FUNDAMENTAL OPTICS

Optical Coatings
& Materials
PARAXIAL FORMULAS

SIGN CONVENTIONS
The validity of the paraxial lens formulas is dependent on adherence to the following sign conventions:

Material Properties
FOR LENSES: (refer to figure 4.1) FOR MIRRORS:
s is + for object to left of H (the first principal point) ƒ is + for convex (diverging) mirrors
s is – for object to right of H ƒ is – for concave (converging) mirrors
s" is + for image to right of H" (the second principal point) s is + for object to left of H
s" is – for image to left of H" s is – for object to right of H
m is + for an inverted image s" is – for image to right of H"
m is – for an upright image s" is + for image to left of H"
m is + for an inverted image

Optical Specifications
m is – for an upright image

When using the thin-lens approximation, simply refer to the left and right of the lens.

Fundamental Optics
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Gaussian Beam Optics

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Machine Vision Guide

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Figure 4.1 Sign conventions

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marketplace.idexop.com Paraxial Formulas A95

 FUNDAMENTAL OPTICS

Typically, the first step in optical problem solving is to points, known as the hiatus, s+s” becomes the object-to-
Fundamental Optics

select a system focal length based on constraints such as image distance. This simplification, called the thin-lens
magnification or conjugate distances (object and image approximation, can speed up calculation when dealing
distance). The relationship among focal length, object with simple optical systems.
position, and image position is given by
EXAMPLE 1: OBJECT OUTSIDE FOCAL POINT
A 1 mm high object is placed on the optical axis, 200 mm
  
= + (4.1) left of the left principal point of a LDX-25.0-51.0-C
f s s″
(f = 50 mm). Where is the image formed, and what is the
magnification? (See figure 4.2.)
This formula is referenced to figure 4.1 and the sign
conventions given in Sign Conventions.
  
= −
By definition, magnification is the ratio of image size to s″ f s
object size or   
= −
s ″  

s″ h″ s ″ = . mm
m= = .(4.2)
s h s ″ .
m= = = .
s 

This relationship can be used to recast the first formula

into the following forms: or real image is 0.33 mm high and inverted.

(s + s ″)
f =m (4.3) object
( m + )
(s + s ″)
f = msm F2 image

f = ((m s ++s″)) F1
f = m +
sm( m + )
f = s + (4.4)s″
f = msm+ 
( s +
= m +  +s ″ )
ff = s + s ″ )
200 66.7
f = m (+m + m
 Figure 4.2 Example 1 (f = 50 mm, s = 200 mm, s” = 66.7 mm)
s) += ss″+ s ″
s( m +msm
f = ++ m
f = 
m +  + (4.5)
s( m + ) = s +ms ″
s + s″ EXAMPLE 2: OBJECT INSIDE FOCAL POINT
= + ) = s + s ″
sf( m
 The same object is placed 30 mm left of the left principal
m++
m point of the same lens. Where is the image formed, and
s( m + ) = s + s ″ (4.6) what is the magnification? (See figure 4.3.)

where (s+s”) is the approximate object-to-image   

distance. = −
s ″  
s ″ = − mm
With a real lens of finite thickness, the image distance,
s ″ −
object distance, and focal length are all referenced to the m= = = −.
s 
principal points, not to the physical center of the lens.
By neglecting the distance between the lens’ principal or virtual image is 2.5 mm high and upright.

A96 Paraxial Formulas 1-505-298-2550

 FUNDAMENTAL OPTICS

Optical Coatings
& Materials
exit angle with the optical axis is the same as its entrance
angle). This method has been applied to the three
previous examples illustrated in figures 4.2 through 4.4.
Note that by using the thin-lens approximation, this

Material Properties
F1 F2 second property reduces to the statement that a ray
object passing through the center of the lens is undeviated.
image

Figure 4.3 Example 2 (f = 50 mm, s = 30 mm, s”= 475 mm) F-NUMBER AND NUMERICAL APERTURE
The paraxial calculations used to determine the
necessary element diameter are based on the concepts
of focal ratio (f-number or f/#) and numerical aperture
object

Optical Specifications
(NA). The f-number is the ratio of the focal length of the
lens to its “effective” diameter, the clear aperture (CA).

F2 image F1
f .
f-number = (4.7)
CA

Figure 4.4 Example 3 (f = 450 mm, s = 50 mm, s”= 425 mm)

To visualize the f-number, consider a lens with a positive
focal length illuminated uniformly with collimated light.

Fundamental Optics
In this case, the lens is being used as a magnifier, and the The f-number defines the angle of the cone of light
image can be viewed only back through the lens. leaving the lens which ultimately forms the image. This
is an important concept when the throughput or light-
EXAMPLE 3: OBJECT AT FOCAL POINT gathering power of an optical system is critical, such as
A 1 mm high object is placed on the optical axis, 50 when focusing light into a monochromator or projecting
mm left of the first principal point of an LDK-50.0-52.2-C a high-power image.
(f =450 mm). Where is the image formed, and what is the
magnification? (See figure 4.4.) The other term used commonly in defining this cone

Gaussian Beam Optics

angle is numerical aperture. The NA is the sine of the
angle made by the marginal ray with the optical axis. By
  
= − referring to figure 4.5 and using simple trigonometry, it
s ″ − 
can be seen that
s ″ = − mm
s ″ −
m= = = −.
s  CA
NA = sinv =  (4.8)
f

Machine Vision Guide

or virtual image is 0.5 mm high and upright.
A simple graphical method can also be used to and
determine paraxial image location and magnification.
This graphical approach relies on two simple properties
of an optical system. First, a ray that enters the system 
NA = .  (4.9)
parallel to the optical axis crosses the optical axis at the ( f-number )
focal point. Second, a ray that enters the first principal
point of the system exits the system from the second
principal point parallel to its original direction (i.e., its
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 FUNDAMENTAL OPTICS

Ray f-numbers can also be defined for any arbitrary ray

Fundamental Optics

if its conjugate distance and the diameter at which it

intersects the principal surface of the optical system are
known.

CA f
2
v

principal surface

Figure 4.5 F-number and numerical aperture

NOTE
Because the sign convention given previously is not
used universally in all optics texts, the reader may notice
differences in the paraxial formulas. However, results will
be correct as long as a consistent set of formulas and
sign conventions is used.

A98 Paraxial Formulas 1-505-298-2550