REVIEWS OF GEOPHYSICS, VOL. 25, NO.

5, PAGES 989-1003, JUNE 1987

U.S. NATIONAL REPORT TO INTERNATIONAL UNION OF GEODESY AND GEOPHYSICS 1983-1986

Electromagnetic Induction Studies

ALAN D. CHAVE1

Instituteof Geophysics
andPlanetaryPhysics,University
of California,SanDiego

JOHN R. BOOKER

Geophysics
Program,Universityof Washington,
Seattle,Washington

INTRODUCTION DATA COLLECTION AND INSTRUMENTATION

This reportconstitutes
an attemptto reviewthe major To a large extent, recent improvements in EM data
developmentsand identify important trends in the broad have come about through more sophisticated time series
field of geophysical
electromagneticinductionand related analysismethods rather than from changesin instrumen-
phenomenaover the past four years.Followingin the tation. Data analysis is covered in the next section. Pro-
spiritof previousreportsof this type [e.g.,Filloux,1979; gress in the quality of the sensors themselves has been
Hermance, 1983b], the work of US researcherswill be more gradual.
emphasized, althoughwe will coverforeignresearchwhen It has been the general experience of US research
appropriate.Many of the recenttheoreticaldevelopmentsgroups that SQUID magnetometers do not achieve their
and the largestEM field programever (EMSLAB) are the laboratorypotential in field situations,and this has led to a
directresultof'internationalcooperation,
and strictadher- trend back to induction coils for wide-band MT work.
ence to the concept of national boundaries would result in
Coils have become much lighter as amplifier technology
an uninformativeand incompletereview. has improved, and are easily constructed. However,
Due to the fact that readersof this paperhave diverse developmentsin fluxgate design may soon produce a sen-
interestsrangingfrom theorythroughfield to laboratorysor that is comparable in sensitivity to coils in the dead
studies,we have attemptedto treat a varietyof topicsin band around 1 Hz and that has a far better long-period
EM inductionand electricalgeophysics.We begin by response. A fluxgate instrument would also be easier to
reviewingthe state-of-the-art
in datacollection,including deploy in the field. Theoretical analyses that elucidate
new instrumentation.We continueby examiningdata some important design criteria for sensitive, low noise
analysis methods, with an emphasis on noise and bias fluxgatesare given by Russellet al. [1983] and Narod and
reductionin the computationof' the magnetotelluric
and Russell[1984]. Three companiesare now manufacturing
magnetic variations response functions. We then treat ring-core fluxgates similar to those flown in MAGSAT.
forwardmodellingdevelopments, especiallyfor two- and One obstacle to making these instruments much better
three-dimensional inductionproblems. Recent progress than their predecessorsis the limited availability of the
hasbeenmadein EM inductioninverseproblems,and we best core materials. Narod et al. [1985] presentan experi-
assessthe impact of this on the field. An overview of mental study of amorphous alloys which shows that
field measurements in North Americais given,including fluxgate noise depends on material properties that have
the recent EMSLAB experiment which was carried out in not been consideredbefore. This gives some hope that
1985--1986in the northwestUS, southwestCanada,and materials can be found that are easily manufactured and
contiguous offshoreregions.This is followedby a review that will deliver very good performance.
of developments in oceanicapplications
of EM principles. As in most branches of the physical sciences, micro-
The referencelist is believedto be completethrough computer technology is having an enormous impact on
June 1986. In the interestof brevity,only refereedpubli- induction work. Long-period data are now almost always
cationsor works in press are included,and meeting collected digitally, and solid-state data loggers and high
abstractsor technicalreports are generallynot cited. density redundant tape recordingis offering much higher
Nevertheless,the number of referencesexceeds600, reliability and larger capacitythan before. Even the vener-
attestingto the health of the discipline. Additional infor- able Gough-Reitzel magnetometer is receiving new life
mation on EM induction researchmay be found in the through image processingwhich allows easy digitization of
proceedings of the mostrecentsemiannualWorkshopson the film records. Wide-band MT data are now routinely
EM Induction held in Victoria, Canada, in 1982, Ile-Ife, processedon site. It is possibleto build and operate large
Nigeria, in 1984, and Neuch•.tel,Switzerland,in 1986. arrays of sensorsthat can map the electric field in great
detail and overcome the effects of local distortion. It is
also feasible to make wide-band MT (and controlled
source) equipment so portablethat it can be taken virtu-
1Now
atAT&TBellLaboratories,
Murray
Hill,NewJersey ally anywhere.
One of the most significant developments of the past
Copyright1987by the AmericanGeophysicalUnions. four years has been the realization by US and Canadian
Paper number 7R0150. workers that group field efforts are essentialto the study
8755-1.209/87/007R..0150515.
O0 of many relevant large-scale problems. The desire to

989
990 CHAVEAND BOOKER:
ELECTROMAGNETIC
INDUCTIONSTUDIES

upgradefield equipment for academicresearchis also sup- proven ones from the field of robust statistics, and are
plying an impetus to work in groups. The equipment that based on iterative re-weighting of the data during regres-
is currently available to academicscientistslags far behind sion. The weights are automatically chosen by comparing
what is possiblewith current technology. New equipment the regressionresidualsto a predicted value obtained from
will require a substantial capital investment which can be the appropriate statisticaldistribution, and the influence of
minimized by careful sharing of resources. data corresponding to large residuals is reduced. This
gives unbiased responsefunctions as well as meaningful
RESPONSE FUNCTION ESTIMATION
estimatesof their error. These methods are still undergo-
ing development and testing using a variety of EM data.
The estimation of EM response functions or However, we predict that robust estimation of the
impedances from data is of central importance to the response functions will yield substantially smoother and
natural source EM methods, and especiallyfor MT. more precise results under contamination by a broad class
Increasingly more sophisticated ways to reduce the of outliers. When combined with the remote reference
influence of noise on the response functions have evolved technique and instrument arrays, this method should
over the past four years. In addition, new ways to inter- prove very powerful.
pret the full responsetensor are being developed. Park and Chave [1984] have presented a rigorous
Most of the methods for computing responsefunctions derivation of the singular value decomposition(SVD)
in current use are based on least squares principles, and method for estimating the responsefunction and its asso-
share the inherent advantagesand limitations of that tech- ciated errors. While other least squares approaches
nique. An important requirement for the proper operation assume that Gaussian noise is present in only part of the
of least squares is that the residuals or errors from the fit data (e.g., the electricor magneticfield), SVD treats the
be uncorrelated and of equal variance or power. Data that more realistic case where noise is distributed among all of
produceresidualswhich fail to meet this condition may be the data. Since the relative amounts of noise in the data
termed outliers, and least squaresestimatesare very sensi- are rarely known a priori, Park and Chave[1984] derive a
tive to their presence. This type of outlier, as well as ordi- statistical test that helps to establish the correct relative
nary Gaussian noise, can induce serious bias and distor- noise level, and show how the responsefunction varies as
tion into EM response functions. Outliers in EM data this quantity is altered. This approachis useful in dealing
may be caused by a variety of instrumental, cultural, and with the well-known bias effect of Gaussian noise in MT
natural processes,many of which are not well understood, data, and could easily be combined with robust statistical
and a myriad of procedures to reduce their impact con- methods to remove additional Gaussian or non-Gaussian
tinue to be proposed. outliers.
Recognition that the predominant source of outliers in Gambleet al. [1982] addressthe problemof defininga
MT data was inherent in the measurements rather than in unique coordinate system over three-dimensional(3D)
the measuring devices led to the development of the structures,and note that the usual practiceof finding indi-
remote reference method. The success of remote refer- vidual strike directions using separate principal axis
ence methodology is attested to by its nearly universal transformations at each frequency often breaks down.
adoption in terrestrial MT, and improvements continue to They propose a new empirical method, called regional
be introduced. Clarkeet al. [1983] give a recentreviewof strike determination, that is based on minimization of
remote reference equipment and procedures. Kr6ger et al. weighted sums of squaresf'ofthe responsefunctions over
[1983] discussthe bias effects of coherent and incoherent all frequencies, with the weights chosen to accentuatethe
noise on local and remote estimates of the responsefunc- most precisely known data. They also present examples
tion. Goubau et al. [1984] conductedan experimental which demonstrate the consistency of this approach and
investigationof the correlation scale of MT noise by com- the inconsistencyof the more standard one.
paringa standard
remotereference f?nction, Eggers[1982] givesa thoroughdiscussionof the param-
response
where the separation between measurements was several eters studied in MT, and shows that the conventional
krn, to a local referenceresult using a third magnetometer ones--the amplitude and phase of the off-diagonaltensor
and shorter spacings. They obtained the surprisingresult components, principal direction of the response tensor,
that separationsof as little as 200 m were adequate to skew, and ellipticity--are incomplete, since the full tensor
remove outlier bias at periodslonger than 1 s, suggesting possesses8 degrees of freedom while these quantities
local nonplanar source fields as the contaminant. At have only 6.5. He then derives an alternate and complete
shorter periods, the noise appearsto be instrumental, ori- set of parameters using an eigenvalue-eigenvectordecom-
ginating in the shields of the SQUID magnetometers,and positionof the tensor,and showshow they provideaddi-
could be removed by a reference only 2 rn from the base. tional insight for interpretationpurposes.In particular,
This study indicates how little is known about how and the polarizationellipsedisplayof the eigenstatescan indi-
why the remot• referencemethodworks. While it is clear cate the form of the 3D structure. Spitz[1985] addresses
that the technique is effective againstmany types of MT the problemof definingcoordinate systems for thistypeof
outliers, its limitations are not so obvious, and further responsefunction formulation.
work like that of Goubau et al. [1984] should be Responsefunctionsalso are important in the GDS
encouraged. method. Goughand Ingham [1983] presenta thorough
Chaveet al. [1986] and Egbertand Booker[1986] have reviewof single-and multiple-station methodsto get the
proposednew proceduresto eliminatethe effect of outliers GDS response,and give a variety of waysto presentthe
on responsefunctions. Such methodsare modificationsof results. Beamishand Banks [1983] discussthe use of a
 CHAVE AND BOOKER:ELECTROMAGNETICINDUCTION STUDIES 991

common referencesite to study regionalstructureusing a Several investigatorshave stressedthe importanceof

limited set of instrumentation, and claim to get results placingequal emphasison the theoreticalbehaviorof the
comparableto those from larger arrays. Richmondand EM field and on the theoretical resolution of a given mea-
Baumjohann [1983]presenta new methodto treat magne- surement. The 1D Fr6chet derivatives of the fields are
tometer array data, and addressthe more generalproblem especiallyuseful in this context. The use of Fr6chet
of inferringspatiallycontinuouspatternsfrom finite sets derivativesas sensitivityfunctionsis discussedby G6mez-
of point observations.In contrastto most earlier studies, Trevi•oand Edwards[1983], Chave[1984a], and Edwards
in which a small set of parametersare fit to a large set of et al. [1984].
data (e.g., sphericalharmonicfits with truncationat low Most of the effort in 2D and 3D modelling of EM
order), they proposethe use of a largeset of interpolating phenomena over the past four years is based on the
functionsand applyconstraintsfrom the governingphysics integralequation(IE), finite element(FE), or thin sheet
to regularizethe result. Their examplesof field mapping approaches.The IE method is the most widely used and
and internal/external part separation are quite encourag- thoroughly developedEM modelling technique for 3D
ing, and this paperdeservesseriousattention. Future pro- media. It is especially well-suited for treating isolated
gressin GDS requiresthe applicationof more sophisti- bodiesembedded in a simpler substrate,since the numeri-
cated analysis techniques, especially frequency- cal complexity is limited to the body itself. Hohmann
wavenumberand polarizationprocessing to better quantify [1983] reviews the formulation of IE problems and com-
source field structure. putational proceduresfor their solution. Wannamakeret
al. [1984a] describean IE algorithmfor MT problemsthat
FORWARD MODELLING can handle a 3D body in an arbitrary layered 1D medium.
The FE method is also receiving increasing attention.
Forward modelling--the prediction of an EM response Lee and Morrison [1985a] derive the FE equationsfor a
for a specifiedearth model--is of central importance in all 2D problemwith a finite (controlled)sourcefrom a varia-
of the EM disciplines. A notable amount of progressin tional principle. P.E. Wannamaker(private communica-
handlingtwo-dimensional (2D) and (3D) modelshasbeen tion, 1986) hasdistributeda 2D FE codefor MT, and has
made over the past four years. This has led to improved appliedit to a study of topographiceffectson MT data
insight into the effectsof complexsub-surfacestructures [Wannamakeret al., 1986]. Hybrid methodswhich com-
on the observed response. In addition, better ways of bine the FE and IE methods are also in use [Bestet al.,
computingand viewingone-dimensional (1D) modelsare 19851.
evolving. Over the past quadrennium, thin sheet modelling has
Many types of EM problems require the numerical grown from a mathematicalcuriousityto a very viable
approximationof integral transforms. Most 1D controlled meansfor treatingsurfaceinhomogeneities.Dawsonet al.
source models use the Hankel transform. Anderson[1982] [1982] treated TM mode induction with two thin sheets
has producedsoftware based on the digital filter method over a halfspace,where the thin sheets represent respec-
for the computationof Hankel transformsthat is substan- tively a conductingocean adjoining a continent and a
tially faster and more accuratethan previous implementa- resistive crust. Dawson [1983] extended this to include
tions. Chave [1983b] has reported a direct numerical the TE mode. Both of these models are substantially
integration scheme with Pad6 convergence acceleration more realistic than earlier ones. McKirdy and Weaver
that is generallyslower than a digital filter formulation, [1984] developedthe theory for a 2D variableconductance
but that is very accurateand capable of handling integrals sheetover a layeredmedium,and McKirdyet al. [1985]
having formally divergent integrands. Time domain EM generalizedthis to the 3D case. Applications
of thin sheet
computations require the numerical inversion of the techniquesinclude studiesof regional induction in Scot-
Laplacetransform. Knightand Raiche [1982] discussthe land [Weaver,1982] and of current channelingbetween
Gaver-Stehfest algorithm, a procedure which is simple, two oceans[McKirdyand Weaver,1983].
more computationally efficient than discrete Fourier The further development of 2D and 3D modelling
transform approaches,and which requires a knowledgeof codesmust involve checkingfor internal consistencyand
the integrand only for real values of the transform vari- crossvalidationwith other algorithmsor analyticsolutions.
able. An alternate view of Laplace transform inversion Weaveret al. [1985] have proposeda standard 2D MT
based on first kind Fredholm integral equation theory is model consistingof three adjoiningblocksof different
givenin Pikeet al. [1984], anddeservesgreaterattention. conductivitiesoverlyinga perfect conductor,along with a
Forward modelling in 1D is straightforwardfor MT and closedform expressionfor the TM mode responsefunc-
GDS, and little purpose is served by the continued publi- tion. Weaveret al. [1986] present a similar 2D control
cation of analytic solutions for specializedconductivity result for the TE mode. There is a definite need for simi-
profiles. However, considerableinsight into controlled lar analytic or quasi-analyticsolutions for simple 3D
source and time domain applications continues to come bodies.
from 1D models, but even relatively simple cases can Numerical modellinghas been appliedto the study of
rarely be expressed in analytic form. While many 3D effects on the MT responsefunctions. This is impor-
mathematical approachesto 1D problems exist, the use of tant both to determine the possiblebiasescausedby mul-
a formulation involving poloidal and toroidal modes is tidimensionalityand to ascertainthe limits where 1D or
especiallyuseful. Backus [1986] gives a thorough and 2D models are suitable approximationsto the 3D earth.
rigorous derivation of this Mie representationof the EM Hermance[1982d, 1983a] has usedDC thin sheetmodels
field on a spherethat is readilyextendedto the plane. to model telluric distortion effects from surface inhomo-
992 CHAVE AND BOOKER:ELECTROMAGNETICINDUCTION STUDIES

geneities. Park et al. [1983] and Park [1985] have Inverse schemes which are expected to operate with real
identified three distortion mechanisms caused by 3D data simply cannot be tested with artificial data which
media: coupling between the upper crust and mantle equal the responsefunctions for any 1D model even when
acrossa resistive lower crust, resistive coupling of conduc- the data are assignedan error. Synthetic data must have
tive features within the upper crust, and local induction of noise addedto them after they are generated.
current cells within finite-size, good conductors. The first Parker's delta function models usually grossly overfit
two of theseproducetelluricdistortionthat is frequency- the data, in the sensethat X2 is much smallerthan its
independentat low frequencies,while the latter is usually expectedvalue. It is then statisticallyvalid to relax the fit
frequency-dependent. In many cases, these mechanisms and achievea largerX2. There are an infinitenumberof
can be differentiated by examining the spatial variation of possiblemodels between the best-fitting D+ type and one
the responsefunctions. Wannamakeret al. [1984b] used with any larger value of the misfit. Parker [1983] reviews
an IE code to study the effect of a 3D body in a layered several ways of constructingfamilies of models in which
host. They present a thorough discussion of the bias the model space has been defined to exclude delta func-
effectson the MT apparentresistivityand phase,and con- tions. HooshyarandRazavy[1982b]presentrelatedresults
clude that, under certain circumstances,1D or 2D model- for the case where the data cover a range of spatial
wavenumbers at a fixed frequency. To choose among
ling techniquesare suitable for the study of real 3D struc-
tures. Newman et al. [1985] modelled crustal magma these models, it is necessaryto add a side or regularization
chambers using the IE technique, and showed that the condition. Most regularization conditions in current use
effect of sucha body was often surprisinglylimited. For ainvolve some sort of smoothing. In the past, the most
thorough review of 3D current channelingeffectsin MT, common smoothingcriteria involved expandingthe model
see Jones[1983a]. in some finite parameterization(e.g., a small number of
As supercomputersand advanced computational algo- layers). The criterionfor choosinga specificmodel is still
rithms become more widely available, 2D and 3D model- minimization of the least squaresmisfit, as was the case
ling will become more common. However, it should be for D+, but the side condition prevents it from approach-
remembered that approximate solutions to EM problems ing a global optimal fit. The best that can be said for this
are often as useful as the more complex, full solutions; approach is that, if the parameterization is essentially the
this type of approachhas been emphasizedand justified by same as the truth which generatedthe data, the inversions
Westand Edwards[1985]. seem to work and will recover a reasonable facsimile of
the truth; see Fischerand LeQuang[1982] and Pedersen
INVERSION and Hermance[1986] for examples. The interpretationof
such models is not clear if the truth happens to be
FischerandLeQuang[1982] statethat the 1D magneto- parameterizedin some substantiallydifferent way.
telluric inverse problem is essentiallyunderstood. Despite Recently, several groups have focused on choosing
this optimism and the fact that a 1D model is not models which are extreme in some sense. A particularly
appropriate for most MT data, the 1D problem continues fruitful criterion is the flattest or smoothestmodel fitting
to receive substantialattention, judging from the number the data within someprescribed X2 [Marchisio andParker,
of papers devoted to it. To some extent, the MT inverse 1984; Constableet al., 1986; Smith and Booker, 1986].
problem is relatively easywhen comparedto other geophy- These minimum structure inverses allow one to ascertain
sical inverse problems. EM data are Fr6chet differentiable which features are actually required by a given data set.
[Parker, 1983; Chave, 1984a; Abramoviciand Baumgarten, Furthermore, they turn out to be remarkably good at
1985; MacBain, 1986]. Furthermore, there are existence recovering the structure of synthetic models from noisy
and uniquenesstheorems for various sorts of ideal data; data for reasonsthat are not yet entirely clear.
the most recent of these is due to MacBain and Bednar Whittal and Oldenburg[1986] present another type of
[1986]. Clever schemesto directly invert ideal induction extremal inversion in which the problem is cast in terms
datacontinueto appear[e.g.,Barcilon,1982;Coenet al., of inverse scattering. Estimation of the impulse response
1983]. is analogousto the deconvolutionof a seismogramand is
Real MT data are alwaysdiscreteand have errors asso- a linear inverse problem which is solved by minimizing
ciated with them. Most workers are aware of Parker's various norms of the response. This effectivelylimits the
work on this type of data [Parker, 1983]. He has shown possiblestructure in the model. The conductivity itself is
conclusively
that whenno 1D modelfits a datasetexactly, recovered from the impulse response by solving a non-
then the conductivity model with the smallest least linear Fredholm integral equation. Other types of
squaresor X2 misfitwill alwaysconsistof a set of infinite extremal inversions are due to Oldenburg[1983] and
spikesor delta functionsin conductivity.He calledthis Weidelt[1985], who boundfunctionalsof the conductivity
the D+ case. MacBain and Bednar [1986] claim that structure.
Parker'sresult is not rigorous,but this doesnot alter the Linearized Backus-Gilbert types of inversions have been
fact that practicalschemesfor invertingnoisy data which usedby Hobbs[1983], Hobbset al. [1985], and Abramovici
do not excludethe possibilityof delta functionmodelswill and Baumgarten[1985]. Oldenburget al. [1984] have
converge to these models as the misfit decreases. This attackedthis type of inversion on the groundsthat models
appliesin particularto most least squares-based layered exist which fit the data and are not linearly close to those
model fitting routines. For a graphicexample,see Smith produced by the Backus-Gilbert technique. Smith and
andBooker[1986]. It is extremelyimportantto note that Booker [1986] show that a proper choice of datum and
this behaviorrequiresthat the data actuallycontainnoise. model variable can lead to a nearly linear inverse problem.
 CHAVE AND BOOKER:ELECTROMAGNETICINDUCTION STUDIES 993

Unfortunately,the paperscited do not castthe problemin touching the previous one, and calls the method EMAP.
its nearlylinear form, so that nonlinearerrorsmay invali- With this type of data, prescribedstructure methods such
date their conclusions. as the method of tighteningof surfaces,may becomequite
Two- and three-dimensional inversion of electromag- useful.
netic induction data is ultimately a more important prob- A final approachto 2D interpretation which shows some
lem for investigatingthe earth, but is less advancedthan promise, especially for developing starting models for
its 1D counterpart. Most groups still rely on forward further 2D inversion, is the plotting of pseudo-sectionsof
modelling to interpret data. We believe that rapid invariants of the MT responsetensor [Ranganayaki,
advancesin 2D and 3D inversion techniques will be made 1984]. In particular,she found that the pseudo-section
of
in the next few years as modern algorithms and high the phase of the determinant looked remarkably like the
speedprocessors becomemore widely available. structure.
Inverse schemes for 2D data fall into two classes. The Developments in inversion of controlled source data
first expandsthe model using a limited parameterization parallel those for induction by natural fields to some
(i.e., a smallnumberof conductiveblocks),and adjusts extent. Parker [1984] has derived a result for DC resis-
the values of the parametersto fit the data to within some tivity methods which is analogousto the delta function or
prescribedtolerance. All existingschemesinvolve lineari- D+ model in MT. He finds that the best-fitting 1D model
zation about a starting model and some form of least always contains an arbitrarily thin but complex surface
squaresfitting. Two strategiesfor parameterizationarelayer. Work by Lang [1986] relevantto boreholeresis-
current. For instance,Zhdanovand Golubev[1983] advo- tivity concludesthat resistivityvariability explodesas the
cate a particular function set which allows only seven layers are allowed to become thin near the hole. This is
parametersto describea wide variety of shapesfor an presumablyclosely related to Parker's result. Smith and
anomalousbody. This means that the inverse problem Vozoff [1984] have developeda 2D inverse code for
will almost always be grosslyoverconstrained. The prob- dipole-dipole resistivity data which expands the model in
lem with this strategyis that one has no rigorousway of boxes and is genericallyrelated to earlier MT work. Tripp
examining nonuniqueness. The alternative is to use a et al. [1984] used a similar philosophyfor their 2D DC
large number of parameters.The most advancedscheme inverse.
of this type is a proprietary program called ESP/MT The inversion of time-domain electromagneticdata is in
developedby W.L. Rodiandcolleagues at S3 in SanDiego a relatively crude state. Virtually all existing algorithms
and described
by Jiraceket al. [1986]. The forwardcalcu- are based on the assumption of an extremely limited
lation for the Fr6chet derivatives uses self-adjustingfinite parameterizationwhich forces the problem to be overcon-
elements. The normal equationsfor an updatedmodel are strained. Although perhapsuseful in an exploration con-
then inverted using a dampingmethod which minimizes text, these inverseshardly qualify for the name sincethey
spatialderivativesof the model as well as the size of the allow no exploration of model space. In contrast to this
perturbation. Other programs,such as the widely used type of modelling, there is the electromagneticmigration
Jupp-Vozoffcode, minimize only the size of the perturba- techniqueof Zhdanovand Frenkel[1983]. This technique,
tion. which is analogousto seismicmigrationand closelyrelated
Minimum structure models are likely to be at least as to the analytic continuation of fields in the frequency
beneficial in 2D asin 1D, andareessentidl if 3D inversesdomain, is activelybeing pursuedby groupsin the US and
are to be obtained. Although existingand potentialalgo- Canada. It remains to be seen whether migrated data can
rithms discretizethe structure, the resolution matrix can be reliablyinverted for material properties. In any case,it
be interpreted as digitized Backus-Gilbertwindows if the is likely to give useful structuralinformation.
discretization is on a finer scale than the true structure.
The nonlinear errors inherent in interpretingthe resultsin EARTH STRUCTURE
this way are just as important in 2D and 3D as in 1D.
The secondtype of parameterizationstrategypicksone Deep Sounding
of the infinite number of possible2D solutionsby finding
the one that is closest to some prescribed structure. The Over the past decade, the ELAS program has focused
method of tighteningof surfaces,appliedto GDS data by the efforts of the international EM community on deter-
Zhdanov and Varentsov[1983] and describedin more detail mining electricalpropertiesbelow the lithosphere. Follow-
by Berdichevsky and Zhdanov[1984], can be useful if the ing on earlier work, several recent papers have examined
backgroundconductivityis well-known, but could be quite global averages of deep conductivity. Campbell and
misleading otherwise, especiallyif the measurements do Anderssen [1983]analyzedthe harmonicsof the solardaily
not include the electricfield. Solving the inverse problem variationSq. Their resultsappearto imply conductivity
for the flow of electriccurrent [Berdichevsky and Zhdanov, increases which correlate with the seismic discontinuities
1984]is alsohelpful,but displays similardangers.These at about 400 and 600 km, but no resolutionor uniqueness
methods all involve some form of spatialfiltering of the analysis
waspresented.Winch[1984]alsolookedat Sq
data. A seriousproblem with much existingwork is that and included correctionsfor a highly conductive ocean.
the fields, and especiallythe electricfield, vary on scales
His results are not clearly interpretablein terms of any
shorter than the stationspacing. This means that filteringsingle model, although the principal concern of the work
operations are applied to aliased data sets. F.X. Bostick was possible contamination of the internal part of the
(private communication,1986) has suggestedthat the magneticfield by the dynamoeffect of oceantides. Jady
electricfield should be profiled, with each successiveleg and Patterson[1983] applied three inversion schemesto
994 CHAVE AND BOOKER:ELECTROMAGNETIC
INDUCTIONSTUDIES

the constructionof models using disturbed time data in extends a similar offshore profile describedunder Oceanic
the frequency range 0.07--2 cpd. They conclude that a Studies,a largenumberof wide-bandMT sitesalongor
steep conductivity increase occurs near a depth of near the sameprofile,and 75 very closelyspaced(• 3 km)
1000 km. A subsequentpaperby Jadyet al. [1983] gen- magnetometersites along a similar parallel profile. Most
erated a large family of models using Parker's layeredand of the equipmentran for the monthsof AugustandSep-
continuousinversesfitting essentiallythe same data. This tember. A secondphaseof the field projectin the sum-
time, they concluded that the sharp conductivity increase mer of 1986involved4 wide-band
MT systems usingin-
was more probably at about 700 kin. In a different fieldprocessing andoccupying manyadditional
sitesalong
approachto global sounding,Didwall [1984] used OGO and near the central EMSLAB profile. The total data set
satellite data from disturbed times to derive a transfer is of unprecedented
sizeand quality,and its full analysis
function which is broadly averagedin both time and space. will occupyseveralyears.
However, she was only able to interpret it in terms of a Earlier work offers supportingdata for the EMSLAB
constantconductivityshell of prescribedthickness. goals. DeLaurieret al. [1983] used magnetometerdata
A dominant trend in recent deep soundingshas been from VancouverIsland (VI) and the adjacentseafloorto
the searchfor lateral conductivityvariations in the mantle. constructa modelwith a goodconductorat depth,a thick
Since conductivity is highly temperature dependent, global sedimentarywedgeat the coast,and a mid-crustalconduc-
tectonics virtually guaranteeslateral changesin the con- tor under the British Columbia (BC) mainland. A con-
ductive structure of the earth. Roberts [1983, 1986a, ductingslabdippingeastward underVI is consistent
with,
1986b] reviews a variety of evidencefor lateral conduc- but not requiredby, the data. Land-basedmagnetometer
tivity changesin the upper mantle. Vanyah[1984] argues data further south in Oregon[Neumannand Hermance,
for deep differencesbetween cratons and younger zones 1985]alsorequirea thicksedimentary wedge,but do not
based simply on gross differences in the long period extend to long enoughperiodsto provideany information
response. More detailed studies are beginning to appear. on the existence of a conductingslab. Nienaber et al.
Schultzand Larsen [1983, 1986a,b] find equivalentMT [1982]usedonly land magnetometer data and analog
responsesfor a variety of three component magnetic modelling to place a dipping conductor under VI which
observatories
assuminga p•0source. They find that many subsequently
risesunderthe mainland. One couldsimply
of these responsescan individually be fit with a 1D model interprettheir modelas a resistiveroot for VI. However,
within the expectedvalue of X2. However,there exist in recent work performed in conjunctionwith the Cana-
dian Lithoprobe program, which did detailed seismic
pairs of these stationswhose data cannot be jointly fit by
any 1D model and must have different local structures. profiling across VI, Kurtz et al. [1986a] collected some
We expectto see significantprogressin this area in the very exciting MT data. A 1D inversion of their most iso-
near future. It is probable that electrical structure infor-
tropicstationshowsa conducting layerwhosetop is coin-
mation in the upper 1000 km of the earth comparablein cidentwith the seismicreflectorthat hasbeeninterpreted
resolutionto seismicnormal modes will shortly be avail- as the uppersurfaceof the subducted Juande Fucaplate.
able. They also present a 2D model which is consistent with
their MT and earliermagnetometer
arraydata, and inter-
Regional Studies pret the results as strong evidence that substantialsedi-
ment is being subducted.
Induction and related techniqueshave been used in vir- The mid-crustal conductor under BC extends eastwards
tuallyeveryareaof North Americaand on scalesranging as far as the RockyMt. Trench, whereit terminatesshar-
from magnetometer arrayscovering100squaredegrees in ply [Bingham et al., 1985;Goughet al., 1982]. A conduc-
the EMSLAB projectto outliningthe buildingfoundations tive ridge risingto the shallowcrust lies just east of the
at an archaeological site using DC methods [Youngand Rocky Mt. trench. Its relationshipto the mid-crustalcon-
Droege, 1986]. The largestconcentrationof effort has ductoris uncertain,but its structureis quitesinuous,and
occurred in the northwestern US and southwestern it passescloseto a known geothermalarea studiedwith a
Canada. EM inductionoffers a tool which may provide concentratedmagnetometerarray by Ingham et al. [1983].
informationaboutthe structureand physicalpropertiesof The southern extent of the mid-crustal conductor in BC
the active subductionzone in the region which have may be determined by EMSLAB.
eludedseismologists becauseof the generallylow historic Proceedingeastwards,the next major conductivestruc-
seismicity.The largestcoordinatedEM inductionexperi- ture in North America is the Central Plains Anomaly
ment ever, EMSLAB (ElectroMagnetic Studyof the Litho- (NACP), which beginsin southwestWyomingand
sphere and Asthenosphere Beneath the Juan de Fuca proceedsnorthwardsup the Montana-Dakotaboundary
Plate), has as its major goalthe delineationof the com- into Saskatchewan.Handa and Camfield[1984] trace it
plete conductivitystructureof the Juan de Fuca plate and into northernSaskatchewan, where it bendseastwards,
underlyingasthenosphere from its birth at the ridgeto its and interpret it as a manifestation of a Proterozoic conver-
consumption under North America. The EMSLAB main gent plate boundary. Guptaet al. [1985] track the NACP
experimental phase occurred in the summer of 1985. The furthereastwards into the HudsonsBayregion.
land-based part of the experiment involved a 67-station Another regionof probableancientconvergence occurs
magnetometerarray stretchingfrom northern California to in the Grenvilleprovinceof easternCanada.Again,there
southern British Columbia and from the coast eastward to is a deep crustal conductorwhich Kurtz [1982] ascribesto
Idaho and Nevada, a 15-stationMT array on a profile pore fluids. This conductor may extend down the
stretching170 km in from the centralOregoncoastwhich Appalachians.
Mareschalet al. [1983]found that a major
 CHAVE AND BOOKER:ELECTROMAGNETIC
INDUCTIONSTUDIES 995

conductor paralleling the trend of the mountains must et al. [1985] through controlledsourcework at Roosevelt
exist west of a magnetometer profile collected in Hot Springs,UT, coveredby Ward[1983]. Othergeother-
northwesternGeorgia. An interestingactive sourceexper- mal work in the general area includes the MT survey at
iment in the samearea by Thompson et al. [1983] usinga Cerro Prieto just south of the California-Mexico border by
1 km diameter loop source reported a conductor beneath Araki [1982] and a variety of other examplestreated by
the station at depths coincident with the base of the Berktold[1983]. Examplesof non-geothermalwork in the
megathrustdiscoveredby COCORP. This lends support westernUS are givenby Frischknect andRaab [1984],who
to the COCORP interpretation of a sedimentary structure demonstratethe superiority of time-domain EM over con-
beneath the crystallinerocksof the overthrust. An exam- ventional resistivitytechniquesto detectfault structuresat
ple of a conductor in a Tertiary convergent zone is the Nevada Test Site, a magnetometer array study by
presentedin Stanley's[1984] interpretationof the Cascade Towle[1984], which demonstratesthe existenceof a con-
geomagneticanomaly. ductive zone associatedwith the Mesa Butte fault system
An ancient divergentplate boundarysometimescalled in north central Arizona, and the examination of the
the KeweenawanRift is responsiblefor the mid-continent channelingof current at tidal periodsin the San Andreas
gravity high several hundred km east of the NACP.fault zone [Johnstonet al., 1983]. Prieto et al. [1985]
Youngand Rogers[1985] and Youngand Repasky[1986] present an interesting study in which MT and potential
have used MT to investigatesmall scalestructuresassoci- field data are integratedto producea regionalmodel of the
ated with this ancient rift. However, Prugger and Woods Columbia River basalt plateau.
[1984] reexaminedold magnetometerarray data over this
feature, and concludedthat no major conductivitystruc- OCEANIC STUDIES
ture was involved. It is probablethat virtually all of the
deep, cratonicconductivitystructuresare associatedwith Over the past four years, the nature of oceanic EM
old convergentboundaries[Gough,1983]. It is presum- induction studieshas undergonesome substantialchanges,
ably only there that conductivesedimentsand pore fluids and new directions and applications for this type of
can be carriedto great depths. researchare now reaching fruition. The use of controlled
Modern rifts are quite different from the ancient ones, sources to sound the sediments, crust, and uppermost
and most of the induction research in the southwestern mantle beneath the sea is yielding unique information
US has focused on the Rio Grande Rift and associated about the electrical conductivity in this virtually unex-
structures.Ander et al. [1984] briefly outline a large MT plored region of the earth. The applicationof EM princi-
data base collected under the auspices of DOE in New ples to the study of ocean water motions holds the prom-
Mexico and Arizona, and then present a detailed discus- ise of new insight into heat transportand barotropicflow.
sion of 119 audiomagnetotelluric (AMT) and 25 MT sta- In addition, the more traditional MT method continuesto
tionsin a 161 km: regionof the JemezLineament. A 2D be applied in new locales, giving valuable measurements
modelling effort leads them to the conclusionthat a highly of deeper structure.
conductive body rises to within 20 km of the surface. The Scripps MT results from the Marianas region and
They interpret this as evidencefor partial melt. However, on the East Pacific Rise were summarized in the last qua-
Jiraceket al. [1983] argueagainstpartialmelt as the direct drennial report, and have subsequentlybeen published
cause of high crustal conductivityin the nearby Rift, and [Filloux, 1982a, 1982b]. Other recent seafloorMT work
find that the crust is less conductive in a zone interpreted has been performed east of Japan in 1981, in the Bay of
as containing partial melt by seismic reflection profiling Plenty near New Zealand in 1982, in the Tasman Sea off
than in nearby regions which appear not to have melt. of Australia in 1984, and in conjunctionwith EMSLAB in
They suggestthat the conductoris probably hot water and 1985.
that partial melt has actually disrupted a cap rock which The Japan MT profile, located between the island and
traps the hot water. A final paper on the Rio Grande Rift the JapanTrenchwasreviewedby Yukutake et al. [1983].
by Keshetand Hermance[1986] reconcilesolder magne- Four magnetometer-electrometerpairs were deployed by
tometer array data which were previously interpreted as the Scrippsgroup for two months at distancesof up to
requiring a deep conductor with more recent MT data 600 km from Honshu, while new seafloorfluxgate magne-
which require a shallower structure. tometers [Segawaet al., 1982, 1983] were placednearer
Another large AMT data set in the Questa Caldera of the Japanesecoast. A notable feature of the data is the
northern New Mexico is presentedby Long [1985]. It strong coast effect, marked by large vertical magnetic
consistsof stationsevery 3 km in a 318 km• regionwhich fluctuations on the shelf and slope and very small ones on
are interpreted by patching together and contouring 1D the deepseafloor. Parkinsonvectorswith an amplitudeof
Bostick inversions of the logarithmic average of the 1.9 were seen on the slope, and the peak values occurred
response functions. This paper, as well as Ander et al. at periodsnear 50 minutes. It is probablethat this is the
[1984], demonstratethe need to find better ways to fully result of electric currents flowing both above and beneath
present the information contained in very large data sets. the seafloor observation point. It is interesting to note
Most of the work in the western US and particularly in that a typical oceanicconductivityprofile with a rise in
the Great Basin between the Sierras and the Rockies conductivitybelow 100 km is seen at the deepestsite, yet
reported in the literature has been concentrated on geoth- a tectonically-similar location in the Marianas [Filloux,
ermal targets. It rangesfrom the reconnaissancestudy of 1982a] does not contain this feature.
the Long Valley caldera and environs by Hermanceet al. In 1984, a set of eight sites in the Tasman Sea were
[1984] and work at Coso Hot Springsreviewedby Wright occupiedby the Scrippsgroup during a joint investigation
996 CHAVEAND BOOKER:
ELECTROMAGNETIC
INDUCTIONSTUDIES

withthe Australian
NationalUniversity.The resultsfrom crust has come from the application of controlled source
a singlesite have been published[Ferguson et al., 1985]. induction methods. Beckeret al. [1982] and Becker [1985]
The Tasman Sea electricfield data are contaminatedby a describeseveral experiments using a large scale resistivity
large componentof oceanicorigin, presumablyassociated method in a deep (• 1500 m) DSDP borehole on the
with nearby western boundary currents that are dynami- Costa Rica Rift. The method is useful for the inference of
cally analogousto the Gulf Stream. As a result, good MT conductivity in a zone of 20--50 m radius about the hole.
responsefunctions could be obtained only in the period Conductivities of •0.1 S/m were found in the upper pil-
range of 20 minutes to 10 hours, reducingthe resolving low lavas of the oceanic crust, decreasing sharply to
power of the data. The response functions also exhibit •0.002 S/m in the underlyingdike complexnear the base
substantial skew and anisotropy. Inversion of the of seismic layer 2. Using Archie's Law, the inferred
responsefunctions suggestsunusually high conductivityat apparent porosity varies from 10% in the pillow lavas to
shallow depths, although the lack of any resolution about 2% at depth, and three porosity zones were
analysismakes this result difficult to assess. observed which correspondroughly in location to seismic
In the summer and fall of 1985, an oceanic component layers 2A, 2B, and 2C.
of EMSLAB involving 40 seafloorpressure,vertical and Frequency-domain controlled source measurements in
horizontal electric, and magnetic instruments from the the sea are being performedby groupsin both Canadaand
US, Canada, Japan, and Australia was deployed between the US. The former work is based on a vertical wire
the coastof Oregon and Washingtonand the Juan de Fuca source extending from seafloor to sea surface and ener-
Ridge about 500 km offshore. Three east-west lines of gized by a surface ship together with a series of seafloor
instruments were laid out, and the middle one coincided horizontal magnetic receivers. The method is a variant of
in latitude with the MT profile in central Oregon. The the magnetometric resistivity method. Edwards et al.
seafloor data are being analyzed in conjunction with the [1985] describe the first use of the method in an inlet off
land array describedearlier. of British Columbia, in which a conductivity profile
A number of workers have suggesteda correlationof through a thick sedimentary section was obtained. Nobes
the depth to conductor inferred from seafloor MT and et al. [1986] give resultsfrom a similarsoundingin the
lithosphericplate age, usually based on linearized model Middle Valley of the Juan de Fuca Ridge through a thick
fitting or inversion of the data. Oldenburget al. [1984] hemipelagicsequenceoverlying basalticbasement.
reanalyzedthe responsefunctions from three seafloorsites Cox et al. [1986] presentsomepreliminaryresultsfrom
of different age using the nonlinear inversionalgorithms a deep controlled source sounding using a seafloor hor-
of Parker. They showedconclusivelythat distinct models izontal electric dipole source and a series of horizontal
were requiredby the data from different age regionsof the electric field receiversplaced up to 70 km away. Signals
plate, but the monotonictrend of increasingdepth to con- were quite identifiableat the longestrangesat frequencies
ductor with age Could not be fully supported. This was up to 24 Hz. A series of simple models could be fit to the
due in large part to unexpectedlylow resolvingpower for data and are typified by a 5 km crustal layer of moderate
the data, as evidencedby the diversity of models that fit (•0.001 S/m) conductivityoverlyinga resistivehalfspace
them equallywell. Oldenburg[1983] useda new extremal of conductivity5x 10-5 S/m. The low conductivityin the
inversion method to further quantify the low resolving uppermost mantle requires a low volatile content in the
power of seafloor MT data. This problem is due to the rocks to be consistentwith laboratory data. However, the
narrow, two decaderange of usablefrequenciesin seafloor conductivity of the oceanic lithosphere cannot be this
MT. It is not likely that improvements in instrumentation small everywhere, or the resulting electrical isolation of
will dramaticallyimprove this situation, and other methods the ocean from the conductivedeeper mantle would pro-
will be required to investigateshallow electricalconduc- duce large electrostatic fields at the ocean boundaries
tivity in particular. Future applicationsof seafloor MT in extendingwell into the oceanbasinsthat are not observed.
the oceans will probably be aimed at the delineation of Chaveand Cox [1983] used a simplemodel of this effect
tectonic structure using arrays of instruments in the spirit and measured oceanic MT responses to show that the
of EMSLAB. Array deployments also allows the use of average conductivity of the oceanic lithosphere is
GDS, which is not as limited as MT by low frequencyoce- •.001 S/m. This suggeststhat high conductivity paths
anic noise. must exist within the ocean basins which short circuit a
Geomagnetic induction in transoceanictelecommunica- resistive ocean-deepmantle path, assumingthe Cox et al.
tions cableshas been studied extensivelyby a group at [1986] resultsare typicalof the oceaniclithosphereaway
AT&T Bell Labs [Lanzerottiet al., 1985, 1986; Meloni et from tectonic complications. These high conductivity
al., 1983, 1984; Thomsonet al., 1986]. A review of the pathwaysare probablyassociatedwith mid-oceanridgesor
subjectappearsin Meloni et al. [1983]. In the most recent continental
shelves.
of thesepapers,Lanzerottiet al. [1986]note a highcorrela- There has also been a substantial rise in interest in EM
tion of the voltage in a nearly E-W cable with the E-W induction by ocean water currents in recent years, both
magneticfield. They suggesta N-S flowingtelluriccurrent due to its possible role as a noise source for seafloor MT
off of the coast to explain the data. This is probably and for oceanographic
applications.Chave[1984b]investi-
another manifestation of the enhanced coast effect noted
gated EM induction by oceanic internal waves. Oceanic
by Yukutakeet al. [1983], with electriccurrentflowingin internal wave model spectra are similar in magnitude to
both the ocean and underlying rock on the continental seafloor magnetic field spectraat frequenciesbetween 0.2
shelf and slope. Contemporaneousseafloormagneticand and 1 cph, depending on ionosphericactivity and latitude,
cableobservationswould be inval•able in sortingthis out. and could serve as a source of contamination in seafloor
New information on the conductivity of the oceanic data. The effect is more severe in the vertical magnetic
 CHAVEANDBOOKER:
ELECTROMAGNETIC
INDUCTIONSTUDIES 997

component and at high latitudes, hence may be more seri- geomagneticfield at the core-mantleboundary. However,
ous in a GDS than in an MT context. Backus[1982] showedthat a criticallayer will exist in the
Chaveand Filloux [1985] and Bindoffet al. [1986] have mantle that screens out an internal electric field if a con-
examined a usually neglectedportion of the seafloor EM ductivity minimum occursbetweenthe earth's surfaceand
field, the vertical electric component. In the absenceof the core-mantle boundary, complicating the interpretation
marked structural heterogeneity,this part of the EM field of the cable data.
is entirely of oceanicorigin, reflecting the east-westwater Time domain or transient EM methods have received
velocity at the point of measurement,and has no counter- an increasingamount of attention, mostly concentratedon
part on land. Both of these studies showed that the verti- shallow exploration targets of industrial interest. The
cal electric field spectrum can be explained by the internal advantagesof time domain over frequency domain EM
wave model of Chave [1984b] between about 1 cph and include reduced sensitivity to near-surface lateral hetero-
1 cpd. At longer periods, mesoscale oceanic motions geneityand freedomfrom contaminationby the portion of
dominate the data, and the ocean tides are also prominent. the signal travelling through air, since measurementsare
This type of measurement will undoubtedly find increased typicallymade when the transmitteris off. Hoverstenand
applicationin oceanography,particularlyin the study of Morrison [1982] derived the transient magneticfields of a
long-period,bottom-trappedwave phenomena. loop sourceinsideof a 1D layeredmedium, demonstrating
The induction of electric currents in submarine cables graphically
the "smokeringS'diffusionform of the induced
by ocean flows, and especiallyintense western boundary fieldsand givinga simplepictureof the effectsthat struc-
currentslike the Gulf Stream, has been known for many ture has on surface observations. Oristaglioand Hohmann
years. Sanford [1982a] providesa thorough review of [1984] give a similarview of some2D time domainprob-
theoretical and observational aspects of cable measure- lems. Keller et al. [1984] describe an electric dipole
ments. Larsenand Sanford[1985] report on the analysis source,loop receiversystemdesignedfor deep sounding.
of long-termmeasurements collectedon a cableunder the Fittermanand Stewart[1986] presenta time domain model
Florida Current. After correction for geomagnetic and studyof four groundwater explorationsituations.Edwards
tidal induction, they found agreementof the cable and and Chave[1986] and Cheesman et al. [1986] suggestsome
more conventionaloceanographic measurementsof tran- systemsand applications for transientEM on the seafloor.
sport to within 2%. A varietyof other time domainproblemsare coveredin a
At periods of several days to months, the baroclinic specialissueof Geophysics [Nabighian,1984]. Numerical
(i.e., depth-dependent) variabilityof the oceanis larger models for 2D/3D time domain EM are also appearing
than the barotropic(i.e., depth-independent) variability, [Adhl'djaja
et al., 1985;SanFilipoandHohmann,1985;San-
and hence dominates conventional point measurements Filipoet al., 1985;Newmanet al., 1986],and will provide
made in the deep ocean. The seafloorhorizontal electric insight for the interpretationof field data, althoughthe
field yieldsa depth-averaged estimateof the water velo- difficulty of obtainingsuch solutionscannot be overem-
city, and is well-suitedto studiesof the poorlyunderstood phasized.
barotropiccomponent.Sanford[1986] reviewsthe use of Laboratorymeasurements of crustand mantle materials
EM principlesto examine barotropicflow. A major exper- are reviewed by Hinze [1982], Duba [1982], and
iment to use EM methods for oceanographicpurposesis L•stovicVkovd [1983]. The complicatingeffects of inade-
now beingconductedby Scripps.In the summerof 1986, quate samplecharacterization and physiochemical changes
44 seafloorpressurerecorders,magnetometers,and hor- duringthe measurementprocessare emphasizedby Duba
izontal and vertical electric field instruments were [1982]. Recent work on olivine has revealed that point
deployedin a 1500 km by 800 km array for one year to defectsplay a crucialrole in determiningits electricalcon-
studythe wavenumberstructureof barotropicwind-forced ductivity [Schocket al., 1984; $chockand Duba, 1985;
flow, as well as pursuea variety of other oceanographicSato,1986].
and geophysical objectives.This experiment,calledBEM- Kariya and Shankland[1983] compiledlaboratorycon-
PEX (BarotropicElectroMagneticand Pressure EXperi- ductivitymeasurements for dry maficand siliciclower cru-
ment), is the first use of EM techniquesin the deepocean stal rocks as a function of temperature. Using best-fitting
basinsfor oceanographic purposesat long periods. curves of conductivityagainst temperature, they showed
that the results could be used to infer an upper bound to
MISCELLANEOUS TOPICS in situ temperaturefrom MT measurements.Buildingon
this study,Shankland
andArtder[1983]expandedthe data
Most natural source EM studies are concerned with base and comparedthe resultsto field EM and heat flow
induction in the conducting earth by external current sys- measurements. They showed that plots of conductivity
tems. At very long periods, induction from the core againstreciprocaltemperaturewere reasonablyordered,
dynamo below the earth's surface may also be important. but that all of the field data had conductivity values orders
Backus[1983] determinedthe weightedaveragesof man- of magnitudeabove the laboratoryones, suggestingthe
tle conductivity that can be inferred by considering the presenceof volatiles. They also found that the inferred
earth as a linear filter, with a geomagneticjerk as input at temperaturesfor tectonically-active
areaswere systemati-
the core-mantle boundary and an output at the earth's cally above those under shields,and suggestedthat EM
surface. Lanzerotti et al. [1985] used a •4500km surveys could be used to predict regional geotherms.
telecommunications cable to determine the DC component These results provide considerableencouragementthat
of the earth potential, obtaining a nearly null result. This EM field data can be interpreted in terms of fundamental
may require nearly equal toroidal and poloidal parts for the physicalparameters.
998 CHAVE
ANDBOOKER:
ELECTROMAGNETIC
INDUCTION
STUDIES

Refe r'e noe 8

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