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Curves in Space
Curves in Space
Introduction
Curvature
kT0 k
κ= .
kr0 k
To check the equivalence to the previous expression
for curvature, use the chain rule and recall from
ds
Eq. (2) of Week 2, that = kr0 k. Hence
dt
dT dT dt 1 1
= = T0 = T0 0 .
ds dt ds ds/dt kr k
Discussion
Frenet coordinates
b = −κ. Therefore,
Binormal vector
B=T×N
Torsion
Discussion
3.3 Summary
r0 T0
T= N= B=T×N
kr0 k kT0 k
kT0 k 1 N · B0
κ= ρ= τ =−
kr0 k κ kr0 k
Arc-length parametrisation
T0
T = r0arc N= B=T×N
kT0 k
1
κ = kT0 k ρ= τ = −N · B0
κ
κ = kr0arc × r00arc k
d
where 0 is understood to be .
ds
Beads on a wire
T0 = κN B0 = −τ N
N0 = τ B − κT.
Additional Material
Cross product
or
a2 a3 a1 a3 a1 a2
a×b=
i−
j+
k (4)
b2 b3 b1 b3 b1 b2
or symbolically
i j k
a × b = a1 a2 a3 (5)
b1 b2 b3
where θ is the smaller angle between a and b (0 ≤ θ ≤ 180◦ ), and n̂ is a unit vector perpendicular to
both a and b, whose direction is given by the right-hand rule. (See Wikipedia or other sources for the
right-hand rule.)
Properties:
• a × a = 0.
• a × b = −b × a.
• a × b is perpendicular to both a and b, i.e. a · (a × b) = b · (a × b) = 0.
• The magnitude of a × b follows directly from the second definition above: ka × bk = kakkbk sin θ.
Of particular importance is that ka × bk is the area of the parallelogram formed from a and b.
d
r(t) × s(t) = r0 (t) × s(t) + r(t) × s0 (t)
• If r(t) and s(t) are differentiable vector functions,
dt
There are many uses for the cross product. We have already used it to define the binormal vector
as B = T × N. From the properties of cross product we know that B is perpendicular to both T and
N, and the its length is kTkkNk sin 90◦ = 1. You should be able to work out that B0 is perpendicular
to both T and B.
35 MA134 Geometry and Motion
Triple product
Important later is the triple product (a × b) · c. Writing c = c1 i + c2 j + c3 k and using the above
definition of cross product (together with properties of the dot product):
a1 a2 a3
a2 a3 a1 a3 a1 a2
(a × b) · c = c1 − c2 + c3 = b1 b2 b3
b2 b3 b1 b3 b1 b2
c1 c2 c3
The importance of the triple product is that it gives the volume of the parallelepiped formed from
the three vectors a, b, and c. Specifically, let P be the parallelepiped with three adjacent sides given
by vectors a, b, and c. Then the volume of P is given by the absolute value of the determinant
a1 a2 a3
b1 b2 b3
c1 c2 c3
Moreover, if the three vectors a, b, and c are order correctly (using the right-hand rule so that c is
“in the direction” of a × b) then the absolute value is not needed.
Finally, note that:
(a × b) · c = a · (b × c)
Planes
You should know that given a non-zero vector n in R3 , the set of points
P = {r ∈ R3 | r · n = 0}
is a plane passing through the origin. The vector n is said to be normal to the plane.
More generally, if the plane with normal vector n does not pass through the origin, but is known
to pass through come point r0 , then it is given by the set of points
P = {r ∈ R3 | (r − r0 ) · n = 0}
Using r = (x, y, z), r0 = (x0 , y0 , z0 ), and n = (A, B, C), the equation for the plane can be written in
standard form as
A(x − x0 ) + B(y − y0 ) + C(z − z0 ) = 0
One can instead describe the set of points on plane as follows. Given two non-zero, non-colinear
vectors a and b in R3 . These vectors generate a plane passing through the origin
P = {r ∈ R3 | r = ua + vb, (u, v) ∈ R2 }
or a plane passing through a point r0
P = {r ∈ R3 | r = ua + vb + r0 , (u, v) ∈ R2 }
By the properties of the cross product, a vector normal to this plane is n = a × b.