Impression of Psychology

With hopes of satisfying curiosity, many people

listen to talk-radio counselors and psychics to
learn about others and themselves.

Dr. Crane (radio-shrink) Psychic (Ball gazing)

The Need for Psychological Science

Intuition & Common Sense

Many people believe that intuition and common
sense are enough to bring forth answers regarding
human nature.

Intuition and common sense may aid queries,

but they are not free of error.
Limits of Intuition

Personal interviewers may

rely too much on their “gut
feelings” when meeting with
job applicants.
Hindsight Bias

Hindsight Bias is the

“I-knew-it-all-along” phenomenon.

After learning the outcome of an event, many people

believe they could have predicted that very outcome.
We only knew the dot.com stocks would plummet
after they actually did plummet.
Overconfidence

Sometimes we think we
know more than we actually
know. Anagram
How long do you think it
WREAT WATER
would take to unscramble
these anagrams? ETYRN ENTRY
People said it would take
GRABE BARGE
about 10 seconds, yet on
average they took about 3
minutes (Goranson, 1978).
Psychological Science

1. How can we differentiate between

uniformed opinions and examined
conclusions?
2. The science of psychology helps make
these examined conclusions, which
leads to our understanding of how
people feel, think, and act as they do!
The Need for
Psychological Science

The biases and errors of people’s

everyday judgments illustrate the
need for:

3. Skepticism
4. Humility
5. Critical Thinking
The Need for
Psychological Science

 Critical Thinking
 thinking that does
not blindly accept
arguments and
conclusions
 examines
assumptions
 discerns hidden
The Amazing Randi--Skeptic values
Goals of Psychology
 Describe
 Explain
 Predict
 Control

behavior and mental

processes
Scientific Method
 Formulate testable questions
 Develop hypotheses
 Design study to collect data
 Experimental
 Descriptive
 Analyze data to arrive at conclusions
 Use of statistical procedures
 Use of meta-analysis
 Report results
 Publication
 Replication
The Need for
Psychological Science
 Theory
 an explanation using an integrated set of
principles that organizes and predicts
observations
 For example, low self-esteem contributes to depression.
 Hypothesis
 a testable prediction
 often implied by a theory
 People with low self-esteem are apt to feel more
depressed.
Research Observations

Research would require us to administer

tests of self-esteem and depression.
Individuals who score low on a self-esteem
test and high on a depression test would
confirm our hypothesis.
The Need for
Psychological Science
The Need for
Psychological Science

 Operational Definition
 a statement of procedures
(operations) used to define research
variables
 Example-
 intelligence may be operationally defined
as what an intelligence test measures
 Testing the effects of vitamin C on the
health of students could be measured by
the number of colds experienced during
the month.
The Need for
Psychological Science

 Replication
 repeating the essence of a
research study to see whether
the basic finding generalizes to
other participants and
circumstances
 usually with different
participants in different
situations
Thinking Critically …

Description
 The Case Study
 The Survey
 Naturalistic Observation
Thinking Critically …
Correlation
 Correlation and Causation
 Illusory Correlation
 Perceiving Order in Random
Events
Thinking Critically …
Experimentation
 Exploring Cause and Effect
 Evaluating Therapies
 Independent and Dependent
Variables
Description

Psychologists describe
behavior using case studies,
surveys,
and naturalistic observation
Description
Case Study
 Psychologists
study one or
more
individuals in
great depth in
the hope of
revealing
things true of
us all Is language uniquely human?
Case Study
Clinical Study

A clinical study is a form

of case study in which

http://behavioralhealth.typepad.com
the therapist
investigates the
problems associated
with a client.
Th e Case Study
Met hod
Defined as a thorough, exhaustive study of a person.
It includes personal, educational, family and work
histories.
Advantage:
A wealth of background information about
one person
Disadvantages:
Information cannot be generalized to others;
also, researcher’s biases can influence
subject’s behavior.
Description
 Survey
 technique for ascertaining the self-
reported attitudes or behaviors of people
 usually by questioning a representative,
random sample of people
Survey

Wording Effect
Wording can change the results of a survey.
 Even subtle changes in the order or wording of
questions can have major effects.

Q: Should cigarette ads and pornography be

allowed on television? (not allowed vs. forbid)
The Sur vey M ethod
Defined as asking questions of a carefully selected
group of people and tabulating their answers.
Advantage:
Information can be gathered about
feelings, opinions, and behavior
patterns.
Disadvantages:
Interpretation difficult; people lie;
sample may not be representative.
Description
 False Consensus Effect
 tendency to overestimate the extent
to which others share our beliefs and
behaviors
 Population
 all the cases in a group, from which
samples may be drawn for a study
Samples and Sampling
❚ Sample
selected segment of the population
❚ Representative sample
closely parallels the population on
relevant characteristics
❚ Random selection
every member of larger group has equal
change of being selected for the study
sample
Survey

Random Sampling
If each member of a
population has an equal
chance of inclusion into a
sample, it is called a
random sample
(unbiased). If the survey
sample is biased, its
results are not valid. The fastest way to know about the
marble color ratio is to blindly
transfer a few into a smaller jar and
count them.
Description
 Naturalistic
Observation
 observing and
recording
behavior in
naturally
occurring
situations without
trying to
manipulate and
control the
Naturalistic Observation
Observing and recording the behavior of animals in the wild
and recording self-seating patterns in a multiracial school
lunch room constitute naturalistic observation.

Courtesy of Gilda Morelli

 The Naturali stic
Obser vat ion
Method
Defined as observing behaviors in their
natural settings.
Disadvantages:
Researcher cannot interact with the
subject.
Researcher may interpret subject’s
responses incorrectly.
 Correlation
When one trait or behavior accompanies
another, we say the two correlate.
Indicates strength
of relationship
(0.00 to 1.00)

Correlation
coefficient r = + 0.37

Correlation Coefficient is a
statistical measure of the Indicates direction
relationship between two variables. of relationship
(positive or negative)
Coefficient of Correlation
Numerical indication of magnitude
and direction of the relationship
between two variables
❙ Positive correlation— two variables
vary systematically in the SAME
direction
❙ Negative correlation— two
variables vary systematically in
OPPOSITE directions
Scatterplots

Perfect positive
correlation (+1.00)

Scatterplot is a graph comprised of points that are

generated by values of two variables. The slope
of the points depicts the direction, while the
amount of scatter depicts the strength of the
relationship.
Scatterplots

Perfect negative No relationship (0.00)

correlation (-1.00)

The Scatterplot on the left shows a negative correlation,

while the one on the right shows no relationship between
the two variables.
Data
Data showing height and temperament in people.
Scatterplot
The Scatterplot below shows the relationship
between height and temperament in people. There
is a moderate positive correlation of +0.63.
 Correlation
Three Possible Cause-Effect Relationships
could cause
(1)
Depression
Low self-esteem
or

(2) could cause

Low self-esteem
Depression

or
Low self-esteem
(3)
Distressing events could cause and
or biological
predisposition
Depression
Illusory Correlation
The perception of a relationship where no relationship
actually exists. Parents conceive children after adoption.
Do not
Conceive conceive

Confirming Disconfirming
Adopt
evidence evidence

Michael Newman Jr./ Photo Edit

Do not Disconfirming Confirming
adopt evidence evidence
Two Random Sequences

 Your chances
of being dealt
either of these
hands is
precisely the
same: 1 in
2,598,960.
Order in Random Events

Given large numbers of random outcomes, a few

are likely to express order.

Jerry Telfer/ San Francisco Chronicle

Angelo and Maria Gallina won two California
lottery games on the same day.
Experimentation

Exploring Cause and Effect

Like other sciences, experimentation is the

backbone of psychology research.
Experiments isolate causes and their effects.
Exploring Cause & Effect

Many factors influence our behavior.

Experiments (1) manipulate factors that interest
us, while other factors are kept under (2) control.

Effects generated by manipulated factors isolate

cause and effect relationships.
Experimentation
 Experiment
 an investigator manipulates one or
more factors (independent variables)
to observe their effect on some
behavior or mental process (the
dependent variable)
 by random assignment of
participants the experiment controls
other relevant factors
Experimentation
 Placebo
 an inert substance or condition that may be
administered instead of a presumed active
agent, such as a drug, to see if it triggers
the effects believed to characterize the
active agent
 Double-blind Procedure
 both the research participants and the
research staff are ignorant (blind) about
whether the research participants have
received the treatment or a placebo

Experimentation
 Experimental Condition
 the condition of an experiment that
exposes participants to the treatment,
that is, to one version of the independent
variable
 Control Condition
 the condition of an experiment that
contrasts with the experimental treatment
 serves as a comparison for evaluating the
effect of the treatment
Experimental Design
❚ Random sample— every member of
the population being studied should have
an equal chance of being selected for the
study
❚ Random assignment— assigning
subjects to experimental and control
conditions by chance.
❚ Randomization helps avoid false
results
Experimentation
 Independent Variable
 the experimental factor that is
manipulated
 the variable whose effect is being studied
 Dependent Variable
 the experimental factor that may change
in response to manipulations of the
independent variable
 in psychology it is usually a behavior or
mental process
Conducting
Psychology
Experiments
Hypothesis
• Scientific method
• Hypothesis
formulation

=
 Operationalization
• Operationalization: to put an experiment into a form
that allows researchers to test the hypothesis
• Independent variable: the variable that researchers
control
• Dependent variable: the variable that researchers are
studying
• What other questions should the researchers ask?

Independent Dependent
variable variable
 Operationalization
• Confounding
variables
• Reliability
• Validity

SCARY
= ?
What makes a How can we tell if
movie scary? a child has had a
What else might nightmare?
cause nightmares?
 Experimenting, Recording
Results, Conclusion
Conducting the experiment Recording the results

Drawing conclusions

does cause
 Correlation vs. Causation
Correlation versus causation: just because two things
are related doesn’t mean one thing caused the other

Just because happened happened

and then

doesn’t necessarily mean that

caused
 Replication and Theory
Development

=
• Replication Experiment 1
• Theory results
development Experiment 2
results =
Experiment 3
results =
THEORY: =
 X amount of sleeping pills helps the healthy
Hypothesis person with insomnia to sleep better.

Independent Variable Sleeping pills Placebos

Experimental Control
Groups Group Group

Dependent Variable # of people who # of people who

had restful nights had restful nights

The hypothesis proves to be incorrect. People taking the sleeping

pill over a period of days had more insomnia than before. They
had less restful sleep than the people in the control group.
 ψ
Basic E thical Guidelines
for Psy cholo gical
Researcher
Do no harm.
s
Accurately describe risks to potential subjects.
Ensure that participation is voluntary.
Minimize any discomfort to participants.
Maintain confidentiality.
Do not unnecessarily invade privacy.
Remove any misconceptions caused by deception
(debrief).
Provide results and interpretations to participants.
Treat participants with dignity and respect.
Evaluating Media Reports
• Be skeptical of sensationalist
claims
• Goal of “shock” media is ratings
• Look for original sources
• Separate opinion from data
• Consider methodology and
operational definitions
• Correlation is not causality
• Skepticism is the rule in science.
Experimentation
FAQ

Q1. Can laboratory experiments illuminate

everyday life?

Ans: Artificial laboratory conditions are

created to study behavior in simplistic
terms. The goal is to find underlying
principles that govern behavior.
FAQ
Q2. Does behavior depend on one’s culture?

Ans: Even when specific attitudes and

behaviors vary across cultures, as they often
do, the underlying processes are much the
same.

Ami Vitale/ Getty Images

FAQ

Q3. Does behavior vary with gender?

Ans: Yes. Biology determines our sex, and

culture further bends the genders.
However, in many ways woman and man
are similarly human.
Ethic al Issues

❚ Is it right to
experiment on
animals?
❚ What limits should
there be?
FAQ
Q4. Why do psychologists study animals?

Ans: Studying animals gives us the

understanding of many behaviors that may
have common biology across animals and
humans.

D. Shapiro, © Wildlife Conservation Society

FAQ

Q5. Is it ethical to experiment on animals?

Ans: Yes. To gain insights to devastating

and fatal diseases. All researchers who deal
with animal research are required to follow
ethical guidelines in caring for these
animals.
Ethic al Issues
❚ Is it right to experiment on
people?
❚ What limits should there be?
FAQ

Q6. Is it ethical to experiment on people?

Ans: Yes. Experiments that do not involve

any kind of physical or psychological harm
beyond normal levels encountered in daily
life may be carried out.
FAQ
Q7. Is psychology free of value judgments?

Ans: No. Psychology emerges from people

who subscribe to a set of values and
judgments.

© Roger Shepard
FAQ

Q8. Is psychology potentially dangerous?

Ans: It can be, but it is not. The purpose of

psychology is to help humanity with
problems such as war, hunger, prejudice,
crime, family dysfunction, etc.
Statistical Reasoning
Statistical procedures analyze and interpret data
allowing us to see what the unaided eye misses.

Composition of ethnicity in urban locales

Frequency Distribution

Frequency Distributions
• 1. What are they?
– Tables
– Graphs
• Bar
• Histogram
Di str ibution s
Percentile Rank--the percentage
of scores that fall below a
particular score. You can never
have a percentile rank of 100
because you are part of that 100.
(You can’t exceed yourself!)
Bar Graphs (histograms)--
Percentile ranks and distributions
can be represented in bar graphs or
histograms.
Histogram
Statistical Reasoning

100%
Percentage
still functioning 99
after 10 years
98

97

96

95

Our Brand Brand Brand

Brand X Y Z
Brand of truck
Statistical Reasoning
100%
Percentage
90
still functioning
80
after 10 years
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Our Brand Brand Brand
Brand X Y Z
Brand of truck
Statistical Reasoning
 Mode
 the most frequently occurring score in a
distribution
 Mean
 the arithmetic average of a distribution
 obtained by adding the scores and then
dividing by the number of scores
 Median
 the middle score in a distribution
 half the scores are above it and half are
Median
❚ Separates the upper and low half of
distribution
1) mean and median not necessarily
equal
2) median much less sensitive to
extremes
Mode

• Most common value

• Always present in the distribution
• May be more than one mode
• Used mainly with nominal data
• Plays minor role in statistical
inference
Statistical Reasoning
A Positively Skewed Distribution

15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 90 475 710
70

Mode Median Mean

One Family Income per family in thousands of dollars
Skewed Distributions

Positive Negative
Mean > Median Mean < Median
Measures of Variation

 Range
 the difference between the highest and
lowest scores in a distribution
Measures of Variation

Standard Deviation: A computed measure of how

much scores vary around the mean.
Table 1.4
Myers: Psychology, Eighth Edition
Copyright © 2007 by Worth Publishers
Vari ati on

❚ Normal Curve--a bell-shaped curve

that describes the normal
distribution of many types of data.
Most scores fall near the mean and
fewer and fewer fall near the
extremes. In a normal curve the
mean, median and mode are all near
the middle.
Making Inferences

A statistical statement of how frequently an

obtained result occurred by experimental
manipulation or by chance.
Corr ela tion
Regression toward the mean—
falling back to the norm. It can fuel
the illusion that uncontrollable
events correlate with out actions.
Stati sti cal I nf erence

When is it safe to generalize from a

sample?
1.Representative Samples are better than
biased samples.
2.Less-variable observations are more
reliable than those that are more variable.
3.More cases are better than fewer. Larger
samples are better than smaller ones.
4.As the size of a sample increases, the size
of the standard deviation is most likely to
decrease
When is a difference
sig nificant?

When sample averages are reliable

and the difference between them is
large we say the difference has
statistical significance (it reflects a
real difference not due to chance or
variation between samples).
For psychologists this difference is
measured through alpha level set at 5
percent.