Functions of the circulatory system

The systemic circulation is the portion of the circulatory system is the network of veins, arteries and
blood vessels that transports blood from heart, services the body's cells and then re-enters the heart, the
Mayo Clinic noted.

Diseases of the circulatory system

One of the most common diseases of the circulatory system is arteriosclerosis, in which the fatty
deposits in the arteries causes the walls to stiffen and thicken the walls

An aortic aneurysm occurs when the aorta is damaged and starts to bulge or eventually tear, which can
cause severe internal bleeding. This weakness can be present at birth or the result of atherosclerosis,
obesity, high blood pressure or a combination of these conditions, according to Weinberg.

Peripheral arterial disease (also known as PAD) typically involves areas of narrowing or blockage
within an artery, according to Jay Radhakrishnan, an interventional radiologist in Houston, Texas. In
addition, chronic venous insufficiency (also known as CVI) involves areas reflux (or backward flow)
within the superficial veins of the lower extremities.

PAD is diagnosed with noninvasive testing including ultrasound, CT scan and/or MRI. Ultrasound is
the least expensive of these methods, but also gives the least amount of detail, as CT and MRI show a
much higher degree of anatomic detail when identifying areas of narrowing/blockage within an artery.
CVI is diagnosed with ultrasound as the venous reflux can be measured accurately by ultrasound,
which ultimately guides treatment.

Functions of the digestive system

Digestion begins with the mouth. Even the smell of food can generate saliva, which is secreted by the
salivary glands in the mouth, contains an enzyme, salivary amylase, which breaks down starch. Teeth,
which are part of the skeletal system, play a key role in digestion. In carnivores, teeth are designed for
killing and breaking down meat. Herbivores’ teeth are made for grinding plants and other food to ease
them through the digestion process.

Swallowing pushes chewed food into the esophagus, where it passes through the oropharynx and
hypopharynx. At this point, food takes the form of a small round mass and digestion becomes
involuntary. A series of muscular contractions, called peristalsis, transports food through the rest of the
system. The esophagus empties into the stomach, according to the National Institutes of Health (NIH).

The stomach’s gastric juice, which is primarily a mix of hydrochloric acid and pepsin, starts breaking
down proteins and killing potentially harmful bacteria, according to ASGE. After an hour or two of
this process, a thick semi-liquid paste, called chyme, forms.

Diseases of the digestive system

Among the most widely known diseases of the digestive system is colon cancer.
While CRC gets a great deal of attention, many diseases and conditions of the digestive system —
including irritable bowel syndrome, diverticulitis, GERD (acid reflux) and Crohn’s disease — can be
chronic and are difficult to diagnose and treat, according to Dr. Larry Good, a gastroenterologist
affiliated with South Nassau Communities Hospital. “With many of these diseases, blood work and
colonoscopies all looks normal, so there is an absence of red flags.”

Many of the diseases of the digestive system are tied to the foods we eat, and a number of sufferers can
reduce their symptoms by restricting their diets, Good said. “Of course no one wants to hear that they
can’t eat certain foods, but many times, eliminating acidic things from the diet, such as tomatoes,
onions, and red wine, can have an impact,” Good said.

Function of the endocrine system

The endocrine system is made up of the pituitary gland, thyroid gland, parathyroid glands, adrenal
glands, pancreas, ovaries (in females) and testicles (in males), according to the Mayo Clinic.
The word endocrine derives from the Greek words "endo," meaning within, and "crinis," meaning to
secrete, according to Health Mentor Online. In general, a gland selects and removes materials from the
blood, processes them and secretes the finished chemical product for use somewhere in the body. The
endocrine system affects almost every organ and cell in the body, according to the Merck Manual.

Although the hormones circulate throughout the body, each type of hormone is targeted toward certain
organs and tissues, the Merck Manual notes. The endocrine system gets some help from organs such as
the kidney, liver, heart and gonads, which have secondary endocrine functions. The kidney, for
example, secretes hormones such as erythropoietin and renin.

The thyroid also secretes a range of hormones that affect the whole body. "Thyroid hormones impact a
host of vital body functions, including heart rate, skin maintenance, growth, temperature regulation,
fertility and digestion," said Dr. Jerome M. Hershman, a professor of medicine at the David Geffen
School of Medicine at UCLA and author of the thyroid sections of the Merck Manual.

"In this way, the thyroid gland is the body's master metabolic control center," said Cindy Samet, a
chemistry professor at Dickinson College in Carlisle, Pennsylvania. "Brain, heart and kidney function,
as well as body temperature, growth and muscle strength — and much more — are at the mercy of
thyroid function."

Diseases of the endocrine system

It is also important to understand the patient's health history as well as the family history, Myers noted.
Infections and medications such as blood thinners can also cause adrenal deficiencies.

Diabetes is treated with pills or insulin injections. Managing other endocrine disorders typically
involves stabilizing hormone levels with medication or, if a tumor is causing an overproduction of a
hormone, by removing the tumor. Treating endocrine disorders takes a very careful and personalized
approach, Myers said, as adjusting the levels of one hormone can impact the balance of other
hormones.

Hormone imbalances can have a significant impact on the reproductive system, particularly in women,
Loh explained.

Another disorder, hypothyroidism, a parathyroid disease, occurs when the thyroid gland does not
produce enough thyroid hormone to meet the body's needs.

Hypoglycemia, also called low blood glucose or low blood sugar, occurs when blood glucose drops
below normal levels. This typically happens as a result of treatment for diabetes when too much
insulin is taken. While Loh noted that the condition can occur in people not undergoing treatment for
diabetes, such an occurrence is fairly rare.

Immune System: Function

the role of the immune system — a collection of structures and processes within the body — is to
protect against disease or other potentially damaging foreign bodies. When functioning properly, the
immune system identifies a variety of threats, including viruses, bacteria and parasites, and
distinguishes them from the body's own healthy tissue, according to Merck Manuals.

Diseases of the immune system

. Asthma and allergies also involve the immune system. A normally harmless material, such as grass
pollen, food particles, mold or pet dander, is mistaken for a severe threat and attacked.

Other dysregulation of the immune system includes autoimmune diseases such

as lupus and rheumatoid arthritis.

"Finally, some less common disease related to deficient immune system conditions are antibody
deficiencies and cell mediated conditions that may show up congenitally," Lau told Live Science.

Disorders of the immune system can result in autoimmune diseases, inflammatory diseases and cancer,
according to the NIH.

FUNCTION OF THE LYMPJATIC SYSTEM

The lymphatic system is a network of tissues and organs that help rid the body of toxins, waste and
other unwanted materials. The primary function of the lymphatic system is to transport lymph, a fluid
containing infection-fighting white blood cells, throughout the body.

The lymphatic system primarily consists of lymphatic vessels, which are similar to the circulatory
system's veins and capillaries. The vessels are connected to lymph nodes, where the lymph is filtered.
The tonsils, adenoids, spleen and thymus are all part of the lymphatic system.

Diseases and disorders of the lymphatic system

The most common diseases of the lymphatic system are enlargement of the lymph nodes (also known
as lymphadenopathy), swelling due to lymph node blockage (also known as lymphedema) and
cancers involving the lymphatic system,

When bacteria are recognized in the lymph fluid, the lymph nodes make more infection-fighting white
blood cells, which can cause swelling. The swollen nodes can sometimes be felt in the neck,
underarms and groin, according to the NLM.

Lymphadenopathy is usually caused by infection, inflammation, or cancer. Inflammatory or

autoimmune conditions occur when a person's immune system is active, and can result in enlargement
of lymph nodes..
Lymphoma is cancer of the lymph nodes. It occurs when lymphocytes grow and multiply
uncontrollably. There are a number of different types of lymphoma, according to Dr. Jeffrey P.
Sharman, director of research at Willamette Valley Cancer Institute and medical director of
hematology research for the U.S. Oncology Network.

Nervous System: Function & Diseases

the nervous system has two main subdivisions: the somatic, or voluntary, component; and the
autonomic, or involuntary, component. The autonomic nervous system regulates certain body
processes, such as blood pressure and the rate of breathing, that work without conscious effort,
according to Merck Manuals. The somatic system consists of nerves that connect the brain and spinal
cord with muscles and sensory receptors in the skin.

iseases of the nervous system

 Epilepsy, in which abnormal electrical discharges from brain cells cause seizures
 Parkinson's disease, which is a progressive nerve disease that affects movement
 Multiple sclerosis (MS), in which the protective lining of the nerves is attacked by the body's
immune system
 Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), also known as Lou Gehrig's disease, is a motor neuron
disease which weakens the muscles and progressively hampers physical function
 Huntington's disease, which is an inherited condition that cause the nerve cells in the brain to
degenerate
 Alzheimer's disease, which covers a wide range of disorders that impacts mental functions,
particularly memory.

Mayo Clinic also noted that the nervous system can also be affected by vascular disorders such as:

 Stroke, which occurs when there is bleeding on the brain or the blow flow to the brain is
obstructed;
 Transient ischemic attack (TIA), which are mini-type strokes that last a shorter period of time but
mimic stroke symptoms; and
 Subarachnoid hemorrhage, which is specifically bleeding in the space between your brain and the
surrounding membrane that can be the result of a trauma or rupturing of a weak blood vessel;

Muscular System: Functions & Diseases

e 650 muscles in the body not only support movement — controlling walking, talking, sitting,
standing, eating and other daily functions that people consciously perform — but also help to maintain
posture and circulate blood and other substances throughout the body, among other functions.

Diseases of the muscular system

Common primary muscle disorders include inflammatory myopathies, including polymyositis, which
is characterized by inflammation and progressive weakening of the skeletal muscles; dermatomyositis,
which is polymyositis accompanied by a skin rash; and inclusion body myositis, which is characterized
by progressive muscle weakness and wasting. Other common disorders are muscular dystrophies and
metabolic muscle disorders, he said. Muscular dystrophy affects muscle fibers.
Motor neuron disorders affect the nerve cells that supply muscles, Schabbing said. The most
recognizable motor neuron disease is amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, or ALS, commonly known as Lou
Gehrig's disease.

Reproductive System: Functions & Diseases

he reproductive system is a collection of internal and external organs — in both males and females —
that work together for the purpose of procreating, according to the Cleveland Clinic. Due to its vital
role in the survival of the species, many scientists argue that the reproductive system is among the
most important systems in the entire body.

Diseases of the female reproductive system

There are two tests used to screen for cervical cancer. The Pap test screens for cellular changes in the
cervix called cytology, while the genital human papillomavirus (HPV) test identifies the presence of
infection with high-risk HPV, the strains that are linked to cervical cancer, according to Dr. Charles
Dubin, an OB/GYN in Santa Monica, Calif.
Another common disorder of the female reproductive system is a vaginal yeast infection, which is
caused by a yeast fungus in the vagina. Most can be successfully treated with over-the-counter
medications, according to WebMD.
Endometriosis is a condition where that normally lines the inside of your uterus — the endometrium
— ends up outside of uterus, most commonly in the ovaries, bowel or the tissue lining your pelvis. The
endometrial tissue becomes trapped, causing pain, according to the Mayo Clinic.
Pelvic inflammatory disease can involve an infection of any of the female reproductive organs,
including the uterus and ovaries. Sexually transmitted diseases, such as gonorrhea and chlamydia, are
typical causes of pelvic inflammatory disease, according to the NIH. "Any of these STIs can cause
serious and potentially long term reproductive problems that include chronic pelvic pain and
infertility," Ross said.

Diseases of the male reproductive system

Treatment for prostate cancer depends on the age, severity of the disease and other health conditions
of the patient. The usual treatments for prostate cancer are surgery, radiation therapy, watchful waiting,
and hormonal treatment, according to the Cleveland Clinic.
Erectile dysfunction is a common condition that affects about one in 10 males on a long-term basis,
the Cleveland Clinic noted. It can be linked to vascular disease, neurological disorders such as
Multiple Sclerosis, trauma and psychological episodes.
Prostatitis typically involves swelling or inflammation of the prostate gland, according to the Mayo
Clinic, and can cause painful or difficult urination and ejaculation. Nearly half of all men experience
symptoms of prostatitis at some point during their lives.
Skeletal System: Function & Diseases
T he adult human skeletal system consists of 206 bones, as well as a network of tendons, ligaments and
cartilage that connects them. The skeletal system performs vital functions — support, movement,
protection, blood cell production, calcium storage and endocrine regulation — that enable us to survive

Diseases of the skeletal system

Osteoporosis is a prevalent disease, particularly among the elderly, resulting in the loss of bone tissue.
In osteoporosis, bone loses calcium, becomes thinner and may disappear completely, according to
Wei. Osteomalacia is a softening of the bones
Arthritis is a group of more than 100 inflammatory diseases that damage joints and their surrounding
structures.

Also common is scoliosis, a side-to-side curve in the back or spine, often creating a pronounced "C" or
"S" shape when viewed on an x-ray of the spine. About 90 percent of people will experience lower
back pain at some point in their lives,
One of the much rarer diseases of the skeletal system is bone cancer.

Bursitis is a disorder that most commonly affects the shoulder and hip joints, Nace said. It is caused by
an inflammation of the bursa, small fluid-filled bags that act as lubricating surfaces for muscles to
move over bones.

The skeletal system is also susceptible to breaks, strains and fractures. While bones are meant to
protect the body's vital organs, it takes about 10 to 16 pounds of pressure to break an average bone.
Bones such as the skull and femur are much tougher to break.

Respiratory System: Function and Diseases

The human respiratory system is a series of organs responsible for taking in oxygen and expelling
carbon dioxide. The primary organs of the respiratory system are lungs, which carry out this exchange
of gases as we breathe.

Diseases of the respiratory system

COPD

COPD is the intersection of three related conditions — chronic bronchitis, chronic asthma and
emphysema, Chaisson told Live Science. It is a progressive disease that makes it increasingly difficult
for sufferers to breath.

Asthma

Asthma is a chronic inflammation of the lung airways that causes coughing, wheezing, chest tightness
or shortness of breath, according to Tonya Winders, president of the Allergy & Asthma Network.
These signs and symptoms may be worse when a person is exposed to their triggers, which can include
air pollution, tobacco smoke, factory fumes, cleaning solvents, infections, pollens, foods, cold air,
exercise, chemicals and medications.

Lung cancer
Lung cancer is often associated with smoking, but the disease can affect non-smokers as well. Every
year, about 16,000 to 24,000 Americans die of lung cancer, even though they have never smoked. In
2018, the American Cancer Society estimates there will be about 234,030 new cases of lung cancer
(121,680 in men and 112,350 in women) and around 154,050 deaths from lung cancer (83,550 in men
and 70,500 in women).
Urinary System: Functions & Diseases
he urinary system, also known as the renal system, produces, stores and eliminates urine, the fluid
waste excreted by the kidneys. The kidneys make urine by filtering wastes and extra water from blood.
Urine travels from the kidneys through two thin tubes called ureters and fills the bladder. When the
bladder is full, a person urinates through the urethra to eliminate the waste.
Diseases of the urinary system

Incontinence is another common disease of the urinary system. "The most common bladder problems I
see in my practice in women are frequent Problems can come in the form of a pelvic prolapse, which
can result in leakage and can be the result of a vaginal delivery. Then there is the overactive bladder,
"which we see a lot and is not related to having children or trauma,"

Interstitial cystitis (IC), also called painful bladder syndrome, is a chronic bladder condition, primarily
in women, that causes bladder pressure and pain and, sometimes, pelvic pain to varying degrees,
according to the Mayo Clinic. It can cause bladder scarring, and can make the bladder less elastic.
While the cause isn't known, many people with the condition also have a defect in their epithelium, the
protective lining of the bladder.
Kidney stones are clumps of calcium oxalate that can be found anywhere in the urinary tract. Kidney
stones form when chemicals in the urine become concentrated enough to form a solid mass,

Kidney failure, also called renal failure and chronic kidney disease, can be a temporary (often acute)
condition or can become a chronic condition resulting in the inability of the kidneys to filter waste
from the blood.

Bladder cancer is diagnosed in about 75,000 Americans each year and is more frequent in men and the
elderly according. It is predicted that 81,190 new cases of bladder cancer (about 62,380 in men and
18,810 in women) and bout 17,240 deaths from bladder cancer (about 12,520 in men and 4,720 in
women) will occur in 2018, according to American Cancer Society. The symptoms, including back or
pelvic pain, difficulty urinating and urgent/and or frequent urination, mimic other diseases or disorders
of the urinary system.