the
general public, donors and government. Having created a validated analytical model, further
analyses can be undertaken to test the performance of many critical elements of the house.
Further investment and research is needed, ultimately leading to:

1. An evidence-based earthquake engineering building standard and construction guidelines

for new vernacular buildings.

2. An evidence-based earthquake engineering building standard and construction guidelines

for repairing and retro-fitting existing vernacular buildings.

3. Training materials aimed at self-builders, contractors, university students, architects and

engineers and governments in a number of different regions in the world.

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REFERENCES

 Dar, M. A., & Ahmad, S. (2015). Traditional Earthquake Resistant Systems of Kashmir.
 Hicyilmaz, K., Bothara, J., & Stephenson, M. (2012). Dhajji-Dewari. Report no. 146,
World Housing Encyclopedia, Earthquake Engineering Research Institute, United
States.
 Hicyilmaz, K.M.O., Wilcock, T., Izatt, C., da-Silva, J., & Langenbach R.(2012).
Seismic Performance of Dhajji Dewari. 15th World Conference on Earthquake
Engineering, Lisboa, Portugal.
 Lang, D., Rahul, A., Singh, Y., & Sood, A. (2013) Thathara houses in Himachal
Pradesh. Report no. 170, World Housing Encyclopedia, Earthquake Engineering
Research Institute, United States.
 Langenbach, R. (1990). Of Taq And Dhajji Dwari: The Earthquake Resistant Mud And
Brick Architecture Of Kashmir. Adobe 90, 6th.International Conference on the
Conservation of Earthen Architecture, LAS CRUCES, NEW M'EXICO, U.S.A, 1990,
pp. 92-98
 Langenbach, R. (2015). The earthquake resistant vernacular architecture in the
Himalayas. Seismic Retrofitting: Learning from Vernacular Architecture, pp. 83-92.
 Rautela, P., Girish, J., Singh, Y., & Lang, D.H. (2011). Timber-reinforced Stone
Masonry (Koti Banal Architecture) of Uttarakhand and Himachal Pradesh, Northern
India. Report no. 150, World Housing Encyclopedia, Earthquake Engineering Research
Institute, United States.
 Rautela, P., & Joshi, G. Ch. (2008). Earthquake-safe Koti Banal architecture of
Uttarakhand (India). Current Science 95 (4), 475-481

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