International Symposium

ON

SHIPBUILDING TECHNOLOGY
(ISST 2007)
- Fabrication and Coatings –

6-7 September 2007

Osaka University, Japan

PAPERS Vol.2

The Japan Society of Naval Architects and Ocean Engineers (JASNAOE)

&

The Royal Institution of Naval Architects (RINA)

 International Symposium
ON
SHIPBUILDING TECHNOLOGY
(ISST 2007)
- Fabrication and Coatings –
6-7 September 2007
Osaka University, Japan

Organized by
The Japan Society of Naval Architects and Ocean Engineers (JASNAOE)
and
The Royal Institution of Naval Architects (RINA)

Supported by
National Maritime Research Institute (NMRI), Japan
and
LLOYD’S REGISTER ASIA

© 2007: JASNAOE-RINA

JASNAOE and RINA are not, as a bobies, responsible for the

opinion expressed by the individual author or speakers.

Japan Society of Naval Architects and Ocean

Engineers (JASNAOE)
Yasaki White Building 3F
2-12-9 Shiba-Daimon, Minato-ku 105-0012
Tokyo, Japan
Telephone +81 (0)3 3438 2014

THE ROYAL INSTITUTEION OF NAVAL

ARCHITECTS
10 Upper Belgrave Street
London SW1X 8BQ, United Kingdom
Telephone: +44 (0)20 7235 4622
Shipbuilding Technology ISST 2007, Osaka, 2007

CONTENTS
Development of Anti-Corrosion Steel for the Bottom Plates of Cargo Oil Tanks 1
S. Sakashita, A. Tatsumi, H. Imamura and H. Ikeda (Kobe Steel, Japan)

Development of Corrosion Resistant Steel for Cargo Oil Tanks 5

K. Kashima, Y. Tanino, S. Kubo, A. Inami and H. Miyuki (Sumitomo Metal Industries,
Japan)

Development of New Anti-Corrosion Steel for COTs of Crude Oil Carrier 11

S. Imai, K. Katoh, Y. Funatsu, M. Kaneko (Nippon Steel Corporation, Japan),
T. Matsubara, H. Hirooka and H. Sato (Nippon Yusen Kaisha, Japan)

Onboard Evaluation Results of Newly Developed Anti-Corrosion Steel for COTs of VLCC 21
and Proposal for Maximum Utilization Method
S. Imai, K. Katoh, Y. Funatsu, M. Kaneko (Nippon Steel Corporation, Japan),
T. Matsubara, H. Hirooka and H. Sato (Nippon Yusen Kaisha, Japan)

Prevention of COT Bottom Pitting Corrosion by Zinc-Prime 29

Y. Inohara, T. Komori, K. Kyono, H. Shiomi (JFE Steel Corporation, Japan) and
T. Kashiwagi (Mitsui O.S.K.Line, Japan)

Development of Corrosion Resistant Steel for Bottom Plate of COT 33

Y. Inohara, T. Komori, K. Kyono, K. Ueda, S. Suzuki and H. Shiomi (JFE Steel
Corporation, Japan)

The Third Generation Shop Primer and Japanese Shipbuilding Construction Process 37
Y. Seki, K. Kondou and O. Harada (Chugoku Marine Paint, Japan)

The Development of Water Based Shop Primers 45

M. Hindmarsh (International Paint, Japan)

Coating Conditions in Water Ballast Tank, Void Space and Cargo Oil Tank of Aged Ships 51
and Required Performance Standard of Protective Coatings for New Ships
T. Murakami, T. Sasaki, M. Kuwajima, M. Koori (Shipbuilders' Association of Japan),
A. Takada and M. Oka (National Maritime Research Institute, Japan)

Pitting Corrosion on Epoxy-Coated Surface of Ship Structures 59

T. Nakai, H. Matsushita and N. Yamamoto (Class NK, Japan)

Compositional Analysis of Soluble Salts in Bresle Extraction from Blocks in Newbuilding 65

Shipyards
S. S. Seo, S. M. Son, C. H. Lee and K. K. Baek (Hyundai Heavy Industries, Korea)

Effect of Edge Preparation Methods on Edge Retention Rate of Epoxy Coatings for Ship's 71
Ballast Tanks
S. S. Seo, K. K. Baek, C. S. Park, C. H. Lee and M. K. Chung (Hyundai Heavy Industries,
Korea)

© 2007: JASNAOE-RINA i
Shipbuilding Technology ISST 2007, Osaka, 2007

Study on the Alternatives to the Secondary Surface Preparation in Protective Coatings 77

N. Osawa (Osaka University, Japan), K. Umemoto (Kawasaki Shipbuilding Japan),
Y. Nambu (Universal Shipbuilding, Japan) and T. Kuramoto (Mitsui Engineering and
Shipbuilding, Japan)

Leaching Phenomena of Antifouling Agent from Ship Hull Paint 85

R. Kojima, O. Miyata, T. Shibata, T. Senda (National Maritime Research Institute, Japan)
and K. Shibata (Chiba Institute of Technology, Japan)

Space and Time Distribution of Antifouling Agent in Aquatic Environment 93

K. Shibata (Chiba Institute of Technology, Japan), V. A. Sakkas (University of Ioannina,
Greece), S. Sugasawa, Y. Yamaguchi, F. Kitamura and T. Senda (National Maritime
Research Institute, Japan)

Acute Toxicity of Pyrithione Photodegradation Products to Some Marine Organisms 99

T. Onduka, K. Mochida, K. Ito, A. Kakuno, K. Fujii (National Research Institute of
Fisheries and Environment of Inland Sea, Japan) and H. Harino (Osaka City Institute of
Public Health and Environmental Sciences, Japan)

Research for the Risk Assessment of Anti-Fouling System 107

E. Yoshikawa (Chugoku Marine Paint, Japan), N. Nagai (Japan NUS), K. Namekawa (Arch
Chemicals Japan), K. Shibata (Chiba Institute of Technology, Japan) and T. Senda
(National Maritime Research Institute, Japan)

The Benefits of Foul Release Coatings 117

I. Walker (International Paint Japan)

Antifouling Systems to Reduce Biocide 121

S. Tashiro, M. Doi, Y. Kiseki and M. Ono (Chugoku Marine Paint, Japan)

A New Prediction Method for Deterioration of the Corrosion Protection System of the Oil 127
Storage Barges
H. Sugimoto (Shipbuilding Research Centre of Japan) and Y. Horii (Japan Oil, Gas and
Metals National Corporation, Japan)

Matching the Coating Process to Shipyards Needs 133

R. Kattan (Safinah Ltd., UK)

SI Technology and its Unique Paint Property 141

N. Sasaki and M. Takayama (Nippon Paint Marine Coatings, Japan)

Corrosion Protection Regulations to Improve Ship’s Safety? 145

T. Lohmann and D. Engel (Germanischer Lloyd, Germany)

Class NK's Course of Action to Protective Coating - Guidelines for Performance Standard 149
for Protective Coating Contained in IMO Resolution MSC.215 (82)
T. Matsui (Class NK, Japan)

© 2007: JASNAOE-RINA ii
Shipbuilding Technology ISST 2007, Osaka, 2007

LEACHING PHENOMENA OF ANTIFOULING AGENTS FROM SHIPS!HULL PAINTS

*Ryuji KOJIMA, Osamu MIYATA, Toshiaki SHIBATA and Tetsuya SENDA, National Maritime Research
Institute, Japan
Kiyoshi SHIBATA, Chiba Institute of Technology, Japan

SUMMARY

The effects of pH, dissolved ion content and relative water velocity on the release rate of an antifouling agent, cuprous
oxide, from ships’ hull paint have been investigated by rotating cylinder tests. Additionally, test paint panels were
attached to a vessel and recovered after a certain period of voyage for the validation of the laboratory tests. In the initial
period, the release rates are influenced by pH, dissolved ion content and water velocity, but once after a certain period of
test, those effects become less significant. These phenomena can be explained as follows. When the paint film is fresh,
the rate is controlled by chemical reaction, the surface and/or diffusion layer in the water phase governs the rate. After
the antifouling substance in the paint film leached out from the near-surface region, a diffused layer (leached layer), that
has little antifouling agent remained, is formed at the surface of the coating, and the diffusion in that layer can be a rate-
determining process. The development of the leached layer is affected by a balance between the leaching rate of the
antifouling ingredient and paint resin determined by the chemical properties and speed of the water. Thus, the leaching
rates of antifouling agents are affected by the history of the paint in the water.

aquatic environment [2, 3, 4].

1. INTRODUCTION
The deleterious effects from the unwanted
accumulation caused by the chemical substances have
been much attention as aquatic environmental problems
for many years. A significant route of exposure into an
environment is entry of antifouling agents into the ocean
environment as they are released from paint coatings, and
the deleterious effects of the ships’ hull paint have been
recognised [1]. Therefore, a leaching rate of antifouling
ingredient is a critical parameter for the environmental
risk assessment in a calculation of predicted environ-
mental concentration (PEC) values. In order to obtain the
PEC values of antifouling ingredients from ships’ hull
paints, it is necessary to estimate the leaching rate of
antifouling ingredients from ships particularly when they
voyage or berth in a harbour and an inland sea. Therefore,
release rates of antifouling ingredients from the coatings
of ships’ hull are required by a number of regulatory
authorises according to American Society for Testing and
Materials (ASTM) and the International Standard
Organization (ISO) which codify the methods to measure
the release rate of an antifouling ingredient into the
The test method, however, has not yet been
validated to reflect the release rate of antifouling
ingredients from coatings. Therefore it should not be
used in the process of conducting environmental risk
assessments at present. Furthermore, the test method
serves only as a guide for characterization of the early
stage of the release as well as estimating the steady state
leaching rate of antifouling ingredients from coatings.
Further, it is stated in ISO (15181-1) that actual release
rate of antifouling ingredients from ships’ hull paints into
the environment will depend on many factors such as
ship operating schedules, length of service, berthing,
conditions, paint condition, as well as temperature,
salinity, pH, pollutants and bacterial effect [5].
At the National Maritime Research Institute
(NMRI), various test methods have been investigated to
determine the release rate of antifouling coatings, for
examples, the circulation channel and the rotating
cylinder methods, in order to obtain more meaningful
data for the evaluation of environmental risk assessment
factors. As for the rotating cylinder tests, it has been
found that the release rate is influenced by pH, dissolved
ion content and the rotation speed of test cylinder [6].

Fig. 2: Photograph of each individual measuring container

Fig. 1: Photograph of the rotating cylinder test apparatus: in the measuring tank. The effects of pH, dissolved ion
the test cylinder holding tank is on the left and the test content or rotation speed of test cylinder on the leaching
cylinder measuring tank is on the right. rate of antifouling agents are investigated at this stage.

© 2007: JASNAOE-RINA 85
Shipbuilding Technology ISST 2007, Osaka, 2007
However, the leaching phenomena of antifouling
ingredients actually occurring in the ocean are considered
to be much different from those observed in the
laboratory tests [5, 7].
To investigate the leaching phenomena of the
antifouling ingredients, laboratory and field tests have
been carried out to clarify the factors affecting the release
rate. In addition, observations of cross-sections of
coatings by scanning electron microscope (SEM) were
carried out to analyze the leaching mechanisms.
2. EXPERIMENT
2.1 ROTATING CYLINDER TEST
Rotating cylinder tests were conducted
complying with ASTM, D 6442 [2]. Test cylinders are
made of polycarbonate (Nalugene) of 12 cm in height,
and of approximately 6.4 cm in diameter, coated with
commercially available paints A and B (Chugoku Marine
Paints, Ltd.) as a band of 10 cm around the exterior
circumference of the test cylinder to provide paint film of
200 cm2. The paint film can be immersed and rotated in
the release rate measuring container. Prior to the test,
cylinders were once immersed in for 24 hours. The tests
were carried out under specified conditions in rotation
speed of cylinder, chemicals of testing solution
(substituted ocean water (S.O.W.), de-ionized water
(D.I.W.), phosphate buffer solution (P. B. S.)), and pH.
The reason of being selected these test conditions is that
the antifouling ingredients will be affected by dissolved
ion contents, pH and hydrodynamic conditions of
exposure. The test apparatus is shown in Figures 1 and 2.
After the test, the cylinder was placed in a
holding tank which was filled with S. O. W. The
temperature and pH were controlled at 25" and 8.2,
respectively. At a certain period of the holding interval,
the cylinder was transferred from the holding tank to
individual measuring container. The test solution of 1500
ml was controlled at a specified temperature and leaching
conditions as a similar manner to those mentioned above.
The rotation period of the measurement of the release
rate is up to 1 hour. After the measurement, the cylinder
was placed back to the holding tank, and the alternate
process of immersion of holding tank and the
measurement of release rate was repeated. In addition,
Table 1: The formulation of coating (weight mix, wt%)
Formulation Coating
A B
Cu2O 45-50 45-50
ZnO 5-10 5-10
Xylene 8 16
Ethylbenzene 9 12
n-Buthylalcohol 1-5 -
Propylene glycol monomethylether 5-10 -
TiO2 - 5
Copper pyrithione 1-5 1-5
) These data are derived from MSDS of Chugoku Marine
Paint, Ltd.
© 2007: JASNAOE-RINA
the standard test conditions were settled at a rotating
speed of 60 r. p. m. and a temperature of 25" in S. O. W.
solution. The release rate was determined by measuring
the concentration of copper in the resultant test solution
by atomic absorption spectroscopy (AAS).
Table 2. The anticipated effects on the leaching rate of
antifouling ingredients
Effective Factors1)
Rotation Speed 0, 30, 60, 180 r.p.m, respectively
Ions Substitued Ocean Water (S.O.W.), De-
ionized Water (D.I.W), and Phosphate
Buffer Solution (P.B.S.)2)
pH 7 , 8, and 9 (Controlled by dil. HNO3 and
NaOH of 0.1N)
Historical Records Rotation Speed, Ions, and pH
of Immersion3)
1) The test solution was prepared at pH 8.2 exception of pH
experiment.
2) P.B.S. was prepared by KH2PO4-Na2HPO4.
3) Test cylinders were conducted each case of leaching test
up to 24 hours in advance, respectively.
2.2 THE COATINGS
The tested coatings were the films of the
commercially available anti-fouling paints SGP-500
(designed as Coating A in the present paper) and SGP-
1000 (Coating B) both provided by Chugoku Marine
Paints, Ltd. The both paints contain cuprous oxide
(Cu2O) as a main anti-fouling ingredient. The chemical
compositions of Coatings A and B are shown in Table 1
from the Material Safety Data Sheet (MSDS).
2.3 THE LEACHING RATE OF TEST PANELS
ATTACHED ON THE VESSEL
In order to investigate the leaching phenomena
in actual sea, the release rate of anti-fouling ingredient
Fig.3: Photograph of the attachment of test panel at the bilge
keel of Seiun Maru (a training vessel, National Institute for
Sea Training). Paints A and B were coated on the panel.
86
Shipbuilding Technology ISST 2007, Osaka, 2007

from the test panels attached on a ship’s hull was
measured. Flat panels were prepared for Coatings A and
B on steel plates of 500mm squares with a thickness of
2mm. The plates were first sandblasted and then coated
with a zinc-rich primer on the surface. Antifouling paints
A and B were coated in a similar way as for cylinders.
The flat panels of each paint were attached on the center
position of bilge keel of the ship named Seiun Maru (a
training vessel, National Institute for Sea Training), as
shown in Figure 3. The test paint panels were recovered
after a voyage for six months. The release rate was
calculated as follows; mass concentration of copper in
the paint films was analyzed by X-ray fluorescent
spectroscopy, as shown in Table 3. The thickness of the
paint film was measured by a film thickness meter of
electromagnetic detection before and after the test. Mass
loss was obtained from the thickness reduction using the
specific gravity of the paint film, and then mass of the
leached copper was calculated.
2.4 THE LEACHING RATE OF STATIC
CONDITION RECOVERD FROM TESTS PANEL ON
THE SHIP
Another test was conducted to measure the
release rate under a static condition for two types of
panels with different situations, that is, an as-coated
panel (for control) and one after voyage for six months,
as shown in Figure 4. Before testing, the surface of the
latter one was cleaned by tap water. In order to measure
the release rate of antifouling ingredients, the panels
were immersed in S.O.W. of 20L controlled at pH 8.2 at
room temperature, and were settled in a horizontal
position with a downward direction for the paint surface
facing to S.O.W directly. The test solution was sampled
during a given time of immersion (0 hour and every 1
hour, up to 4 hours), and followed by AAS to analyze the
concentration of copper. Immersions were conducted up
to 10 days, under specified conditions by exchange
S.O.W. every day.

2.5 THE OBSERVATIONS OF CROSS-

SECTONAL SURFACE OF TEST CYLINDER BY
SEM

The test specimens were observed by SEM, as

shown in Figure 5. After the measurement of release rate
for 45 days, the test cylinders were sawed across the
paint film to give specimens. The specimens were
molded in resin, and polished. The polished cross-
sections were observed by SEM in a back-scattered
electron image mode.

3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

3.1 THE EFFECTS OF ROTATION SPEED OF

Figure 4: Photograph of the leaching rate test method for flat
panels under static conditions using fresh panels as control
and panels recovered from the Seiun Maru (pH 8.2, room
temperature).
Table 3: Elemental analysis of paints in the experiment
Paint (mass%)
Elements A B
TEST CYLINDER ON THE RELEASE RATE OF
ANTIFOULING AGENTS
Firstly, the effects of rotation speed of test
cylinder varying from 0 rpm to 180 rpm on the release
rate are shown in Figures 6 and 7, where the variation of
The Paint film layer contained
antifouling agents

B 2.27 -
C 34.12 30.28
O 25.08 25.34
Mg 1.42 1.18
Al 0.17 0.14
Si 1.08 2.78
P 0.01 0.01
S 0.84 0.58
Cl 1.36 0.23
Ca 0.03 0.35
Fe 0.40 0.35
Ni 0.02 -
Cu 27.75 34.96 The leached layer
Zn 5.39 3.82 Fig. 5: The back-scattered electron image mode by SEM at
As 0.02 - 1000-fold magnification. White colored images show the
Sn 0.06 - antifouling agents as cuprous oxide.

© 2007: JASNAOE-RINA 87
Shipbuilding Technology ISST 2007, Osaka, 2007
the release rate of copper was illustrated as a function of
the immersion time. For the both coatings, the leaching
rate of copper increased gradually with an increase in
rotation speed of cylinder in an early stage of immersion
duration up to the 25th day. In the case of 180 rpm for
both coatings, release rates are almost 4 times higher
than those in case of 0 rpm. It should be noted that even
in the 0 rpm, copper was released gradually. However,
the release rate of copper gradually decreased during the
immersion after the 30th day, where it still remained
being affected by the rotation speed of cylinder [8].
3.2 THE EFFECTS OF pH AND DISSOLVED
ION SPECIES ON THE RELEASE RATE OF
ANTIFOULING AGENTS
The effects of pH and dissolved ion species on
the release rate of copper at a rotation speed of 60 rpm
are shown in Figures 8 and 9 for Coatings A and B,
respectively. These figures show the variation in the
release rate of copper as a function of the immersion time.
In the both coatings, low pH (at pH 7) showed a great
influence on the leaching rate of copper at the initial
stage of immersion period (the first day). It showed
almost 10 times higher than other factors with an
exception of the case in P.B.S of coating A. However,
the release rate of copper decreased significantly at the
third day and gradually decreased during the immersion
test. The release rate of copper for both coatings showed
similar values at a later period of test, e. g., at the 28th
day, independent of pH and dissolved ion content [8].
Fig. 6: The variation in the leaching rate of coating A as a
function of immersion period of test cylinder during a given
time up to 45 days.
Fig. 7: The variation in the leaching rate of coating B as a
function of immersion period of test cylinder during a given
time up to 45 days.
© 2007: JASNAOE-RINA 88
3.3 COMPARISON OF RELEASE RATE
BETWEEN LABORATORY TEST (ROTATING
CYLINDER TEST) AND FIELD TEST (FLAT PANEL
TEST)
The flat panel tests were conducted using a ship
named Seiun Maru. The distance of voyage and
temperature are illustrated in Figure 10 [9]. Generally,
the thickness of film decreased more for a longer period
of voyage, and the decrease rate of film thickness
depended on both the average speed of the ship and the
temperature of ocean water.
The comparison of the release rate with or
without water flow rate between the rotating cylinder test
(60 rpm; flow rate, 0.4m/s) and the field test was shown
in Figures 11 and 12, respectively. The authors obtained
some results are summarized as follows:
• The release rate of copper decreases with
increasing test period.
• The release rates of antifouling ingredient from
coatings A and B are affected by flow rate of water.
• The release rate of antifouling ingredient of coating
B is much higher than that of coating A.
• The release rate obtained by the cylinder test when
the test period is long is almost equivalent to that
by the field test.
3.4 THE MECHANISM OF LEACHING OF
ANTIFOULING AGENTS
Fig. 8: The variation in the leaching rate of coating A as a
function of immersion period of test cylinder during a given
time up to 28 days in various effects.
Fig. 9: The variation in the leaching rate of coating B as a
function of immersion period of test cylinder during a given
time up to 28 days in various effects.
Shipbuilding Technology ISST 2007, Osaka, 2007

3.4 (a) The observation of the cross-section of

specimens by SEM
The cross-sections of specimens were observed
by SEM. Figures 13 to 16 show the cross-sectional
images of paint films after the leaching tests. In each
coating, except for the case of coating A in PBS, a
leached layer, where cuprous oxide particles were not
present, was observed at the surface of the coating.
Thicknesses of the layers with and without copper
content were measured on these images. These results are
summarized in Table 3.

3.4 (b) The mechanism of leaching rate of antifouling

Fig. 10: Profiles of voyage distance and temperature of
ocean water of Seiun Maru situation in 2007.
agents
In the case of rotating cylinder tests as
mentioned above, these phenomena can be explained as
follows. In the initial stage of leaching, the release rate of
antifouling agents is affected both by the resistance of
diffusion in the laminar film and by dissolution of
antifouling agents at the interface between the coating
and water. When the copper near the surface has been
leached out, remaining polymer forms a skeleton

Table 3. The image of cross-sectional surface of

test cylinder by SEM
Thickness of layer(!m)
Test
Run rpm Solution pH (1) (2) (1+2)

A 1 0 SOW 8.2 48.7 27.3 76.0

2 30 8.2 25.0 10.0 35.0
3 60 8.2 31.0 16.0 47.0
Fig. 11: The comparison of the leaching rate without water 4 180 8.2 24.0 24.3 48.3
flow between rotating cylinder test, field test of flat panel and
laboratory test of flat panel recovered from field test. Open 1 60 DIW 8.2 33.0 4.3 37.7
triangle, circle, square, and closed circle symbols mean the 2 PBS 8.2 48.0 0.0 48.0
leaching rate in the case of laboratory conditions, and closed 3 SOW 8.2 64.3 8.3 72.7
triangle and square symbols mean the leaching rate of field 4 SOW 7.0 100.7 13.0 113.7
tests, respectively.
B 5 SOW 9.0 49.7 7.7 57.3

1 0 SOW 8.2 36.3 17.0 53.3

2 30 8.2 54.7 11.7 66.3
3 60 8.2 75.3 14.3 89.7
4 180 8.2 51.0 20.0 71.0

1 60 DIW 8.2 62.3 5.0 67.3

2 PBS 8.2 107.0 4.0 111.0
3 SOW 8.2 64.7 6.7 71.3
4 SOW 7.0 78.7 5.0 83.7
5 SOW 9.0 98.0 4.7 102.7

(1)The layer contained

antifouling ingredient

(2) The leached layer

(1) (2)
Fig. 12: The comparison of the leaching rate with water flow (1+2) Total film thickness
between rotating cylinder test and field test of flat panel. (1+2)
Open triangle and square symbols mean the leaching rate of
rotating cylinder test of laboratory, and closed symbols mean
the leaching rate of field tests, respectively.

© 2007: JASNAOE-RINA 89
Shipbuilding Technology ISST 2007, Osaka, 2007
structure as shown in Figure 13. In this stage, cuprous
oxide reacts with water, diffuses within the surface layer
and is released into seawater.
The above scenario suggests that leaching
process changes from the surface reaction in the initial
stage to the diffusion within the leached layer in the later
stages where diffusion within the leached layer, rather
than the chemical reaction between the cuprous oxide
and seawater, should control the release rate.
Whereas, in the case of coating A in P.B.S, as
shown in picture Figure 15 (a), the leaching phenomena
of antifouling agents was quite different from others.
Because the leached layer was not formed in that case,
the surface was always affected by the surrounding of
a)
0rpm
b) 30rpm
d)
c) 60rpm 180rpm
Fig. 13: The images of cross-sectional surface of cylinders in
the case of coating A verified with the rotation speed of
cylinders at the rate from 0 rpm; (a), 30 rpm; (b), 60 rpm; (c)
and 180 rpm; (d) after immersion of the holding tank for 45
days, respectively.
a) b)
0rpm 30rpm
c) d)
60rpm 180rpm
Fig. 14: The images of cross-sectional surface of cylinders in
the case of coating B verified with the rotation speed of
cylinders at the rate from 0 rpm; (a), 30 rpm; (b), 60 rpm; (c)
and 180 rpm; (d) after immersion of the holding tank for 45
days, respectively.
© 2007: JASNAOE-RINA 90
water, like fresh paint as mentioned above. The
development of leached layer into the coating is affected
by balancing between the leaching rate of antifouling
agents and resin copolymer of coating determined by the
physical and chemical properties of water phase. It was
thought that similar manner of these phenomena could
occur in the case of field tests of flat panel.
4. CONCLUSION
The author investigated the effects of chemical
and physical properties of water phase by various tests.#
The conclusion can be summarized as follows:
• At the initial period in the rotating cylinder tests,
the leaching rates are influenced by pH, dissolved
ion content and water velocity, but after a certain
time period of leaching, those effects become
smaller.
• It is necessary to control the chemical and physical
condition of the aging tank during the aging period
of test in which the leached layer was developed.
• In the field tests, the leaching rate of copper
b) D.I.W.
c) pH9
a)P.B.S
d)
S.O.W e) pH7
Fig. 15: The images of cross-sectional surface of cylinders in
the case of coating A verified with the chemical property of
water phase, P.B.S.; (a), D.I.W.; (b), S.O.W.; (c, as control),
pH 9; (d), and pH 7; (e) after immersion of the holding tank
for 28 days, respectively.
c)
a) b)
pH9
P.B.S D.I.W.
d) e)
S.O.W pH7
Fig. 16: The images of cross-sectional surface of cylinders in
the case of coating B verified with the chemical property of
water phase, P.B.S.; (a), D.I.W.; (b), S.O.W.; (c, as control),
pH 9; (d), and pH 7; (e) after immersion of the holding tank
for 28 days, respectively.
Shipbuilding Technology ISST 2007, Osaka, 2007
decreases with increasing test period, and the
leaching rates of antifouling agents from coatings
A and B are affected by flow rate of water.
• These differences can be largely ascribed to the
different hydrodynamic conditions of exposure; the
immersed panels have been subjected only to tidal
flow, whereas the vessels have alternated between
periods under tidal flow at pier-side and active in-
service periods at the vessel’s operating speed.
• The authors have also conducted tests of flat panels
attached on the keel of a ship Seiun Maru and
recovered the panels after a certain period of
voyage for the verification of the laboratory tests.
The release rate of the cylinder test could be almost
equivalent to that of this field test, as the leaching
period became long.
• But it is recognized that this investigation may be
confined to matters on this experiment of data for
copper release rate.
• The different phenomena of leaching rate of
antifouling agents can be explained by the
development of the leached layer, which formed
near the surface of coating.
• The historical record of the coating in aquatic
condition affects the leaching rate of antifouling
agents.
5. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors would like to express their gratitude
to Chugoku Marine Paints, Ltd., for preparation of flat
panels and cylinders for tests. The authors are also very
grateful to Mr. Kaneto Watanabe of National Institute for
Sea Training for the field test by Seiun Maru. This study
has been done under the financial support by the Ministry
of the Environment of Japan. This also is funded research
of Ministry of Land, Infrastructure and Transport.
6. REFERENCES
1. Anon, ‘Marine fouling and its prevention’,
Annapolis: Woods Hole Oceanographic Institute,
388 pp., 1952.
2. ASTM. 2005: Standard test method for
determination of copper release rate from
antifouling coatings in substitute ocean water,
ASTM Method D 6442-05, 9 pp.
3. ISO. 2000, ‘Determination of the release rate of
biocides from antifouling paints – Part 1: General
method for extraction of biocides’, International
Standard ISO 15181-1, 2000.
4. ISO. 2000, ‘Determination of the release rate of
biocides from antifouling paints – Part 2:
Determination of copper-ion concentration in the
extract and calculation of the release rate’,
International Standard ISO 15181-2, 2000.
© 2007: JASNAOE-RINA 91
5. A. A. Finnie, ‘Improved estimates of
environmental copper release rates from
antifouling products’, Biofouling, in Press.
6. R. Kojima et al., ‘The effects of Leaching
Conditions on the Release Rate of Anti-Fouling
Agent in Ship Hull Paint’, Proceedings of the 74th
Annual Conference of The Japan Institution of
Marine Engineering, 89 pp., 2006 (in Japanese).
7. J. E. Hunter, ‘Regulation and Registration of Anti-
Fouling Coatings in the European Union’,
Proceedings of International Symposium on
Antifouling Paint and Marine Environment
(InSAfE), 11 pp., 2004.
8. R. Kojima et al., ‘The Leaching Behavior of the
Anti-fouling Agent by Rotating Cylinder Method’,
Proceedings of the 76th Annual Conference of the
Japan Institution of Marine Engineering, 19 pp.,
2007 (in Japanese).
9. O. Miyata et al., ‘Verification Antifouling Paint
Leaching Rate Measurement between a Laboratory
and on Operating Ship’, Proceedings of the 76th
Annual Conference of the Japan Institution of
Marine Engineering, 21 pp., 2007 (in Japanese).
7. AUTHORS’ BIOGRAPHIES
Ryuji Kojima holds a current position of
Researcher at Environmental Risk Assessment Research
Group, Division of Energy and Environment, National
Maritime Research Institute. He is responsible for the
investigation of leaching rate of antifouling agents by
laboratory test. His previous experience includes
photocatalytic degradation of tributhyltin chloride in the
aqueous solution by titanium oxide coated on the sphere
silica gel, and analytical study of its reaction mechanism
by the semi-empirical molecular orbital calculation
(MOPAC).
Osamu Miyata holds a current position of
Chief Researcher at Environmental Analytical Research
Group, Division of Energy and Environment, National
Maritime Research Institute.
Toshiaki Shibata holds a current position of
Chief Researcher at Environmental Risk Assessment
Research Group, Division of Energy and Environment,
National Maritime Research Institute.
Kiyoshi Shibata holds a current position of
professor, Faculty of Social Systems Science, Chiba
Institute of Technology.
Tetsuya Senda holds a current position of
Director at Division of Energy and Environment,
National Maritime Research Institute.
Shipbuilding Technology ISST 2007, Osaka, 2007

© 2007: JASNAOE-RINA 92
Shipbuilding Technology ISST 2007, Osaka, 2007

SPACE AND TIME DISTRIBUTION OF ANTIFOULING AGENT IN AQUATIC

ENVIRONMENT
Kiyoshi Shibata, National Maritime Research Institute, [Now; Chiba Institute of Technology], Japan
Shinobu Sugasawa, National Maritime Research Institute, Japan
Yoshitaka Yamaguchi, National Maritime Research Institute, Japan
Vasileios A.Sakkas, University of Ioannina, Greece
Fumitoshi Kitamura, National Maritime Research Institute, Japan
Tetsuya Senda, National Maritime Research Institute, Japan

SUMMARY

Many of booster biocides in antifouling paints for ship hull pants in present days are photo degradable. In this work, a
mathematical model to simulate the concentration change of such booster biocide in the aquatic environment has been
developed, taking light irradiation intensity change with time and depth in water column. The calculation results show
that the concentration near the water surface becomes low during daytime due to photodegradation reaction, but
increases with the water depth. And the concentration even near the surface increases at night. Thus, the concentration
oscillates with the change in light intensity by day and night. It implies the possibility of high concentration of the anti
fouling agent in deep water, in which the light dose not reaches well due to the absorption of the light by water.

NOMENCLATURE more degradable than the organic tin compounds in the

C: concentration of antifouling agent (mg/m3) environment, and considered to be more environmentally
sat
C : saturation concentration of antifouling agent in sound. However, some of them are still very toxic, and
sea water (mg/m3) their actual degradation performance in the environment
Deff,x: effective diffusion coefficient of antifouling agent is still not clear. Therefore, it is desirable to conduct
in horizontal direction (m2/hr) environmental risk assessment for those antifouling
Deff,z: effective diffusion coefficient of antifouling agent agents.
in vertical direction (m2/hr) It is a general practice to compare predicted
I: sun light irradiation intensity (W/m2) environmental concentration (PEC) and predicted non-
I Z=0: sun light irradiation intensity at water surface at effective concentration (PNEC) of the substance to
noon (W/m2) evaluate environmental risk. The PEC calculation is to be
I Z=0, t=12: I Z=0: at noon (W/m2) made by simulating all related fate process of the
Jx: flux of antifouling agent in horizontal direction substance of interest. In the case of the antifouling agent,
(mg/m2hr) it is consisted with numerical modelling of the release
Jz: flux of antifouling agent in vertical direction rate, diffusion, transportation by water flow,
(mg/m2hr) decomposition, adsorption, or other physico-chemical
kd: rate constant of the photolysis(1/hr) processes in the environment. Among these processes,
kr: coefficient for the release rate (m/hr) the photolytic degradation is a unique one, because the
Rr : release rate of antifouling agent from painted light intensity, which is major driving force of the
surface (mg/m2hr) photolysis, is not uniformly applied according to time
t: time (hr) and position. Thus, the modelling is not simple, though it
t1/2: half life by photolysis (hr) is said that the photolysis is a predominant
x: distance from painted surface (m) decomposition process of many modern antifouling agent.
z: depth from water surface (m) If the photodegradation of the antifouling agent is very
α: proportional constant of the rate constant to light fast, the PEC value can be changed drastically,
intensity (m2/hrW) depending on light irradiation intensity which is
β: permeability coefficient in equation (8) (1/m) influenced by the depth and permeability in the water
column. That could lead heterogeneous concentration
1. INTRODUCTION distribution and sensitive change to local environmental
conditions. It means the environmental risk itself can
Organic tin compounds, such as tri-butyl tin or tri-phenyl vary with time and space.
tin, were used as effective antifouling agents in ship hull It is necessary to investigate the possibility of fluctuating
paint. However, their deleterious effects for non-target concentration and effect of related parameters. As a
marine organisms and worldwide contaminations preliminary approach, in this work, a simple
revealed by environmental monitoring studies forced a mathematical model has been developed to simulate the
number of countries and international organizations to fate of antifouling agent in aquatic environment.
ban the use of them in ship hull paint. These regulations
have stimulated the development of great numbers of 2. CONSTRUCTION OF PEC MODEL
alternative antifouling paints. Most of them consist with
copper oxide and various organic booster biocides A two dimensional unsteady state model has been
(hereafter antifouling agent), which are less toxic and developed, simulating the leaching, diffusion and

© 2007: JASNAOE-RINA 93
Shipbuilding Technology ISST 2007, Osaka, 2007
degradation process of the antifouling agent in a aquatic
environment. For some antifouling agents, other fate
process, such as biolysis, hydrolysis or adsorption may
be significant in the environment, but in this work only
photolysis was taken into account, because the photolysis
is much faster than other degradation processes for most
of the modern antifouling agents, such as Zinc pyrithione
(ZnPT), Copper pyrithione (CuPT), and Pyridine tri-
phenyl Boron (PTPB).[1, 2]
2.1 MODEL GEOMETRY
For simplicity, the modelled water was uniformly 3m
deep. And it was assumed that the antifouling agent was
released from a vertically placed painted surface, which
is 3m deep and horizontally infinite. The released
antifouling agent was to be diffused into the water as
shown in figure 1.
Sun light irradiation
Modeled 2D space
c e
u rfa
e ds
int
Pa
Figure 1 Schematic View of the 2D Model Water
2.2. RELEASE RATE
The release rate of the antifouling agent was expressed as
the following equation, assuming the rate is proportional
to the concentration difference between saturated
concentration and bulk concentration, based on mass
transfer theory. This is supported by series of release rate
measurement using rotating cylinder.[3].
Rr = kr (Csat – C)
2.3 TRANSPORTATION AND DIFFUSION
The released antifouling agent diffuses to vertical and
horizontal directions, and transported by water flow. In
this model, stagnant water flow was assumed, and
transportation of antifouling agent by water flow was
neglected, because small enclosed poorly flushed
harbours or marines are considered as high risk area. The
flux of the antifouling agent caused by eddy diffusion
was taken into account, which is expressed using
effective diffusion coefficients. In this model, the
horizontal direction means only vertical to the painted
surface, since infinite painted surface was assumed.
Jx=Deff,xdC/dx
Jz=Deff,zdC/dz
© 2007: JASNAOE-RINA
2.4 DEGRADATION
2.4 (a) Photodegradation Kinetics
Only photodegradation was taken into account in this
model, though the hydrolysis, biolysis or adsorption may
contribute significantly in some cases.
Yamaguchi et al have reported that the photodegradation
rates of ZnPT(Zinc pyrithione), CuPT(Copper
pyrithione) [4], or PTPB(Pyridine tri-phenyl Boron)[5] ,
using Xenon arc lamp with air mass filter to simulate
natural sun light irradiation. They concluded that the rate
equations can be expressed by the first order kinetics
and their rate constants are proportional to the light
irradiation intensity. The degradation rate, in this work,
was expressed as,
dC/dt = –kdC (4)
kd = –αI (5)
The half life is calculated by;
t1/2 = ln 2 / αI (6)
2.4 (b) Light Irradiation Intensity
The light intensity at the water surface changes
periodically with the time in a day time. It also varies
with season, weather and latitude at the place of interest.
In this work, only the change during a day was
considered as a variable and the intensity was expressed
as the following equations.
IZ=0=0 0<t<6 (7a)
I Z=0= I Z=0, t=12 [1－cos{π ( t－6 ) / 6}]/2
6 < t < 18 (7b)
I Z=0=0 18 < t < 24 (7c)
The value of I Z=0, t=12 should be selected depending on
(1) the season, latitude and weather. In this work, it was
assumed to be 0.8, to simulate the light intensity in an
averaged summer day of Japan.
Sakkas et al[6] have pointed out that dissolved materials
in water affect the photodegradation kinetics by
generating or absorbing active substances induced by the
sun light. But these effects were neglected, and only the
effect of decrease of the sun light intensity in water
column was taken into account, as described below.
The light intensity in water column decreases with the
depth of water column. The decreasing rate is dependent
on concentrations of phytoplankton, suspended inorganic
solids and dissolved organic matters, and wave length of
the light as well. Figure 2 shows rearranged plot of
measured radiation intensities in the water column based
on the data by Kishino[7], and exponential decrease of
(2) the light intensity with water depth. The gradient of the
(3) light intensity to the water depth depends on the nature of
water as well as the wave length of light, as seen in
figure 2. The light intensity in 10 depth water is
decreased to 1/10 of that close to the surface at coastal
94
Shipbuilding Technology ISST 2007, Osaka, 2007
and enclosed bay area. Thus, in this work, the light
intensity in the water was expressed as a simple
exponential equation, neglecting the dependency on the
wave length.
I=I0 10-βz
The constant β in equation (8) is indicator of the
transparency of the water. Its value is almost 1 in less
transparent water and 0.02 in very clear water.
3
log ( Intensity /10-6W cm-2 nm-1)
2 T, 500nm
1 T, 700nm
0
-1
-2
-3
0 50
Depth / m
Figure 2 Decrease in light irradiation intensity in water
column
T: Tokyo Bay, Chlorophyll α concentration; 21.5μg/L
S: Sagami Bay, Chlorophyll α concentration; 0.66μg/L
P: Pacific Ocean, Chlorophyllα concentration; 0.081μg/L
3. CALCULATION
The concentration change of the released antifouling
agent with time, depth and distance from the painted
surface was calculated numerically.
3.1 CALCULATION PARAMETERS
The values of the parameters are listed in Table 1.
Table 1 The parameter values for PEC calculation
saturation concentration of antifouling agent in sea water
Csat: 1000(mg/m3)
effective diffusion coefficient in horizontal direction
Deff,x:3.6x10-2 and 3.6x10-1 (m2/hr)
effective diffusion coefficient in vertical direction Deff,z:
3.6x10-5 and 3.6x10-4 (m2/hr)
peak sun light irradiation intensity at sea surface IZ=0,t=12:
0.8(W/m2)
proportional constant of the rate constant to light
intensity: α:: 7.2(m2/hrW)
permeability coefficient in equation (8) β: 0.8(1/m)
The release rates of antifouling booster biocides, such
as ZnTP, CuPT or PTPB, are estimated to be several
μg/cm2/day. Assuming their content 5 %, paint film
© 2007: JASNAOE-RINA
thickness 0.2mm, density of the paint film 2g/cm3 and
life of the paint film 4years, average release rate is
1.4μg/cm2/day. The release rate with kr and Csat values,
in this work, leads equivalent rate to 2μg/cm2/day.
(8) The value of effective diffusion coefficient is depending
on size of eddy which is controlled by local condition. In
this work, the effects of the effective diffusion coefficient
were examined, changing the values in one order of
magnitude. The effective vertical diffusion coefficient
was assumed to be 3.6x10-5 and 3.6x10-4 m2/hr. The
effective horizontal diffusion coefficient was 3.6x10-2
and 3.6x10-1 m2/hr.
T, 400nm
T, 600nm The photodegradation behaviour of ZnPT, CuPT or
S, 400nm
PTPB has been investigated by several groups of
S, 500nm researchers.[1,2,4,5,8,9,10] The reported half life data are
S, 600nm scattered in the rage from some minutes to a few days.
S, 700nm
P, 400nm
That is mainly because the light irradiation conditions
P, 500nm were not identical. Yamaguchi et al[4, 5] investigated the
P, 600nm effect of the light irradiation intensity on the degradation
P, 700nm
rate, and confirm the first order kinetics and linear
100 150
relationship between the rate constant and the intensity.
That is the base of a part of the model developed in this
work, as described in the previous section. Based on their
result, the half life of ZnPT is about 20 minutes under
280W/m2 of irradiation, which is yearly daytime
averaged intensity in Japan. In this work, the value of α
was selected to be 7.2(1/hr) to meet the degradation rate
described above.
The sun light irradiation intensity at noon sea surface I0
was assumed 0.8W/m2. That is around the average value
in Japan. The permeability factor β was evaluated as 0.8,
to simulate the water column at coastal aquatic
environment, based on the relationship shown in Figure 2.
3.2 RESULT
The calculation was started at the midnight and the initial
concentration was uniformly zero.
Figures 3(a) to 3(c) show the concentration change with
time at the points 1m, 5m and 10m from the painted
surface, respectively, in 7 days period from starting the
leaching form the painted surface. Each line represents
the concentration at each depth of the water. The
concentration increases during night, due to the
continuous release of the antifouling agent, and decreases
in daytime with the sun irradiation. The highest and
lowest concentrations are achieved at the time of sunrise
and just after the noon, respectively. In the afternoon,
when the sun irradiation intensity weakens, the
concentration rises up again. Even the concentration of
the surface water in daytime is almost zero, it is
significantly high at night. The similar oscillating pattern
of the concentration was established in a few days. The
concentration change with time is great near the water
surface, because the light intensity is high and its change
is more significant than that in deep water.
Comparing figures 3(a), (b) and (c), it is clear that the
concentration decrease with the distance from the painted
95
Shipbuilding Technology ISST 2007, Osaka, 2007

surface, and the concentration difference between day The concentration profiles against the distance from the
and night is become smaller. painted surface at 6:00 and 12:00 of the 7th day are
shown in figure 4. Exponential decrease in the
concentration is observed in the figure. The
20 concentration distribution along the depth changes
Z=0.05m
18 Z=1.45m significantly near the surface, due to the fast
Concentration (mg/m3)

16 Z=2.95m photodegradation.
14
12
20
10
18
8 Z=0.05, 6am
16
Z=0.05, 12am
6

Concentration (m)
14 Z=1.45, 6am
4 12 Z=1.45, 12am
2 10
Z=2.95, 6am
Z=2.95, 12am
0 8
0 50 100 150 200 6
Time (hr) 4
(a) at the point 1m from the painted surface 2
0
20 0 10 20 30
18 Z=0.05m Distance from Painted Surface (m)
Z=1.45m
Concnetration (mg/m3)

16 Z=2.95m
Figure 4 Horizontal Concentration Profile
14
12
The calculated vertical concentration profile is shown in
10
figure 5. The gradient against the depth became steeper
8 in the deeper water column. That is corresponding to the
6 decrease of light intensity modelled as the equation (8),
4 base on the data shown in figure 2.
2
12
0
6:00
0 50 100 150 200 10
9:00
Concentration (mg/m3)

TIme (hr) 3:00

8
0:00
(b) at the point 5m from the painted surface 6
21:00
12:00
4
18:00
20
2 15:00
18 Z=0.05m
Z=1.45m
16
Concetration (mg/m3)

Z=2.95m 0
0 1 2 3 4
14
Depth (m)
12
10 Figure 5 Vertical concentration profile
8
6
4 Figures 6 and 7 show the concentration change at the
2 point 1m from the painted surface in the 7th day with two
0
sets of the effective diffusion coefficient values,
respectively. The higher diffusion coefficient leads the
0 50 100 150 200
higher concentration at night, but the concentration in
Time (hr) day time is in a similar level, in these cases.
(c) at the point 10m from the painted surface

Figure 3 Concentration change (Deff,x:3.6x10-3 m2/hr,

Deff,z: 3.6x10-5m2/hr)

© 2007: JASNAOE-RINA 96
Shipbuilding Technology ISST 2007, Osaka, 2007

might be worth while to examine the concentration

50
distribution along the depth of water column ,or in
Z=0.25m
surface water or at night.
Concentration (mg/m3)

40 Z=1.15m
Z=2.05m
The result indicates the difficulties in averaging the
Z=2.95m
concentration to evaluate PEC for environmental risk
30 assessment in such fluctuating situation. If the end point
for the assessment is chronic toxicity or long term effect
20 for an actively moving species, it might be adequate to
average the concentration over certain time period and
10 special distribution. On the other hand, if it is acute
toxicity, the highest concentration in a short time period
0 and narrow point is to be evaluated and the rapid change
0 6 12 18 24 may cause serious situation.
Time (hr) This discussion brings a question on the target of the
Figure 6 Concentration Change in the day 7 at the point assessment. What is adequate or proper end point to
1m from the painted surface (Deff,x:3.6x10-2 m2/hr, Deff,z: assess the environmental risk? At present time, many of
3.6x10-4m2/hr) the environmental risk assessment works have been
conducted using just available PNEC data, without
50 taking a position of that specie in targeted eco-system
Z=0.25m into account. Also, it should be discussed the point or
Concentration (mg/m3)

40 Z=1.15m area of the assessment. How close to ship should we

Z=2.05m
approach for the risk assessment? It is obvious that the
Z=2.95m
30 closer to the ship hull, the higher the antifouling agent
concentration.
20 In this work, the calculation parameters, such as
photpdegradation rate constant or release rate constant,
10 are evaluated as hypothetical ones, though their order of
magnitudes are estimated based on several experimental
0 work. The effect of those parameter values on the
0 6 12 18 24 calculation results should be examined carefully. The
Time (hr) evaluation of such parameters, as well as development of
water flow model of real targeted environment, should be
Figure 7 Concentration Change in the day 7 at the point
a future task. Another important point as a future work is
1m from the painted surface (Deff,x:3.6x10-3 m2/hr, Deff,z:
the effect of wave length on degradation rate and
3.6x10-5m2/hr)
contribution of biolysis and hydrolysis in dark water.

4. DISCUSSION
5. CONCLUSION
The model developed in this work is too simplified to
A simple model to predict the concentration distribution
simulate real aquatic environment, and the calculation
of antifouling agent in aquatic environment was
parameters were hypothetical ones. However, it revealed
developed to look into the effect of photodegradation on
the possibility of rapid and steep concentration change
the concentration distribution. Though the model was too
against time and space, especially along water depth. We
simple to simulate real environment, it has been clearly
cannot expect significant contribution of photodegradatin
indicated that the effect of the change in sun light
to the fate process in such water. When the light is
irradiation intensity and penetration of the light in the
weakened in the deep water and photodegradaton rate
water column is significant in accumulation of the
becomes slow, the biolysis or hydrolysis, as well as
antifouling agent in water column. The concentration
adsorption onto suspended particles, would be major fate
may be seriously high at deep water or at night.
processes. But, if the rates of biolysis, hydrolysis and
If the concentration distribution is steep and changing
adsorption are relatively slow, that is the most case,
rapidly as shown in this work, special care has to be paid
pilling up of the antifouling agent in deep water is
to select the end point for the environmental risk
inevitable. Thus, it is important to point out the
assessment.
sensitivity of the photolysis to water column.
Most of the environmental monitoring studies have been
carried out for the surface water and bottom sediment
6. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
during daytime. Furthermore, the reported data for ZnPT,
CuPT and PTPB in aquatic environment is limited,
The authors would like to express appreciation to the
because of the difficulty in chemical analysis. There have
Ministry of Environment for their financial support, and
been only one datum reporting the detection of CuPT in
post-doctoral fellowship program of Japanese Society for
sediment.[11] The result in this work suggests that it

© 2007: JASNAOE-RINA 97
Shipbuilding Technology ISST 2007, Osaka, 2007
the Promotion of Science which enabled V.A.Sakkas to
join the project..
7. REFERENCES
1. P.A.Turley, R.J.Fenn and C.Ritter, Biofouling,
Vol.15(2000), 175-182
2. R.L.Amey and C.Waldron, Efficacy and Chemistry of
BOROCIDETMP triphenylboron-pyridine, a non-metal
antifouling biocide, Proceedings for International
Symposium on Antifouling Paint and Marine
Environment, Tokyo, (2004), 234-243
3. R.Kojima, T.Shibata, O.Miyata, K.Shibata and
T.Senda, The effects of leaching condition on the release
rate of anti-fouling agent in ship hull paint, Proceeding
for the 74th Symposium of Japan Institution of Marine
Engineering (2006), 89-90
4. Y.Yamaguchi, A.Kumakura, M.Ishigami, K.Shibata,
T.Senda and Y.Yamada, Proceedings for International
Symposium on Antifouling Paint and Marine
Environment, Tokyo, (2004), 228-233
5. Y.Yamaguchi, H.Iwashima, H.Harino, Y.Yamada,
K.Shibata and T.Senda, .Photo-degradation of pyridine-
triphenylborane, Abstracts for International Chemical
Congress of Pacific Basin Societies, Honolulu, (2005)
6. V.A.Sakkas, K.Shibata, S.Sugasawa, Y.Yamaguchi
and T.Albanis, Aqueous phototransformation of zinc
pyrithione Degradation kinetics and byproduct
identification by liquid chromatography-atomospheric
pressure chemical ionization mass spectrometry,
J.Chromatography A,1144(2007), 175-182
7. M.Kishino, “Interrelationships between light and
phytoplankton in the sea”, In Ocean Optics, Oxford
University Press, New York, pp73-92(1994)
8. H.Harino, M.Kitano, Y.Mori, K.Mochida, A.Kakuno
and S.Arima, Degradation of antifouling booster biocides
in water, Jounal of the Marine Biologicl Association of
U.K., 85(2005), 33-38
© 2007: JASNAOE-RINA
9. K.Maraldo and I.Dahllof, Indirect estimation of
degradation time for zinc pyrithione and copper
pyrithione in seawater, Marine Pollution Bulletin,
48(2004), 894-901
10. P.A.Turley, R.J.Fenn and M.E. Callow, Pyrithiones
as antifoulants: P.A. Turley R.J. Fenn; J.C. Ritter and
M.E. Callow Pyrithiones as antifoulants: Environmental
Fate and loss of toxicity, Biofouling, Vol.21, (2005), 31-
40
11. H.Harino, S.Midorikawa, T.Arai, M.Ohji, N.D.Cu
and N.Miyazaki, Cocnentration of booster biocides in
sediment and clams from Vietnam, Jounal of the Marine
Biologicl Association of U.K., 86(2006), 1163-1170
8. AUTHORS’ BIOGRAPHIES
Kiyoshi Shibata is formerly the head of the
environmental assessment research group of National
Maritime Research Institute. Now he is a professor in
department of social system sciences, Chiba Institute of
Technology.
Shinobu Sugasawa is a senior researcher in materials
research group of National Maritime Research Institute.
Yoshitaka Yamaguchi is a senior researcher in
environmental analysis research group of National
Maritime Research Institute.
Vasileios Alexios Sakkas is a lecturer in department of
Material Science and Engineering, University of
Ioannina, Greece
Fumitosi Kitamura is the director of energy and
environmental assessment department at National
Maritime Research Institute.
Tetsuya Senda is director of energy and environmental
assessment department at National Maritime Research
Institute. He is responsible for R&D activities on ship
related environment protection technologies, monitoring
technologies and evaluation methods for the purpose of
global-scale environment protection.
98
Shipbuilding Technology ISST 2007, Osaka, 2007

ACUTE TOXICITY OF PYRITHIONE PHOTODEGRADATION PRODUCTS TO SOME

MARINE ORGANISMS

T Onduka, K Mochida, K Ito, A Kakuno and K Fujii, National Research Institute of Fisheries and Environment of Inland
Sea, Fisheries Research Agency, Japan
H Harino, Osaka City Institute of Public Health and Environmental Sciences, Japan

SUMMARY

We evaluated the acute toxicity of zinc pyrithione and copper pyrithione, used as antifouling booster biocides, and their
six main photodegradation products to three marine organisms, representing three trophic levels: an alga (Skeletonema
costatum), a crustacean (Tigriopus japonicus), and a fish (Pagrus major). The acute toxicity values of the pyrithiones for
S. costatum, T. japonicus, and P. major were 1.5–1.6, 23–280 and 9.3–98.2 µg L–1, respectively. The acute toxicity
values of photodegradation products of the pyrithiones such as 2-mercaptopyridine-N-oxide and
2,2′-dithio-bis-pyridine-N-oxide for S. costatum were similar to those of the pyrithiones. These results suggest the
necessity of risk assessments for not only the pyrithiones but also their photodegradation products.

NOMENCLATURE Organotin compounds (OTs) such as tributyltin (TBT)

have been used as effective antifouling biocides [1].
CuPT: copper pyrithione Aquatic pollution resulting from the use of OTs has been
EC50: median effect concentration of great concern in many countries, including Japan,
LC50: median lethal concentration because of its effects on nontarget marine organisms.
OECD: Organization for Economic Co-operation and Concerns over the toxicity of OTs have led to a
Development worldwide ban by the International Maritime
DMSO: dimethyl sulphoxide Organization. Candidate marine antifouling compounds
DPS: 2.2′-dithio-bis-pyridine developed as alternatives to OTs are Irgarol 1051, diuron,
OTs: organotin compounds Sea-Nine 211, zinc pyrithione (ZnPT) and copper
PO: pyridine-N-oxide pyrithione (CuPT). In Japan, pyrithiones (PTs) are very
POS: 2-mercaptopyridine-N-oxide frequently used as antifouling booster biocides, replacing
POS2: 2.2′-dithio-bis-pyridine-N-oxide OT biocides [2]. PTs have been found to have toxic
PS: 2-mercaptopyridine effects on aquatic organisms, especially algae, at low
PSA: pyridine-2-sulphonic acid concentrations [3–8]. PTs degrade rapidly in the water
PTs: pyrithiones column when exposed to light [9,10]. The toxicity of PTs
TBT: tributyltin to aquatic organisms has been clarified, but that of their
ZnPT: zinc pyrithione photodegradation products, has not yet been elucidated.
The photodegradation products of PTs comprise mainly
1. INTRODUCTION six chemicals, 2-mercaptopyridine-N-oxide (POS),
pyridine-N-oxide (PO), 2.2′-dithio-bis-pyridine (DPS),

© 2007: JASNAOE-RINA 99
Shipbuilding Technology ISST 2007, Osaka, 2007

2-mercaptopyridine (PS),
2.2′-dithio-bis-pyridine-N-oxide (POS2), and
pyridine-2-sulphonic acid (PSA) (Figure 1); a few other
photodegradation products have been reported [11,12].
The purpose of this study was to elucidate the effect of
the degradation products of PTs on marine organisms for
marine environmental assessment. We have already
reported the acute toxicity of CuPT and ZnPT to a fish,
red sea bream (Pagrus major) [8]. In the present study,
we evaluated the 72-h median effect concentrations (72-h
EC50) and the 24-h EC50 of ZnPT and CuPT for an alga
(Skeletonema costatum) and a crustacean (Tigriopus
japonicus). In addition, we evaluated the acute toxicity of
POS, PO, DPS, PS, POS2 and PSA to S. costatum, T.
japonicus and P. major.

S
S

O
O

N
N
Z
n

C
u
N

N
O

O
S

S
Zinc pyrithione (ZnPT) Copper pyrithione (CuPT)

SO3H SH

N
N

S
S
N N

O
O
O

Pyridine-2-sulphonic acid 2-Mercaptopyridine-N-oxide 2.2′-Dithio-bis-pyridine-N-oxide

(PSA) (POS) (POS2)
SH

N N
O N S S N
Pyridine-N-oxide (PO) 2-Mercaptopyridine (PS) 2.2′-Dithio-bis-pyridine (DPS)

Figure 1: Pyrithiones and photodegradation products of pyrithiones selected for toxicity tests

2. MATERIALS AND METHODS
2.1. ANIMALS
Specimens of S. costatum (NIES-324), T. japonicus and
juvenile P. major were obtained from the National
Institute for Environmental Studies (Ibaraki, Japan),
Japan Frozen Food Inspection Corporation (Hyogo,
Japan) and A-marine Kindai Co., Ltd. (Wakayama,
Japan), respectively. Skeletonema costatum was cultured
in 500-mL glass bottle containing 300 mL of f/2 medium
[13], and kept under static-renewal conditions with a
14:10-h light:dark photoperiod at 20 ± 1 °C in a growth
chamber (MLR-350, Sanyo, Osaka, Japan). Tigriopus
japonicus was cultured in a 1-L glass bottle containing
800 mL of filtered seawater with aeration, and fed
Tetraselmis tetrathele under the same photoperiod and
temperature as S. costatum. We captured T. japonicus
nauplius larvae with plankton nets for the acute
immobilisation test. Pagrus major individuals weighing
0.2–0.3 g were maintained for a few weeks in 60-L glass
aquaria at 20–25 ºC under a natural photoperiod and fed

© 2007: JASNAOE-RINA 100

Shipbuilding Technology ISST 2007, Osaka, 2007
an appropriate commercial diet once a day until the start
of the toxicity tests.
2.2. TEST CHEMICALS
CuPT and ZnPT were kindly provided by Yoshitomi
Fine Chemicals (Osaka, Japan). POS, PO, PS2 and PS
were purchased from Tokyo Chemical Industry (Tokyo,
Japan). POS2 was purchased from Kanto Chemical
(Tokyo, Japan). PSA was synthesised by Wako Pure
Chemical Industries (Osaka, Japan). All toxicants were
dissolved in dimethyl sulphoxide (DMSO; plant cell
culture-tested, Sigma-Aldrich, St. Louis, MO, USA) to
make stock solutions.
2.3. ALGA GROWTH INHIBITION TEST
The toxicity test was generally performed as
recommended in the test guidelines of the Organization
for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD)
201, with modification for marine organisms [14]. The
test was performed in glass test tubes (25 × 200 mm, 64
mL), containing 30 mL of f/2 medium. Initial cell
concentrations in the growth media were adjusted to 104
cells mL–1. The in vivo fluorescence of the alga was
measured directly with a fluorescence meter (10-AU-005,
Turner Designs, Sunnyvale, CA, USA) daily. All test
algae were cultured at a temperature of 20 ± 1 °C in a
growth chamber. The light source consisted of three
ultraviolet screening fluorescent tubes (fluorescent lamps
developed for art galleries and museums, Matsushita
Electric Industrial, Osaka, Japan), giving a light intensity
–2 –1
of 40–80 μmol m s and a 14:10-h light:dark cycle.
The test period was 72 h. The test was performed with
three or five concentrations, except solvent controls, in
triplicate. The range of the test solution pH was 7.7–8.9.
The experiments were performed twice. The nominal
concentrations and spacing factors in these tests are
© 2007: JASNAOE-RINA
shown in Table 1.
2.4. COPEPOD IMMOBILISATION TEST
The toxicity test was generally performed as
recommended in the test guidelines of OECD 202, with
modification for marine organisms [15]. The test was
performed in a 12-well culture plate (Nunc, Roskilde,
Denmark). After the nauplius larvae were washed with
filtered seawater, 2 mL of filtered seawater and five
nauplius larvae were added to each well of the 12-well
culture plate for the toxicity test. Four wells were
prepared for each concentration. The animals were not
fed during the 24-h test period. The tests were conducted
in the dark to prevent photodegradation of the test
chemicals. Immobilisation, defined as the inability to
swim within 15 s after gentle agitation, was checked at
the end of the test. The range of pH of the test solution
was 7.5–7.7. The immobilisation rate of the control
groups of nauplius larvae tested was < 5%. DMSO,
which was used for dissolution of the toxicants, had an
immobilisation effect on copepods at concentrations of
more than 1250 mg L–1. Therefore, we set the nominal
concentration of DMSO to < 1250 mg L–1 in these tests.
The experiments were performed three times. The
nominal concentrations and spacing factors in these tests
are shown in Table 1.
2.5. FISH ACUTE TOXICITY TEST
The toxicity test was generally performed as
recommended in the test guidelines of OECD 203, with
modification for marine organisms [16]. The test was
performed in 40-L glass aquaria, containing 20 L of
seawater. This test was conducted with a semi-static
technique; the test solution was aerated and changed
daily. Twenty individuals were used in each exposure
group. The animals were not fed during the 96-h test
101
Shipbuilding Technology ISST 2007, Osaka, 2007

period. Mortality was monitored daily. The test was
conducted in the dark to prevent photodegradation of the
test chemicals. The water quality parameter ranges were
as follows: temperature, 23.3–24.0 °C; dissolved oxygen,
–1
5.7–5.9 mg L , oxygen saturation, > 80%; and pH, 8.1.
The nominal concentrations and spacing factors in these
tests are shown in Table 1.
2.6. DATA ANALYSIS
For the alga growth inhibition test, 72-h EC50 values
were calculated from the growth rate and the nominal
concentration. The inhibition of the growth rate in
individual test tubes relative to the mean rate for the
controls in each experiment was calculated. The 72-h
EC50 was estimated by probit analysis using the rate of
growth inhibition and the nominal concentration [17].
For the copepod immobilisation test, 24-h EC50 values
were calculated by probit analysis using the
immobilisation rate and the nominal concentration. The
probit analysis was performed with SPSS 14.0J for
Windows regression software (SPSS Inc., Chicago, IL,
USA). For the fish acute toxicity test, 96-h LC50 values
were calculated by the trimmed Spearman-Karber
technique [18] with CETIS software (Ver. 1.0.26C,
Tidepool Scientific Software, McKinleyville, CA, USA)
from the fish mortality and the nominal concentration.

Table 1: Nominal concentrations and spacing factors in toxicity tests

Alga growth inhibition test Copepod immobilisation test Fish acute toxicity test
–1
CuPT 0.5–2.0 μg L (√2) 6.25–100 μg L–1 (2) ―
–1
ZnPT 0.5–2.0 μg L (√2) 62.5–1000 μg L–1 (2) ―
POS 0.5–2.0 μg L–1 (√2) 12.5–100 mg L–1 (2) ―
POS2 0.5–8.0 μg L–1 (2) 1250–10 000 μg L–1 (2) ―
–1
DPS 5–80 μg L (2) 31.3–8000 μg L–1 (2) 50–800 μg L–1 (2)
PS 50–800 μg L–1 (2) 1.560–400 mg L–1 (2) 3.13–50 mg L–1 (2)
–1
PO 25–100 mg L (2) 25–100 mg L–1 (2) 1–100 mg L–1 (10)
PSA 25–100 mg L–1 (2) 25–100 mg L–1 (2) 1–100 mg L–1 (10)
Spacing factors are shown in parentheses.

3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
3.1. ACUTE TOXICITY OF PYRITHIONES
The 72-h EC50, 24-h EC50 and 96-h LC50 values of
ZnPT and CuPT for an alga, a crustacean and a fish are
shown in Table 2. The LC50 values of CuPT and ZnPT
for P. major, based on actual concentrations, are cited
from our previous study [8]. The results show that CuPT
is more toxic than ZnPT to crustacean and fish. Among
the three types of organism, the alga was the most
sensitive.
The acute toxicities of PTs to some marine organisms in
our previous study are summarized in Table 3. Acute
toxicity values of PTs for algae, crustaceans and fish
were 0.54–50, 2.5–160 and 7.67–273 μg L–1, respectively.
The EC50 and LC50 values of ZnPT and CuPT obtained
in the present study are similar to the values reported in
Table 3.
Acute toxicity values of TBT for algae, crustaceans and
fishes are 0.33–1.28, 0.6–5.2 and 3.2–25.9 μg L–1,
respectively (Table 4). The EC50 and LC50 values of
ZnPT and CuPT obtained in the present study are similar
to those of TBT, suggesting that CuPT and ZnPT have
similar toxicity to TBT.

© 2007: JASNAOE-RINA 102

Shipbuilding Technology ISST 2007, Osaka, 2007

Table 2: Acute toxicity of pyrithione transfer products to an alga (Skeletonema costatum), a crustacean (Tigriopus
japonicus) and a fish (Pagrus major), based on nominal concentrations
Alga Crustacean Fish
72-h EC50 (μg L–1) 24-h EC50 (μg L–1) 96-h EC50 (μg L–1)
CuPT 1.5 23 9.3*
ZnPT 1.6 280 98.2*
POS 1.1 >12 500 ―
POS2 3.4 >1250 ―
DPS 65 550 520
PS 730 76 000 45 000
PO >100 000 >100 000 >100 000
PSA >100 000 >100 000 >100 000
*Reported by Mochida et al. (2006); the 96-h EC50 was estimated from the actual average concentration.

Table 3: Acute toxicity data of pyrithiones for marine organisms

Class Test organism Toxicity index EC50 or LC50 (μg L–1) Reference
ZnPT CuPT
Algae Emiliania huxleyi 72-h EC50 0.54 ― [3]
Amphora coffeaeformis 96-h EC50 30 50 [4]
Skeletonema costatum 72-h EC50 2.06 2.84 [5]
Phytoplankton 0.63–19 1.3–7.9
various species 1 or 2-day EC50 [6]
communities (2–60 nM) (4–25 nM)
Crustaceans Nitocra spinipes 96-h EC50 178-343 ― [7]
Heptacarpus futilirostris 96-h LC50 120* 2.5* [8]
Tigriopus japonicus 24-h EC50 160 31 [5]
Fish Pagrus major 96-h LC50 273 7.67 [5]

*LC50 estimated using the actual concentration.

Table 4: Acute toxicity data of tributyltin for marine organisms

Class Test organism Toxicity index EC50 or LC50 (μg L–1) Reference
Algae Thalassiosira pseudonana 72-h EC50 1.03–1.28 [19]
Minutocellus polymorphus 72-h EC50 0.33–0.34 [20]
Skeletonema costatum 72-h EC50 0.33–0.36 [19,20]
Crustaceans Tigriopus japonicus 24-h EC50 5.2 ± 0.5 [21]
marine copepod 24-h EC50 2.2 [22]
marine copepod 96-h EC50 0.65 [22]
Mysidopsis bahia 96-h LC50 1.1 [23]
Eurytemora affinis 72-h LC50 0.6 [24]
Acartia tonsa 48-h LC50 1.1 [24]
Fishes Girella punctata 96-h LC50 3.2 [25]
Brevoortia tyrannus 96-h LC50 4.5 [24]
Cyprinodon variegatus 96-h LC50 25.9 [24]

© 2007: JASNAOE-RINA 103

Shipbuilding Technology ISST 2007, Osaka, 2007
3.2. ACUTE TOXICITY OF
PHOTODEGRADATION PRODUCTS
PYRITHIONES
The EC50 and LC50 values of photodegradation
products of PTs for an alga, a crustacean and a fish are
shown in Table 2. The EC50 values of POS and POS2
for the alga were the lowest among the
photodegradation products. The LC50 value of DPS for
the fish was the lowest among the tested PT
photodegradation products. The 24-h EC50 of POS and
POS2 for the crustacean could not be obtained from the
toxicity tests. Because at concentrations of more than
1250 μg L–1 for POS2 and 12 500 μg L–1 for POS, the
concentration of DMSO used as the solvent for the
toxicants was high enough to have an immobilisation
effect on the copepod, we did not perform toxicity tests
with these toxicants at higher concentrations than those
described above. Madsen et al. [26] reviewed the acute
toxicity of ZnPT and three of its metabolites to an alga,
crustaceans, fishes and an oyster. The EC50 and LC50
values of POS2 to the alga, crustaceans, fishes and oyster
–1
were 140, 6.4–13, 30–1100 and 160 μg L , respectively.
These values are 2–10 times higher than those of ZnPT
(alga, crustaceans, fishes and oyster: 28, 3.6–6.3,
2.6–400 and 22 μg L–1, respectively) [26]. In that study
[26], the toxicity of POS2 to the alga was similar to that
determined in the present study. However, the 24-h
EC50 value of POS2 for the copepod in this study was
markedly different from the values for crustaceans
(Daphnia magna or Mysidopsis bahia) in the previous
report. This difference might reflect differences in
species sensitivity to POS2.
Our EC50 and LC50 values of PO and PSA for the alga,
–1
the crustacean and the fish were > 100 mg L . Reported
EC50 and LC50 values of PSA [26] for the alga,
crustaceans, fishes and oyster were 29, 72–122<,
57–127< and 86 mg L–1, respectively. These data
© 2007: JASNAOE-RINA
THE indicate that the toxicity of PO and PSA to these
OF organisms is very low. For the copepod, the 24-h EC50
of DPS was the lowest value among the PTs
photodegradation products in the present study.
According to the OECD criteria, substances with acute
toxicity values of less than 1 mg L–1 are classified as
‘very toxic’ [27]. As the lowest toxicity concentrations of
PT POS, POS2, PS and DPS were less than 1 mg L–1 in the
present study, these four substances are classified as
‘very toxic’. Acute toxicity to the alga decreased in the
order POS ≈ CuPT ≈ ZnPT > POS2 > DPS > PS > PO ≈
PSA. In a study using the rat leukaemic cell viability
assay, the toxicity also decreased in the order CuPT ≈
ZnPT ≈ POS2 > DPS > PO [11]. These results suggest
that the toxicity of PTs diminishes as photodegradation
proceeds.
4. CONCLUSIONS
PTs, like TBT, have been found to have toxic effects on
marine organisms. However, PTs degrade rapidly in the
water column when exposed to light [9,10], and
toxicities of photo-treated PTs decrease [10,28].
Therefore, the environmental risk assessment of PTs has
not been of great concern. In the present study, we
elucidated the toxic influence of PTs and some of their
photodegradation products on an alga, which is one the
primary producers at the base of the food chain in
aquatic ecosystems. The fate of PTs, including under
daytime and nighttime conditions and in subsurface
seawater layer, has not been well studied. Further study
focusing on the degradation of PTs and environmental
risk assessment of PTs and their photodegradation
products is needed.
5. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors thank Mr. Yutaka Okumura (Tohoku
104
Shipbuilding Technology ISST 2007, Osaka, 2007
National Fisheries Research Institute) for conducting the
alga growth inhibition test; Dr. Satoshi Arima (National
Research Institute of Fisheries and Environment of
Inland Sea) for his advice throughout this work and Ms.
Miki Shoda and Ms. Chiaki Hiramoto (National
Research Institute of Fisheries and Environment of
Inland Sea) for their assistance. This work was
performed with financial support from the Ministry of
the Environment, Japan.
6. REFERENCES
1. FENT K., ‘Ecotoxicology of organotin compounds’,
Critical Reviews in Toxicology, 26:1–117, 1996.
2. OKAMURA H., MIENO H., ‘Present status of
antifouling systems in Japan: tributyltin substitutes in
Japan’ In: Konstantinou I., eds. Antifouling Paint
Biocides: Springer, pp 201–212, 2006.
3. DEVILLA R., BROWN M., DONKIN M., TARRAN
G., AIKEN J., READMAN J., ‘Impact of antifouling
booster biocides on single microalgal species and on a
natural marine phytoplankton community’, Marine
Ecology Progress Series 286:1–12, 2005.
4. TURLEY P., FENN R., RITTER J., CALLOW M.,
‘Pyrithiones as antifoulants: environmental fate and loss
of toxicity’, Biofouling, 21:31–40, 2005.
5. YAMADA H., KAKUNO A., ‘Present status on the
development of alternative tributyltin-free antifouling
paints and toxicity of new biocides to aquatic
organisms—Review’, Bulletin of Fisheries Research
Agency 6:56–72, 2003.
6. MARALDO K., DAHLLÖF I., ‘Seasonal variations in
the effect of zinc pyrithione and copper pyrithione on
pelagic phytoplankton communities’, Aquatic Toxicology
69:189–198, 2004.
7. KARLSSON J., EKLUND B., ‘New biocide-free
anti-fouling paints are toxic’, Marine Pollution Bulletin,
49:456–464, 2004.
8. MOCHIDA K., ITO K., HARINO H., KAKUNO A.,
FUJII K., ‘Acute toxicity of pyrithione antifouling
biocides and joint toxicity with copper to red sea bream
(Pagrus major) and toy shrimp (Heptacarpus
futilirostris)’, Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry,
25:3058–3064, 2006.
© 2007: JASNAOE-RINA
9. MARALDO K., DAHLLÖF I., ‘Indirect estimation of
degradation time for zinc pyrithione and copper
pyrithione in seawater’, Marine Pollution Bulletin
48:894–901, 2004.
10. TURLEY P., FENN R., RITTER J., ‘Pyrithiones as
antifoulants: environmental chemistry and preliminary
risk assessment’, Biofouling 15:175–182, 2000.
11. DOOSE C., RANKE J., STOCK F.,
BOTTIN-WEBER U., JASTORFF B., ‘Structure-activity
relationships of pyrithiones—IPC-81 toxicity tests with
the antifouling biocide zinc pyrithione and structural
analogs’, Green Chemistry 6:259–266, 2004.
12. NEIHOF R., BAILEY C., PATOUILLET C.,
HANNAN P., ‘Photodegradation of mercaptopyridine-N-
oxide biocides’, Archives of Environmental
Contamination and Toxicology, 8:355–368, 1979.
13. GUILLARD R., RYTHER J., ‘Studies of marine
diatoms. I. Cyclotella nana Hustedt, and Detonula
confervacea (Cleve) Gran’, Canadian Journal of
Microbiology 8:229–239, 1962.
14. ORGANIZATION for ECONOMIC
CO-OPERATION and DEVELOPMENT. ‘Freshwater
Alga and Cyanobacteria, Growth Inhibition Test’,
Guideline 201, 2006.
15. ORGANIZATION for ECONOMIC
CO-OPERATION and DEVELOPMENT, ‘Daphnia sp.,
Acute Immobilisation Test’, Guideline 202, 2004.
16. ORGANIZATION for ECONOMIC
CO-OPERATION and DEVELOPMENT, ‘Fish, Acute
Toxicity Test’, Guideline 203, 1992.
17. FINNEY D., Probit analysis, 2nd ed. Cambridge
University Press, 1952.
18. HAMILTON M., RUSSO R., THURSTON R.,
‘Trimmed Spearman-Karber method for estimating
median lethal concentrations in toxicity bioassays’,
Environmental Science Technology 11:714–719, 1977.
19. WALSH G., MCLAUGHLAN L., LORES E.,
LOUIE M., DEANS C., ‘Effects of organotins on growth
and survival of two marine diatoms, Skeletonema
costatum and Thalassiosira pseudonana’, Chemosphere
14:383–392, 1985.
20. WALSH G., MCLAUGHLIN L., YODER M.,
MOODY P., LORES E., FORESTER J.,
WESSINGER-DUVALL P., ‘Minutocellus polymorphus:
A new marine diatom for use in algal toxicity tests’,
Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry 7:925–929,
1988.
105
Shipbuilding Technology ISST 2007, Osaka, 2007

21. HORI H., TATEISHI M., YAMADA H.,

Kazuhiko Mochida and Akira Kakuno are currently
‘Development of acute toxicity test of hazardous
chemicals using marine zooplankton as test organism’, the senior researchers in Ecotoxicology Section at the
Japanese Journal of Environmental Toxicology 4:73–86,
National Research Institute of Fisheries and Environment
2001.
of the Inland Sea, Fisheries Research Agency. They are
22. U'REN S., ‘Acute toxicity of bis(tributyltin) oxide to
responsible for toxic effects of chemicals to marine
a marine copepod’, Marine Pollution Bulletin,
14:303–306, 1983. fishes and crustaceans. They have previous experience in
environmental toxicology.
23. GOODMAN L., CRIPE G., MOODY P., HALSELL
D., ‘Acute toxicity of malathion, tetrabromobisphenol-A,
and tributyltin chloride to mysids (Mysidopsis bahia) of
Katsutoshi Ito is currently the assistant researcher in
three ages’, Bulletin of Environmental Contamination
and Toxicology, 41:746–753, 1988. Ecotoxicology Section at the National Research Institute
of Fisheries and Environment of the Inland Sea, Fisheries
24. BUSHONG S., HALL L., HALL W., JOHNSON W.,
HERMAN R., ‘Acute toxicity of tributyltin to selected Research Agency. He is responsible for toxic effects of
Chesapeake Bay fish and invertebrates’, Water Research,
chemicals to marine fishes and crustaceans. He has
22:1027–1032, 1988.
previous experience in environmental toxicology.
25. KAKUNO A., KIMURA S., ‘Acute toxicity of bis
(tributyltin) oxide to girella (Girella punctata)’, Bulletin
of Tokai Region Fisheries Research Laboratory, Kazunori Fujii is currently the chief of Ecotoxicology
123:41–44, 1987.
Section at the National Research Institute of Fisheries
26. MADSEN T., SAMSØE-PETERSEN L., and Environment of the Inland Sea, Fisheries Research
GUSTAVSON K., RASMUSSEN D., ‘Ecotoxicological
Agency. He is responsible for toxic effects of chemicals
assessment of antifouling biocides and nonbiocidal
antifouling paints’, Environmental Project Report, 531, to marine fishes and benthos. He has previous experience
Danish Environmental Protection Agency, 2000.
in environmental toxicology.
27. ORGANIZATION for ECONOMIC
CO-OPERATION and DEVELOPMENT. ‘Guidance
Hiroya Harino currently holds the position of the senior
document on the use of the harmonized system for the
classification of chemical which are hazardous for the researcher at Osaka City Institute of Public Health and
aquatic environment’, Series on Testing and Assessment,
Environmental Sciences. He is responsible for detection
No. 27, 2004.
of chemicals in environment. He has previous experience
28. OKAMURA H., KOBAYASHI N., MIYANAGA M.,
in environmental chemistry.
NOGAMI Y., ‘Toxicity reduction of metal pyrithiones
by near ultraviolet irradiation’, Environmental
Toxicology, 21:305–309, 2006.

7. AUTHORS’ BIOGRAPHIES

Toshimitsu Onduka currently holds the position of the

researcher in Ecotoxicology Section at the National
Research Institute of Fisheries and Environment of the
Inland Sea, Fisheries Research Agency. He is responsible
for toxic effects of chemicals to marine algae and
crustaceans. His has previous experience in
environmental toxicology and chemistry.

© 2007: JASNAOE-RINA 106

Shipbuilding Technology ISST 2007, Osaka, 2007

Research for the Risk Assessment of Anti-Fouling System

Eiichi Yoshikawa, Chugoku Marine Paints., Ltd.

Keisuke Namekawa, Arch Chemicals Japan, Inc.
Noriyasu Nagai, Japan NUS Co., Ltd.
Kiyoshi Shibata, Chiba Institute of Technology, Japan
Tetsuya Senda, National Maritime Research Institute, Japan

1 INTRODUCTION

In the mid-1970’s, instead of antifouling paint using cuprous oxide (Cu2O), antifouling paints (hereinafter
AF paints) using organic tributyltin compounds (hereinafter TBT) were marketed. These compounds
improved antifouling performance by leaps and bounds, and extended the dock interval from about 1 year
to 5 years, leading to improved economic efficiency. In association with increased usage of TBT, however,
because elevation of TBT concentration in the marine environment had been reported and its residue in
marine organisms had become an issue in Japanese waters, it became necessary to regulate TBT strictly
from around 1990.

The diplomatic conference held in the United Nations IMO (The international Maritime organization)
headquarters in London from October 1st to 5th, adopted the International Convention on the Control of
Harmful Anti-fouling Systems on Ships, 2001 (hereinafter AFS/Conf/26) to phase out TBT on a
world-wide basis, which includes a deadline in 2003 for painting and 2008 for the existence of TBT in the
antifouling systems on ships. This Convention is expected to enter into force in the middle of 2008.

This convention requires the Parties to communicate with the Organization on the information regarding
anti-fouling systems approved, restricted, or prohibited under their national law. Also, Resolution 3 invites
States to approve register or license anti-fouling systems, urges for the harmonization of test methods,
assessment methodologies, and performance standards for anti-fouling systems containing biocides.

2 THE ALTERNATIVE ANTIFOULANTS

TBT-Free AF paints have been developed since 1990, and TBT-free Alternative AF paints are marketed.
Alternative biocides used for AF paint in Japan are listed in Table 1. These biocides are controlled by the
Law concerning the Evaluation of Chemical Substances and Regulation of Their Manufacture, etc. in
Japan.

© 2007: JASNAOE-RINA 107

Shipbuilding Technology ISST 2007, Osaka, 2007

Table 1 The active ingredients used under JPMA voluntary control of Antifouling system to comply
with AFS Convention

Chemical name (IUPAC) [synonym] CAS No. BPD*

Cuprous Thiocyanate 1111-67-7 N

Cuprous oxide 1317-39-1 N

Zinc dimethyl dithiocarbamate [Ziram] 137-30-4 I

3-(3,4-Dichlorophenyl)-1, 1-dimethyl urea [Diuron] 330-54-1 I

Pyridine-triphenylborane 971-66-4 -

N,N-dimethyl-N’-phenyl-N’-(dichlorofluoromethylthio) sulphamide
1085-98-9 N
[Dichlofluanid]

2,3,5,6-Tetrachloro-4-(methylsulphonyl) pyridine 13108-52-6 I

N-(2,4,6-Trichlorophenyl) maleimide 13167-25-4 -

Zinc-2-pyridinethiol-1-oxide [Pyritione zinc] 13463-41-7 N

Copper, bis(1,hydroxy-2(1H)-pyridinethionato O,S)- 14915-37-8 N

2-methylthio-4-tert-butylamino-6-cyclopropylamino-s-triazine 28159-98-0 N

4,5-Dichloro-2-n-octyl-4-isothiazolin-3-one 64359-81-5 N

2,4,5,6-Tetrachloroisophthalonitrile [Chlorothalonil] 1897-45-6 I

Zinc ethylenebis (dithiocarbamate) [Zineb] 12122-67-7 N

137-26-8
Tetramethylthiuram disulphide -
1634-02-2
* N: Notified, I: Identified.
http://www.toryo.or.jp/jp/anzen/imo/index.html

3 THE ANTIFOULING REGULATIONS

The research on the alternatives of TBT AF paints has started actively since 1990 after strict regulation of
TBT in Japan, including the investigation of antifouling performance and also its impacts on the
environment. The Shipbuilding Research Association of Japan established the SR-209 sectional meeting
from 1990 to 1993 to investigate and research new antifoulants that can substitute for TBT. Succeeding to
SR-209 from 1997, the Shipbuilding Research Association of Japan established the RR-76 sectional
meeting to evaluate the environmental effects of TBT and performance of alternatives. RR-76 is
investigating the effects of antifoulants on marine environment including test methods.

© 2007: JASNAOE-RINA 108

Shipbuilding Technology ISST 2007, Osaka, 2007

Currently Canada, USA, EU, Hong Kong (China), Australia and New Zealand have an antifouling product
registration system. Before selling AF paints, the Antifouling must have a risk assessment review for
human health (especially the workers exposed at shipyards) and marine environment during application,
service life and removal.

However the countries with major shipping industries, Japan, Korea, China and the other Asian countries
have no specific registration for antifoulants.

4. EU-BPD CONCEPT OF THE ENVIRONMENTAL RISK ASSESSMENT FOR ANTIFOULING

SYSTEM

Deposition
Volatilization
Aerosol

UV Degradation
Leaching
Biological
Hydrodynamic
Hydrolysis Degradation
transport
Speciation Sorption to - tide, currents
particlate matter - density (S)
Bioaccumulation
Sediment Settling - river flux
and Partitioning
Burial Biological
Fish, invertebrate, alga
Degradation

Fig.1 Fate of antifouling ingredients in the marine environment

Active ingredients (hereinafter AI) for antifouling use have a comparatively high toxicity against water
organisms. But with this toxicity we expect the efficacy against the biofouling organisms. Technical Notes
Guidance (TNsG) of EC directive (98/8/EC) Biocide Product Directive (BPD) indicates that an AI for
antifouling use must consider the items shown below.
(1) Degradation
AI should be degraded immediately after leaching from ship hull paint and the resultant degradants
should have no relevant risk to non-target organisms.
(2) Bioaccumulation
An AI should not bio-accumulate in fish or other species to any significant degree, and there should
be no secondary poisoning issue through the food chain.
(3) Acceptable toxicity risk assessment
The predicted environmental concentration (PEC) estimated from the use of the AF paint coating on
ships both within harbours and the shipping lanes must be determined and compared with the

© 2007: JASNAOE-RINA 109

Shipbuilding Technology ISST 2007, Osaka, 2007

predicted no effect concentration (PNEC) for the specific AI. This comparison should be below 1
for the AI in the AF paint.
(4) Accumulation in Sediments
It should be shown that there is no significant accumulation of the AI or its degradants in sediments
and that any adsorbed AI or degradants poses no risk for sedimentary organisms.

1) Degradation
Ideally an AI is designed to be readily degraded after its leaching from ship-hull paint. The
degradation is caused by hydrolysis, photolysis (by sun light) or bio-degradation (by bacteria).
According to the BPD TNsG, AI with a half life <15 days (based on full mineralization, that is more
than 90% mineralized) in natural water (which contains inherent bacteria) should be considered as
‘readily biodegradable’.

According to the criteria under the UNEP-POPs Convention, a chemical has a half life of
mineralization > 60 days in marine water should be considered to be a persistent substance.
Mineralization is generally contributed by bacteria. The OECD biodegradation studies for estimation
of mineralization rate use activated sludge sourced from a sewage treatment plant. But in ship hull
paint AIs are released directly to sea water. Therefore a sea water degradation study is required for the
use of AIs for antifouling. The number of bacteria in sea water is much lower than that of in the
activated sludge. Therefore it is difficult to classify them as readily biodegradable with regard to the
marine environment.

However, the degradation process for many AIs does not lead to immediate mineralization and, it is
also permissible to use some AIs which are rapidly degraded to non-harmful compounds by natural sea
water. In that case, the identification and quantification of metabolites are also required. The risk
assessments need refinement in relation to these metabolites.

2) Bioaccumulation
Bioaccumulation studies often use fish or shellfish as test organisms. The test environment
concentrations of the AI in such studies are maintained below the no effect concentration of test
substance throughout the test period. The organisms’ tissue samples after several weeks cultured are
collected and test substances will be quantified (µg/kg tissue wt.). The result would be used to
determine the BCF (Bioconcentration factor) as below.

Test substance in tissue (µg / kg)

BCF =
Test substance in water bath (µg / L)

© 2007: JASNAOE-RINA 110

Shipbuilding Technology ISST 2007, Osaka, 2007

Under BPD TNsG, the acceptable criteria used are

BCF < 100 or
BCF <1000 if it is readily biodegradable substance.

If BCF does not meet the criteria above, a risk assessment for predators due to secondary poisoning
and for human exposed via the environment is necessary. The PBT (persistent, bioaccumulative and
toxic substances) assessment approach should be considered case-by-case when a BCF is between
2000 and 5000. AI with a BCF>5000 is basically not acceptable.

3) Calculation of PEC/PNEC ratio

AI is acceptable if the predicted environment concentration (PEC) is lower than the predicted no-effect
concentration (PNEC).

PEC
OECD emission scenario document (OECD-ESD) for antifouling introduces existing and newly
developed scenarios for service life (and application and removal) for antifouling products used on
ship hulls. The PEC is estimated in open sea, shipping lane or commercial harbor indicated in the
OECD-ESD.
http://www.oecd.org/dataoecd/33/37/34707347.pdf

The PEC estimation takes into account emission factors (e.g. leaching rate, shipping intensities,
residence times, ship hull underwater surface areas), AI related properties and processes (e.g. Kd, Kow,
Koc, hydrolysis, photolysis, bio-degradation), and processes related to the specific environment (e.g.
currents, tides, salinity, suspended matter load). AI leaching rate (µg/cm2/day) can be estimated by
mass balance method (calculation method), field test, or leaching rate test method within ASTM and
ISO.

PNEC
PNEC is calculated as below using an assessment factor (AF) and the lowest no effect concentration
(NOEC) of the relevant available toxicity data.
PNEC= Lowest NOEC / AF

AF depends on the number of long-term tests available. If a large number of data sets from long-term
test for different species are available, the size of AF can be 10 or lower. With only acute toxicity data,
then the AF can be as high as 10,000. The table 2 is cited from the technical guidance document
(TGD) on risk assessment in the ECB website.

© 2007: JASNAOE-RINA 111

Shipbuilding Technology ISST 2007, Osaka, 2007

Table 2 Assessment factors proposed for deriving PNECwater for saltwater for different data sets.

4) Accumulation in Sediments
If sediment adsorption is high, it should take account of environmental accumulation. According to
BPD TNsG, if the Kp (solid-water partitioning coefficient of suspended matter) is more than 2000,
sediment/water degradation study and toxicity test for sediment dwelling organisms for PEC/PNEC
sediment are required.

5 DEVELOPING ISO STANDARD ON ENVIRONMENTAL RISK ASSESSMENT FOR

ANTIFOULING COATING

ISO TC8/SC2 Japan group is considering proposing such an environmental risk assessment system for
antifouling to ISO TC8/SC2. Japan Ship Technology Research Association is steering this project. The
concept is based on BPD and adapting it to marine environment. As the marine environment is connected
throughout the world, there should be international standard. The required studies are also taking into
account the data listed in Annex 3 of the AFS convention.

Unique points of the newly proposed system are that

1) ‘Tiered approach’ is introduced,
2) The studies are requested step by step (level system)
3) “Loss of biocidal activity” test is required if AI is not mineralized rapidly in natural sea water.
The test method is referred from BPD TNsG.

© 2007: JASNAOE-RINA 112

Shipbuilding Technology ISST 2007, Osaka, 2007

Table 3 Requirement studies

Tier 1 – A risk assessment (PEC/PNEC <1) based upon
1. Bioaccumulation study (Fish/Shell)
2. Degradation study
(a) Hydrolysis
(b) Photolysis
(c) Bio degradation (Natural sea water)
3. Acute toxicity
(a) Fish
(b) Invertebrate
(c) Alga
4. Chronic toxicity
(a) Fish/Invertebrate
Tier 2 Level 1
1. Adsorption / Desorption screening test
Tier 2 Level2
1. Identification & Quantification of degradation products

If necessary,
1. Loss of biocidal activity (Degradation by bioassay )
2. Sediment/Water degradation half life
3. Refine risk assessment (PEC/PNEC) by means of more chronic data on a
wider range of organisms
4. Risk assessment for predators due to secondary poisoning and for human
exposed via the environment.

1) Tiered approach
If an AI is acceptable based on the Tier 1 criteria, it is needless to get further data (Tier 2 data package).
Such environmentally low risk AI would be required with only a small data package (Tier 1 level) as
incentive. If it is not acceptable, then it goes to tier 2.

Tier 1 Criteria
Highest BCF<100
The degradation half life< 15 days
Assessment Factor based on number / types of studies
PEC/PNEC<1

2) Level system
Tier 2 consists of Level 1 and Level 2. If an AI is acceptable at certain criteria of Level 1, it is tentatively
allowed for use for a certain period (e.g. up to three years). After this certain period, a Level 2 safety data
package is required, and the AI is re-evaluated with the total data package. At Level 2 identification of
degradation products is requested, which can be the most expensive environmental study
(US$ 0.5-1milion). Therefore data requirements with different levels are particularly helpful for R&D of
new AIs.

© 2007: JASNAOE-RINA 113

Shipbuilding Technology ISST 2007, Osaka, 2007

At Level 2 if necessary, the additional studies could be required as below.

Loss of biocidal activity test is requested if an AI isn’t readily mineralized.
Sediment/water degradation study is required if the Adsporption/Desorption Kp is below 2000.
The risk assessment for predator and human is required if the bioaccumulation is high based on BPD
TNsG.

It may also be necessary to determine chronic toxicity levels for a wider range of organisms to reduce the
AF to be applied to the AI for risk assessment.

3) Loss of biocidal activity test (Tier 2 Level 2)

Most of the existing AIs for AF paint use are transformed to non-harmful compounds by hydrolysis,
photolysis or bacteria after leaching from ship-hull. In order to evaluate the decomposed substances, loss of
biocidal activity test (Callow & Finlay; 1995) is proposed. This study is required for the AI with more than
60 days of half life of the mineralization.
The test protocol is acute toxicity test for algae or invertebrates using the natural seawater aged 2, 5, 7 and
14 days respectively to which AI was dosed at concentration equivalent to the EC80 (LC80) initially. The
inhibition over time (%) (0 day is assumed to be 100 % activities) is evaluated for each degradation
periods.

6 CONCLUSION

・ ISO TC8/SC2 Japan group is studying a draft environmental risk assessment method for antifouling
system to ISO TC8/SC2.
・ Antifouling paint is used in no-border area, marine environment. The data and the risk assessment
method should be harmonized globally. Therefore it should be standardized through ISO.
・ The proposed concept and data requirements are mostly harmonized with EU Biocide product
Directive.
・ In order to give incentive to low risk active ingredients, tiered approach is introduced.

This work has been carried out as a study of the Japan Ship Technology Research Association under the
support of Nippon Foundation.

7 REFERENCES

1) Report of investigation and research for new antifoulants, The Shipbuilding Research Association of Japan,
SR-209 sectional meeting 1993.
2) Proc. of the 24th UJNR (US/Japan) Marine Facilities Panel Meeting in Hawaii, November 7-8, 2001, The
Status of the Treaty to Ban TBT in Marine Antifouling Paints and Alternatives, Michael A. Champ
3) Report of investigation and research for the evaluation test methods of antifouling paints including tin-free

© 2007: JASNAOE-RINA 114

Shipbuilding Technology ISST 2007, Osaka, 2007

antifouling paints, Japan Chemical Industry Association (2001)

4) TNsG Data Requirements ;
http://ecb.jrc.it/Documents/Biocides/TECHNICAL_NOTES_FOR_GUIDANCE/TNsG_DATA_REQUIRE
MENTS/ccov2000.pdf
5) TNsG on Annex I inclusion ;
http://ecb.jrc.it/DOCUMENTS/Biocides/TECHNICAL_NOTES_FOR_GUIDANCE/TNsG_ANNEX_I_I
NCLUSION/Web_April_2002.doc
6) TNsG on Product Evaluation ;
http://ecb.jrc.it/Documents/Biocides/TECHNICAL_NOTES_FOR_GUIDANCE/TNsG_Product_Evaluatio
n.doc
7) Harmonisation of Environmental Emission Scenarios: An Emission Scenario Document for Antifouling,
Products in OECD countries, European Commission, Directorate-General Environment, 23 September
2004 ;
http://ecb.jrc.it/Documents/Biocides/ENVIRONMENTAL_EMISSION_SCENARIOS/PT_21_antifouling_
products.pdf
8) Callow M E, Finlay J A., 1995. A simple method to evaluate the potential for degradation of antifouling
biocides. Biofouling.9(2), 153-165.

© 2007: JASNAOE-RINA 115

Shipbuilding Technology ISST 2007, Osaka, 2007

© 2007: JASNAOE-RINA 116

Shipbuilding Technology ISST 2007, Osaka, 2007

The Benefits of Foul Release Coatings

Iain Walker – International Paint Japan K.K.

As international trade booms, the global shipping industry keeps pace by expanding its fleet and
building ever bigger and more powerful ships.

Whilst the industry is more energy efficient than other forms of transport such as air, rail and road,
with an estimated 300 million tons of fuel consumed annually by the world’s fleet, there is an ever
increasing focus on shipping’s environmental impact. At this level of consumption the industry
currently emits some 960 million tons of CO2 and 9 million tons of SO2 annually. The International
Maritime Organization estimates that without corrective action and the introduction of new
technologies, air emissions, due to increased bunker fuel consumption by the world shipping fleet,
could increase by between 38% and 72% by 20201.
1
IMO ‘Study of Greenhouse Gas Emissions from Ships’ (The GHG Study), MEPC 45/8, 29th June 2000

The industry has tried to find viable means of energy saving for decades. One way to do this is
through the use of antifouling coatings. Antifouling coatings are used to improve the speed and
energy efficiency of ships by preventing organisms such as barnacles and weed building up on the
underwater hull, restricting the ships movement through the water.

If ships didn’t use antifouling coatings, fuel consumption could be increased by as much as 40% -
with current fuel use consequently rising by 120 million tons per year to a total of 420 million tons
per year. It is estimated that antifouling coatings provide the shipping industry with annual fuel
savings of US$30 billion and reduced emissions of 384 million tons and 3.6 million tons
respectively for CO2 and SO2 annually.

Coating suppliers have supported the shipping industry with pioneering antifouling technology since
the introduction of the first self polishing copolymer (SPC) antifoulings in 1974 and their
contribution to the fuel efficiency of the global fleet has been hugely significant.

However, concerns regarding the effect of tributyl tin (TBT) on certain marine species led coatings
suppliers to develop more environmentally responsible solutions and, in 1996, the first commercially
available biocide free foul release technology was introduced for fast craft and in 1999 for deep sea,
scheduled ships.

This biocide free, silicone based technology works on a foul release basis by providing a very
smooth, slippery, low friction surface onto which fouling organisms have difficulty attaching. Any
which do attach, normally do so only weakly and can usually be easily removed. With proven
average fuel savings of 4% and a corresponding reduction in emissions, this original silicone
development has become firmly established as the industry benchmark in foul release technology.

Now, in 2007, the next generation of foul release technology, which is based on new, unique and
patented biocide free fluoropolymer chemistry represents the very latest advances in foul release
technology, significantly improving upon the performance of the best silicone based systems.

Foul Release

Foul Release is the name given to technology which does not use biocides to control fouling but
relies on a “non-stick” principle to minimise fouling adhesion. Most Foul Release products

© 2007: JASNAOE-RINA 117

Shipbuilding Technology ISST 2007, Osaka, 2007

currently available are based on silicone technology and they are typically split into two general
categories – those for high-speed coastal vessels operating above 30 knots and those for deep-sea,
high activity scheduled ships with speeds greater than 15 - 18 knots.

Fluoropolymer Technology

Fluoropolymer chemistry represents the very latest advances in foul release technology, significantly
improving upon the performance of the best silicone based systems.

Exceptionally smooth with unprecedented low levels of Average Hull Roughness (AHR) combined
with excellent foul release capabilities and good resistance to mechanical damage means that for the
very first time, all vessels above 10 knots can now benefit from foul release technology e.g. Tankers,
Bulk Carriers, General Cargo Vessels and Feeder Containers.

Benefits include a predicted 6% reduction in fuel consumption and emissions, reduced paint
consumption at the next docking, reduced risk of fouling during loading delays and enhanced
Corporate Social Responsibility through an improved environmental profile.

Fluoropolymer technology also provides excellent performance on high speed / high activity
scheduled ships which typically consume significantly more fuel per day (and therefore have higher
emissions) than slower vessels. The low surface roughness, good coefficient of friction and
advanced surface energy characteristics improves fuel efficiency and reduces slime build-up on
Container Vessels, Reefers, LNG/LPG Carriers, Cruise Liners, Ro Ro's and Vehicle Carriers.

Launched in March 2007, fluoropolymer technology has already built an impressive track record of
over 40 vessels with in-service data validating the fuel and emission savings on a range of vessel
types.

Average Hull Roughness

The Average Hull Roughness (AHR) of ships is of critical importance. Underwater hulls need to be
as smooth as possible for maximum efficiency. If hull roughness is allowed to increase, more power
is required to push the vessel through the water - more power means more fuel - more fuel means
more money and more emissions. Those vessels unable to increase power to compensate for
increased roughness will lose speed resulting in slower transit times or late arrivals. Operators able
to quote higher speeds during charter contract negotiation may be able to command higher rates.

From measurements carried out on hundreds of vessels, the industry is aware that typical SPC
antifoulings have an AHR of around 125 microns whilst silicone based systems are better with an
AHR of 100 microns. However, measurements on a number of full vessel fluoropolymer
applications have shown that this can be further reduced to around 75 microns providing additional
savings for vessel operators.

Static and Kinetic Coefficient of Friction

Friction is the force that resists the motion of two surfaces in contact e.g. a coated hull in water. The
coefficient of friction can be static or kinetic and is defined as the ratio of the ‘friction force to the
normal force’. The coefficient of friction is an important measure for foul release coatings. The
coated hull that offers the least resistance through water will reduce the power required by the vessel
to maintain desired speed.

© 2007: JASNAOE-RINA 118

Shipbuilding Technology ISST 2007, Osaka, 2007

Fluoropolymer Average Hull Roughness Survey – Container Vessel

Hull Roughness for 'Andromeda', Outdocking January 2007 - Sides Only

18.0%

16.0%
Average Hull Roughness = 80.5μm
14.0%

12.0%
Frequency

10.0%

8.0%

6.0%

4.0%

2.0%

0.0%

e
0
0
0
0
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90

0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0

or
32
33
34
35
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31

M
Roughness (microns)

Sides Overall
Stbd Port All
Average 83.6 77.4 80.5 80.5
Mode 54.0 69.0 69.0 69.0

When the static and kinetic coefficients of friction are measured and compared (both wet and dry)
for silicone and fluoropolymer based systems, the fluoropolymer systems show an average
improvement of 38%.

Surface Energy: Static Performance

Fluoropolymer systems have been formulated to make it very difficult for fouling organisms to
adhere to the coated surface. The surface energy has been engineered in such a way that a very
unattractive surface is presented to the fouling organism.

Surface energy quantifies the disruption of chemical bonds that occurs when a surface is created. It
is the interaction between the forces of cohesion and the forces of adhesion which determines
whether or not wetting, i.e. the spreading of a liquid over a surface occurs. If complete wetting does
not occur, then a bead of liquid will form with a contact angle which is a function of the surface
energies of the system. If the surface is hydrophobic then the contact angle of a drop of water will be
larger. If the surface is hydrophilic then the contact angle will be smaller.

By measuring the contact angle with two liquids, one polar liquid (such as water) and one apolar
liquid (such as methylene iodide), the surface energy can be divided into two components – polar
and dispersive.

This gives a measure of how many polar and dispersive (non-polar) groups there are at the surface.
The introduction of polar groups in an otherwise non-polar surface will produce a surface that is
amphiphilic i.e. the surface combines both hydrophilic and hydrophobic properties.

Fluoropolymer systems provide such an amphiphilic surface. It has been established that marine
fouling organisms secrete an adhesive, either of a hydrophobic or hydrophilic nature depending on

© 2007: JASNAOE-RINA 119

Shipbuilding Technology ISST 2007, Osaka, 2007

the fouling species. By having a balanced amphiphilic surface fluoropolymers can minimise the
chemical and electrostatic adhesion between the surface and a wide range of fouling organisms.

Surface Energy: Foul Release

Foul release properties are particularly important when considering slower speed vessels (<15 knots).
These vessels often trade on the spot market and may have static periods awaiting a charter or
waiting to discharge/load cargo. The excellent foul release properties of fluoropolymers means that
even during exceptionally long periods of inactivity, any fouling attachment can be removed either
by the vessel getting under way, or if underwater cleaning is the option selected, then less force is
required to remove the fouling resulting in less damage to the coating.

The better static resistance and improved foul release properties of fluoropolymers means they are
suitable for use on newbuildings during fitting out periods and special procedures have been
developed to allow application of these systems during new construction.

To fully understand how fouling adheres to submerged surfaces and what force is required to
remove them, a coating company “grows” its own barnacles and has developed a sophisticated
computer controlled system to apply force to the barnacle - the Barnacle Push Off Apparatus.
The equipment measures the peak force required to remove the barnacle but, as all barnacles are
different sizes, the area in contact with the coated system must be measured. This is done using a
computer controlled camera and results are derived from dividing the peak force (in Newtons) by
the barnacle area (in mm2) to give the force per area in N/mm2. Barnacle shear adhesion strength is
measured in kPa and fluoropolymers typically required 40% less shear force to remove barnacles in
comparison to silicone systems.

Resistance to Slime Fouling

Certain owners enjoying the benefits of using silicone systems have noticed that slime build-up can
occur which may lead to fuel or speed penalties. Fluoropolymer technology integrates advanced
surface energy characteristics with an ultra smooth surface to reduce slime build-up by 50%.

Savings

In terms of fuel efficiency and reduced emissions, fluoropolymer technology offers predicted
savings of 2% in comparison to silicone based systems and 6% in comparison to typical SPC
antifoulings. The potential exists for even greater savings in comparison to controlled depletion
antifoulings.

For a single VLCC currently coated with an SPC antifouling, this could mean savings of over 9,300
tons of fuel (US$2.8 million with bunkers at US$300 per ton) and a reduction in carbon dioxide
emissions of around 12,000 tons over a five year period.

Summary

In comparison to typical SPC antifoulings and current silicone based foul release products, the latest
fluoropolymer technology offers significant environmental and financial benefits for vessel
operators.

© 2007: JASNAOE-RINA 120

Shipbuilding Technology ISST 2007, Osaka, 2007

Antifouling Systems to Reduce biocide

Shinnichi TASHIRO, Masakazu DOI, Yasuyuki KISEKI and Masashi ONO
Chugoku Marine Paints, 1-7 Meijishinkai Otake Hiroshima, 739-0652 Japan

Keywords: Hydrolysis, Copper-free, Biocide-free, Electro-conductive, Antifouling, Paint, Biocide, Ship

ABSTRACT
During the past decade, new developments and constant improvements have been made to TBT-free antifouling
systems. There are now several commonly used systems: (1) Hydrolyzing polymer resin with Copper and booster
biocides, (2) Hydrolyzing polymer resin with Copper-free biocides, (3) Hydrolysis polymer without Biocide, (4)
Silicone Polymer, and (5) Electrochemical Prevention. Each antifouling system has its own advantages and
disadvantages. Without resorting to a single antifouling technique, a large range of research is important.

1. INTRODUCTION
Since the 1970's, TBT antifouling paints have been used widely because of their excellent antifouling
performance. However, because of the severe impact to marine ecosystem was expected by the increased loading of
TBT, Japan industry started the self-regulation of TBT since 1992. Japan’s decision has since driven development of
TBT-free Antifouling paints.
We are pleased to more closely review the TBT-free Antifouling systems most commonly used today. They are,
and can be classified, as follows:
1) Hydrolyzing polymer resin with Copper and booster biocides.
2) Hydrolyzing polymer resin with Copper-free biocides.
3) Hydrolyzing polymer resin without biocides.
4) Silicone Polymer: Biocide-free.
5) Electochemical Prevention: Electro-conductive
The advantages and disadvantages of these systems will be discussed.

2. ANTIFOULINGS WITH CUPROUS OXIDE AND BOOSTER BIOCIDE

2.1 Hydrolyzing polymer resin with Copper and booster biocides
Many ship operators are adopting Hydrolyzing polymer, or so called “Self-polishing TBT-Free” type antifouling
for service of 3 or more years.
"Self-polishing TBT-Free" paints, consisting of a hydrolyzing polymer as the resin binder and cuprous oxide and
booster biocides such as copper pyrithione and zinc pyrithione as the active substances, have become standard
antifouling systems.
At the surface of the paint, active substances are released at a constant rate, a function of hydrolysis polymer
technology. The biocide release mechanism of hydrolysis polymers is very close to that of TBT antifoulings.

Fig.1. Mechanism of hydrolysis antifouling paint. Release of antifouling agent occurs gradually.

© 2007: JASNAOE-RINA 121

Shipbuilding Technology ISST 2007, Osaka, 2007

2.2 Actual performance of TBT-AF and TBT-Free paints

Fig.2 (below) shows actual performance of TBT-AF and TBT-Free antifouling paint. Both photographs show
excellent antifouling performance with no marine growth. Self-polishing activity is recognized by the color difference
of paints. The color difference contrasts higher paint film thickness areas, caused by overlapping during spray
application, and lower film thickness area where paint film has polished away.
This phenomenon is a typical feature of self-polishing type antifouling paint.

Fig.2. Performance of Antifouling systems. Left photo is TBT-AF, right photo is TBT-Free.

Fig.3 is a cross-section SEM (Scanning Electron Microscope) photo of paint film obtained from an operating ship.
The left photo is TBT-AF film and photo to the right is TBT-Free hydrolysis film. In SEM photos heavy elements such
as copper are seen as bright-white spots. In each photo's, the left side is where seawater was present and the right side is
the ship's hull side. There are some bright-white spots in the paint, but the layer (10 to 20 micrometers) near the surface
shows no white spots. This surface layer form which cuprous oxide has leached is called reaction layer.
This reaction layer of TBT-Free antifouling is not bioactive, but this is where the hydrophobic resin changes to a
hydrophilic resin and dissolves in the seawater, so the effect relies on dissolution of cuprous oxides form a deeper part of
the paint film. The increased thickness of the reaction layer tends to cause a shortage of leaching of cuprous oxide,
which is one of causes of fouling. Generally the reaction layer of Hydrolysis type antifouling is very thin compared to
conventional systems over time. By analyzing the cross-section we can estimate the paint's performance and durability.

Fig.3. Section photo of TBT-AF (left) and TBT-Free (right) films.

2.3 Advantages and Disadvantages

In comparison with the biocide-free systems, the cost of material and application are economical, moreover the
application method is easier than for many biocide-free systems.
By controlling hydrolysis reaction and erosion rate of paint films, these antifouling systems are applicable for all
types of vessels.

© 2007: JASNAOE-RINA 122

Shipbuilding Technology ISST 2007, Osaka, 2007

3. ANTIFOULINGS WITH COPPER-FREE BIOCIDES

3.1 Hydrolyzing polymer resin with Copper-free biocides
Continuous research led to the development Self-polishing TBT-Free Copper-free antifouling systems. Since this
technology does not contain copper there is even less environmental loading. This system contains
triphenylborone-pyridine salt, which is easily degradable in seawater.

3.2 Actual performance and analysis of cross-section photograph

Fig.4 is an in-service picture of TBT-Free Copper-Free antifouling paint. As this photo indicates, selection of
appropriate resins and antifouling agents leads to sufficient antifouling performance without using cuprous oxide.

Fig.4. Performance of TBT-Free Copper-Free antifouling paint.

Fig.5 is a cross-section photo of TBT-Free Copper-Free antifouling paint. Since the antifouling system does not
contain copper, bright-white spots are not seen on SEM photo. Furthermore, no reaction layer is observed.

Fig.5. A cross-section photo of TBT-Free Copper-Free antifouling paint.

3.3 Advantages and Disadvantages

By selecting a degradable antifouling reagent, environmental loading is reduced. In comparison with
biocide-free systems, application and paint cost are economical. By changing hydrolysis reaction and erosion rate of a
paint film, it is applicable to almost all vessels. Depending on the trading pattern of a ship, the performance is superior
to that of copper and booster biocide systems.

© 2007: JASNAOE-RINA 123

Shipbuilding Technology ISST 2007, Osaka, 2007

4. ANTIFOULINGS WITHOUT ANTIFOULANTS

4.1 Hydrolyzing polymer resin without Biocides
With the increase of environmental concerns, there has been a growing requirement for low-biocide antifouling
systems.
Fig. 6 illustrates Biocide-free antifouling systems. Only slime attached on the hull, No barnacles or seaweeds are
in evident. This antifouling system is based on Copper-Free antifouling technology. Therefore, special processing is not
required.

Fig. 6. Performance of Biocide-free type antifouling system.

4.2 Advantages and Disadvantages

Not having copper and booster biocides allows for an environmentally friendly system.
These systems are not suitable for tropical water.

5. FOUL-RELEASE ANTIFOULING SYSTEM

5.1 Silicone resin
Another type of TBT-free technology is a biocide-free silicone polymer foul-release system. On the silicone
polymer surface, marine growths have difficulty settling and are easily detached due to the paint film’s low surface
energy. Adjusting the surface energy of silicone coatings prevents adhesion of marine organisms. A silicone coating
has an extra smooth surface and greater elasticity.
Nowadays, 2 types of silicone resin anti-fouling systems are being marketed. One features a “harder” paint film
and is applied to ocean going vessels sailing at speeds in excessive 15 knots, i.e. container carrier, car carrier and Gas
carrier such as LNGC and LPGC, and are sailing in world wide service. The second is “soft” type containing silicone oil
and applied to coastal ships, yachts, pleasure boats, etc.
There is much market information from other makers about the “harder” type for ocean going vessels. Now we
will concentrate on the performance of “soft” type.

Fig.7 shows performance of a soft type silicone resin system. The vessel is in coastal service and operates at of
speed of approximately 12 knots. In the photo, the vessel is slightly fouled, but the fouling was easily removed with the
wipe of a hand.

5.2 Advantages and Disadvantages

Biocide-free.
Coating material cost is relatively expensive.
Is more prone to mechanical damage compared to “hard-film” antifouling systems based on hydrolyzing polymers.
Silicone resin (rubber) film hardness is low and has tendency to be damaged easily on the surface by fenders, scratching,
etc. When the surface is damaged, the antifouling performance tends to decrease.
Replacing traditional antifouling is difficult due to high costs. Also full blasting is normal due to the adhesion
concerns when over coating traditional antifouling systems.

© 2007: JASNAOE-RINA 124

Shipbuilding Technology ISST 2007, Osaka, 2007

Fig. 7. Performance of silicone resin type antifouling system.

6. ELECTRO-CONDUCTIVE ANTIFOULING SYSTEMS

6.1 Electrochemical Prevention
The electro-conductive antifouling system is another answer to protection without the use of biocides. With
electro-conductive antifouling systems, hypochlorous acid is generated by seawater electrolysation and acts as a
disinfectant. Formulation of hypochlorous acid occurs as follows.

Fig. 8 Principle of Electro-conductive antifouling system

Anode part: Cathode part:
- -
2Cl -› Cl2 + 2e 2H2O+ 2e- -› 2OH- + H2
- -
4OH -› O2 + 2H2O + 4e
Cl- + 2OH- -› ClO- + H2O + 2e-

Although hypochlorous acid is only generated on the anode, the antifouling effect can be demonstrated with both
of electrodes by replacing them at an in fixed time. Electric power is required at only a few dozens of Watts/100m2 in
order to prevent marine organisms from adhering. This level of electric power can be generated by solar cells and battery
systems. The required quantity of hypochlorous acid is very small and easily decomposed in seawater. Therefore the
environmental load can be negligible.
Since there are no active ingredients in the paint or paint film itself, antifouling performance cannot be expected
when the current is cut or electro-conductive coating is damaged. Fig. 9 shows actual performance.

© 2007: JASNAOE-RINA 125

Shipbuilding Technology ISST 2007, Osaka, 2007

Fig. 9. Performance of Electro-conductive antifouling system

6.3 Advantages and Disadvantages

Almost zero-emission antifouling system.
Only a small quantity of electric power is required.
Complicated application method.
Non-conductance coatings are required for steel ship to avoid short-circuiting. This is difficult due to pinholes.

7. CONCLUTION
Since vessels are trading and anchoring in diverse environments, no single antifouling system technology is
perfect for all vessel types. Each antifouling system has its own advantages and disadvantages. The antifouling
systems introduced at this session still require further development to achieve biocide-free or low risk systems assessed
by PEC/PNEC. Without resorting to a single antifouling technique, a large range of research is important.

REFERENCES
1) "Report of investigation and research for new antifoulants”, The Japan Ship Research Association the SR-209
sectional meeting 1993.

2) Proc. of International Conference on Technologies for Marine Environment Preservation. Tokyo, Japan Sept. 24-29,
1995 Vol. 1, pp.413-419, Research for New Antifouling Paint, E. Yoshikawa

3) Hisashi Yamada, “Studies on Behavior of Organotin Compounds in Marine Environment and Bioaccumulation by
Marine Fish, Report from Bulletin of Fisheries and Environment of Inland Sea, No.1, March 1999

4) Horiguchi T, Shiraishi H, Shimizu M & Morita M. 1997. Imposex in sea snails, caused by organotin (tributyltin and
triphenyltin) pollution in Japan: a survey. Appl. Organomet. Chem. 11: 451-455.

5) E.Yoshikawa, Proceedings for Research for Alternative Antifouling Paint, Half-day seminar on Anti-fouling paints for
ships - Regulations, Views & Alternatives, 7 Apr 2000, Singapore Shipping Association, Singapore

© 2007: JASNAOE-RINA 126

Shipbuilding Technology ISST 2007, Osaka, 2007

A New Prediction Method for Deterioration of the Corrosion Protection System of the Oil
Storage Barges

Hironori Sugimoto, Shipbuilding Research Centre of Japan (SRC)

Yuji Horii, Japan Oil ,Gas and Metals National Corporation(JOGMEC)

SUMMARY
The Kamigoto and Shirashima Oil Storage Bases in Japan have been in operation since 1988 and 1996,
respectively. The first one of five oil storage barges at Kamigoto Base installed at mooring site in 1986, and
it is almost used for 20 years. However, problems such as prediction of deterioration of the corrosion
resistance of barge hull structure and accurate prediction of the durability of the fittings have been left in
order to expect in future long-term use considering life cycle maintenance. JOGMEC and SRC carried out
the research in order to solve these problems. Corrosion protection system for immersed parts of the Oil
Storage Barges consists of both painting and cathodic protection system. In this paper, a new prediction
method for deterioration of the corrosion protection system of the Oil Storage Barges is reported.

1. INTRODUCTION In this paper, a new prediction method for

Crude oil stockpiling activities in Japan have been carried deterioration of the corrosion protection system
out both in private sector and in the public sector through consists of painting and cathodic protection in
JOGMEC. The amount of crude oil stockpiles are now 41 immersed part of the Oil Storage Barges is
million kl and 48 million kl in private sector and public reported.
sector, respectively in 2007.
Two of the ten (10) public storage bases are the Kamigoto 2. OUTLINE OF OIL STORAGE BARGES
and Shirashima bases having a storage capacity of 10 The aerial photograph of the Kamigoto oil storage base is
million kl correspond to 20 percent of stockpile of the shown in Figure 1.
public sector. Storage barges and barge mooring facilities are arranged
These two bases, the first of its kind in the world, are very in water area while power generation plant, water supply
large–scale oil storage systems formed by floating facilities, other utility facilities and etc. are placed in the
offshore structures where each oil storage barges lined up land. Floating oil fences have been placed double around
side by side. storage barges to prevent oil contamination. Breakwaters
The Kamigoto oil storage base has been in operation are also arranged to reduce affection of waves.
since 1988. All five storage barges were dry-docked once
for detailed inspection and maintenance until 2004. The
second dry-docking for each barge started in 2007.
The Shirashima oil storage base started operation in 1996
and were inspected, surveyed and repaired in detail one
by one at the mooring site after gas-freeing the tanks in
2000 and 2005.
In 1997, there is the change of the rule applied to the
storage barges, and the system of inspection and
maintenance are also changed, in which maximum
five(5)-years intervals of Docking Survey for
representative barges is ruled.[1],[2],[3],[4].
Figure 1 Kamigoto Oil Storage Base
However, problems such as prediction of deterioration of
the corrosion resistance of barge hull structure and The sectional view of the structure of the Kamigoto
accurate prediction of the durability of the fittings have storage barge is shown in Figure 2. The inside of the
been left in order to expect in future long-term use barge has been divided into 9 subdivisions by longitudinal
considering life cycle maintenance. and transverse bulkheads. For prevention of crude oil

© 2007: JASNAOE-RINA 127

Shipbuilding Technology ISST 2007, Osaka, 2007

spill and fire control, the structure system of the partition
is the double hull and double bottom structures, and those
tanks with are always filled with seawater.
In order to prevent the fire in the oil storage tanks, the
upper space of oil tanks is filled with inert gas.
Inert gas
Sea water Oil
(L:390m,B:97m,D:27.6m)
Figure 2 Structure of Kamigoto Storage Barge
3. DIAGNOSTIC SYSTEM FOR CORROSION
PROTECTION SYSTEM
IZ: Inorganic Zinc Paint
P/U: Polyurethane paint
3.2 Deterioration pattern of corrosion protection
system
Tar epoxy paint and cathodic protection system are
applied to immersed bottom shell, side shell and water
sealing tank, Therefore, deterioration pattern of total
corrosion protection performance could be assumed as
shown in Figure 3. As far as cathodic protection with
enough protective currents density is available, fully
protection would be expected in spite of progress of paint
deterioration. If anodes have lost current to keep adequate
potential, corrosion could have occurred instantaneously
in this case. Prediction of life of corrosion protection
system is very important technology for those oil storage
barges.

Quality
3.1 Corrosion protection system Paint+anode

Specification for corrosion protection system of the oil １ ０ ０％

storage barges are as shown in Table 1.

1) Considering stowage condition of oil storage tank, tar Time
Deterioration of paint

epoxy paint (T/E) is applied to ceiling part exposed to

inert gas and bottom part exposed to sludge

Repair
sedimentation.
2) Water sealing tanks are protected by tar epoxy paint
Anoe depletion

(250μm) and cathodic protection system with aluminum １０ ０ ％

anodes (5mA/m2--10 years). Full protection Corrosion Full protection

3) Tar epoxy paint (400μm) and cathodic protection Time Time

system with aluminum anodes (10mA/m2--10 years) Figure 3 Deterioration Pattern of Total Corrosion
are applied to bottom and side shell ( to the draft in a half Performance
cargo).
Table 1 Corrosion Protection System for 3.3 Procedure of diagnosis
Kamigoto Oil Storage Barges Deterioration diagnosis flow for the immersed shell
Location System plate is shown in Figure 4 , for example.[5],[6],[7].
Oil storage tank Upper T/E 250μm In deterioration diagnosis of the corrosion protection
Middle no paint
system, collecting additional data (in periodic
Bottom T/E 250μm
Water tank T/E/ 250μm investigation and by monitoring in the mooring site ) are
Aluminum anode required to examine the correct life of the system in
Side and Topside P/E 400μm addition to data obtained normally in the periodic
bottom shell Waterline P/E 400μm inspection and survey.
Aluminum Anode
Immersed T/E 400μm Measured data are also correlated to corresponding
Aluminum anode laboratory test data to predict the life of corrosion
Upper deck IZ 75μm protection system.
P/E 100μm
P/U 40μm
3.4 Deterioration data
Noteo:
Deterioration data (impedance) of the tar epoxy paint
T/E: Hi-built Tar Epoxy Paint
immersed in seawater obtained by accelerated aging tests
P/E: Pure Epoxy Paint
in our laboratory are shown in Figure 5 together with

© 2007: JASNAOE-RINA 128

Shipbuilding Technology ISST 2007, Osaka, 2007

actual data for Kamigot storage barge obtained in tanks at Figure 4 Deterioration Diagnosis Flow
the time of docking survey.
Also current density and paint resistance data for test 107

specimens, actual paint in tank and monitoring specimens

106
are sown in Figure 6.and Figure 7.
Data of Loss of anode weight is also obtained in actual 105

Impedance（Ωm２）
tanks. 104
Those test data are correlated to actual data obtained by □ Actual Data
103
investigation of the storage barges dry-docked. in order to for sea water tank
(Aug.2002)
determine deterioration curves for actual corrosion 102 Test Data for sea water tank
T/E(250μm）
system. 101

100
3.5 Results of prediction for deterioration of 0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450

corrosion protection system Accelerated Aging Test(Days)

Results of prediction for deterioration of corrosion

protection system in one of sea water tanks of the Figure 5 Impedance Data of Accelerated Aging Tests
Kamigoto No.1 Barge is shown in Figure.8, for example. and
In Figure.8, solid line indicates prediction of loss of anode Actual Tank
weight in water tank (No.1S) considering of paint
12
deterioration. Loss of anode weight can be calculated by Test Data
11 for sea water tank
integration of current density of actual tank paint coating, 10
T/E250μm

protection area and other factor. Two actual tank data 9

Average
Current Density(mA/m2)

points are obtained in tanks at the time of docking survey 8

7
in 1997 and 2002. In this case life of anode is predicted Upper bound □ Actual Data
6 for sea water tank
(Aug. 2002)
about 45 years. In other tanks, these estimated lines vary 5
Lower bound
depend on actual data for each tank. 4
3
2 ○ Monitoring Data
(2004)
1
Actual Barge Measurement Accelerated Aging Test 0
(incl. monitoring specimens) (Test Specimens) 0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450
・Paint ・Paint Accelerated Aging Test(Days)
-Impedance -Impedance
-Adhesion. -Adhesion.
-Current density -Current density
(paint resistance) Figure 6 Current Density Data of Accelerated Aging
・Anode
-Weight reduction
Tests and Actual Tank
Deterioration Curve
-Impedance 107

Matching with Test Data -Adhesion. □ Actual Data

-Paint resistance -Current density 106 for sea water tank
(Aug. 2002)
-Anode-Weight reduction (paint resistance,
anode weight reduction) 105
Test Data for sea water tank
Paint Resistance(Ωm２）

T/E250μm
Acceleration Factor
104
○Monitoring Data
(2004)
103

Deterioration Curve for Actual

102
Barge Upper bound

1
10 Lower bound

100
Paint deterioration curve 0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450
Anode deterioration curve Accelerated Aging Test(days)
Estimation of Protection System Life

Figure 7 Paint Resistance Data of Aging Tests and

© 2007: JASNAOE-RINA 129

Shipbuilding Technology ISST 2007, Osaka, 2007

Actual Tank Data

The example of simulation results is shown in Figure 10.
14
100 It is shown that distribution of potential scatters widely in
90 accordance with progress of deterioration of coated plate.
12 Upper Water Tank（Ｎｏ．１Ｓ）
80 Also it is shown that the potential becomes less-noble at

Loss of Anode Weight（％）

Loss of Anode Weight（kg）

10 70 distant position from anode location in case of large

8
60 deterioration of paint.
50
6 40
■Actual Data
after 14 years
2007 30
4
□ Actual Data (scheduled)
20 1.00 Paint
2
after 9 years resistance
10
0.95
（Ωm2）
100
0 0
101

Potential(-V）
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 0.90
102
Operation Years
103
0.85 104
105
Figure 8 Prediction of Loss of Anode Weight (Example) 0.80 106

0.75 Kamigoto No.2

Anode line①
3.6 Simulation of corrosion protection system position
0.70
The potential measurement used widely in offshore 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14

structures is comparatively simple as monitoring Distance（ｍ）

technique of the anticorrosive condition. However, it is

difficult to obtain polarization curve of the deteriorated Figure 10 Results of Potential Simulation
surface of the coated plate in order to estimate the coating
condition. Here, simulation of potential of deteriorated Estimation curve to determine paint deterioration
surface is carried out using assumed polarization curves. condition is shown in Figure 11. Here, maximum
Boundary Element Method is applied to analyze potential difference of potential is a parameter to decide paint
for various surface condition and arrangement of anode. deterioration condition. Degree of deterioration can be
Computer Code used in this simulation has been easily detected by measurement of maximum and
developed by Prof. K. Amaya of Tokyo Institute of minimum potential in the Oil Storage Bases compared
Technology.[8]. with dry-dock measurement.
A simulation model for side and bottom of Kamigoto Oil
Storage Barge is shown in Figure.9. Paint Resistance　ｒ
101 102 103 104 105
35 400
Z 10.0(m) 375
Y 30
Maximum Potencial Difference,　ΔV（mV)

Side wall of ship 350

X
Element No.1-150 Lower bound 325
25
Accelerated Aging Test(Days)

Sacrificial anodes 300

)

Upper bound
(m

r
.2

ai

(Line Element 275

13

20.0(m)
on

Radius :0.069(m) 20 250

ry

② Length :2.0(m)
da
un

Element No.1277 1278 225

(broken line)
bo

(solid line）

15 200
10.0(m)
175
10 150
0.02(m)

①
10.0(m)

125
13.5(m)

5 100
③ 75
6.0(m) 0 Kamigoto No.2 Line①
50
ΔV = 660*exp(-log(r)/0.527）
B
o
t
t
me
o
w
a
lo
l
f5
o
s-
h
p0
i

25
E
l
e
m
n
t
N
.
1
1
2
3

-5 0
coordinate origin
Radius :0.069(m) 1 2 3 4 5
Length :2.0(m)
Element No.1281,1282 Paint Resistance　log(r)　（Ωm2）
boundary on sea water Radius :0.069(m)
Length :2.0(m)
Element No.1279,1280
Figure 11 Estimation Curve for Determination of Paint
Figure 9 Simulation Model for Outside Shell and Deterioration Condition by Potential Measurement
Bottom Shell of Kamigoto No.2 Barge

© 2007: JASNAOE-RINA 130

Shipbuilding Technology ISST 2007, Osaka, 2007

[8] S.Aoki, K.Amaya and M.Miyasawa ’Boundary

CONCLUSIONS
Conclusions are as follows.
(1) Deterioration of master curves of paint system
by accelerated aging tests is defined.
(2) Actual deterioration data of both painting and
anode are collected.
(3) Method of determine correlation between
master curve by tests and actual barge data by
measurement at dry-docked survey is established
(4) Prediction of a life of present corrosion
protection system of immersed portion of the Oil
Storage Barges become possible.
(5) Estimation curve to determine paint deterioration
condition using potential measurement is established.
Element Analysis on Corrosion Problems’, Shokabo
Tokyo ,1998.(In Japanese).
AUTHERS’ BIOGRAPHIES
Hironori Sugimoto, Ph.D. holds the current position of
technical general manager at Shipbuilding Research
Centre of Japan (SRC). He is responsible for research and
design of offshore structures and high speed crafts.
Yuji Horii holds the current position of sub-leader of
national petroleum stockpiling group at Japan Oil ,Gas
and Metals National Corporation(JOGMEC). He is
responsible for maintenance of national petroleum
stockpiling bases.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
This Research is one of JOGMEC’ Project related
to the Oil Storage Barges. This research has been
carried out under the Technical Committee of
SRC chaired by Prof. Takeshi Kinoshita of
University of Tokyo. Authors would like to
acknowledge JOGMEC and the members of the
Committee.

REFERENCES
[1] S.Harada. ‘Recent rule development of survey
program in service for very large floating structure.’ ,Proc.
Int. Workshop on Very Large Floating Structures,
VLFS’96, Hayama. Japan, 1996.
[2] H.Arai. ‘Consideration on safety assessment of very
large floating structures-Classification survey for
large-scale oil storage system-‘,. Proc. 24th Meeting of the
UJNR Marine Facilities Panel, Hawaii. USA,2001.
[3] H.Miyake et al. ‘Research and develpent of inspection
and maintenance system for oil storage vessels at
mooring site’,. Proc. Int. Workshop on Very Large
Floating Structures, VLFS’96, Hayama. Japan, 1996.
[4] The Shipbuilding Research Centre of Japan(SRC).
Report of study on maintenance, Inspection and repair
works of oil storage barges in on-site.1997.( In Japanese).
[5] H.Sugimoto and T.Ishizaka 'Prediction of
Deterioration of the Corrosion Protection System of Oil
Storage Barges’, VLFS 2003.
[6] The shipbuilding Research Centre of Japan(SRC).
‘Report of study on long term maintenance System of oil
storage barges.2004.(In Japanese)’.
[7] The shipbuilding Research Centre of Japan(SRC).
‘Report of study on life cycle maintenance system of oil
storage barges.2005.(In Japanese).’

© 2007: JASNAOE-RINA 131

Shipbuilding Technology ISST 2007, Osaka, 2007

© 2007: JASNAOE-RINA 132

Shipbuilding Technology ISST 2007, Osaka, 2007

MATCHING THE COATINGS PROCESS TO SHIPYARD NEEDS

R Kattan, Safinah Ltd, UK

SUMMARY

“Before I begin on this subject, I shall give a few necessary cautions which ought to be minded in fitting and preparing
the parts that are designed to be painted, otherwise your paint, (Which undeniably is a very good Preservative, if rightly
apply’d) will be of little Use or Service…..Sutherland: Of painting ship-work 1717”.

The coating process has long been considered to have less importance to the shipbuilding process than steel work and
outfit work. However as the other processes have become more efficient over recent years, the problems being
encountered in the coating activities are increasing. The problems manifest themselves in a number of ways, but
increasingly in terms of time, cost and quality.

1. INTRODUCTION 2. PROCESS CONTROL

The major facility technology developments in
shipbuilding took place in the 1960’s and early 1970’s in
Japan and Sweden and subsequently Korea, papers
written at that time [1, 2, 3] placed heavy emphasis on
the development of steelwork activities, with only one of
the papers affording some mention of coatings:
“The method of surface pre-treatment will be shifted
from the mechanical process of shot blasting to a
chemical treatment of spraying acid or rust removing
chemicals from now on. It is being studied whether to
perform this operation after sub-assembly or after
completion of hull blocks. The hand spraying method of
painting, which is the current practice, may be replaced
in the future by electro static spray or flow on painting
conducted after sub-assembly or completion of hull
blocks, or by the submersion of hull units or blocks in a
tank of paint. Another treatment system under study is to
pour paint into ships tanks to be coated. In any case,
development of new paints themselves and the large
quantity of paints to be stored still remain as a problem
to be solved” – Takezawa 1972
Since that time there was a steady increase in shipyard
investment in steel production and outfit facilities, until
by the early1990’s it became clear that the coating
process was becoming a bottleneck to shipyard output
and production and would result in considerable
problems in the integration of the coating process to the
much shorter production times [4].
Since 1994, the pace at which productivity has had to be
increased to enable yards to remain competitive and the
increased in environmental awareness as well as end-user
demands have placed considerable pressure on shipyards
around the world resulting in real problems in managing
the coatings process and making the coating process the
bottleneck to production capacity.
Coating activities raise a unique set of problems for
shipbuilders, as the processes involved in coating can be
subject to considerable variation making the process
unpredictable (unstable).
The normal shipyard coating processes usually consists
of:
Treatment or primer line (sometimes undertaken by
subcontractor)
Some shop coating work (Fillet welds on the panel
line)
Secondary surface preparation and coating on block
(outside or in workshops)
Post erection coating works (erection butts and
seams, keel blocks, finish coats and cosmetic coats
etc.).
The sources of variance in the processes is primarily
from 4 sources:
Unpredictable schedule (weather conditions,
Temperature, humidity, dew point etc.).
Unpredictable drying times for coatings
Interference with other processes resulting in re-
work.
Subjective nature of acceptance criteria at inspection
The schedule within the paint department is considerably
affected by the weather. Even with enclosed workshops,
weather can still create problems as if it has been raining,
blocks may enter wet or even covered with snow and
hence result in additional cycle time needs. If a TACT
time of +2σ [5] were to be used to balance the production
line then the yard output would be reduced to a level that
would not be commercially sustainable. However, it is
surprising how often the author visits yards that do not

© 2007: JASNAOE-RINA 133

Shipbuilding Technology ISST 2007, Osaka, 2007
alter the coating production schedule between summer
and winter months.
Drying time is subject to considerable variation as a
result of:
Poor thickness control
Unpredictable temperature
The application process of coatings has largely been
based on the airless spray method. As worker skill has
decreased (painting is very dirty and relatively lower
paid than other shipyard skills, making it hard to retain
workers), the paint technology has been changed to
enable the paints to be more easily applied (reducing runs
and sags). This has in turn resulted in over application of
coating, resulting in high thickness and considerably
increased drying time with a large variation.
The unpredictability of the ambient temperature further
increases the variation in the drying time. Enclosed and
heated workshops, in theory should reduce the variance,
but the practical aspect of the cost to heat these large
workshops is often a barrier to their effective use.
Depending on ship type and size, shipyards can
experience re-work levels in excess of 30% of total man-
hours for coating activities (with some Naval yards
running nearer 60% of total man-hours for coating
activities).
Considerable work has been undertaken since the late
1960’s to improve accuracy and quality of the steel and
outfit production work [5]. This has not been matched by
an equivalent effort in coating activities/facilities.
The objective of all this work was to bring processes
under control to enable predictability of performance so
that production systems can be better engineered to
Standardise, specialise and simplify [6].
Dr Shinto re-enforced the importance of gaining control
of production and the role of management systems to
achieve process control in the work he undertook in the
early 1960’s [7]. In this work Dr Shinto reviewed both
steel and outfit work. However even at this time the
challenges required to gain control of the Steel and Outfit
work was so great that very little effort was applied to
understanding coatings. However the groundwork was
set for the first attempts to consider coatings in the form
of the Hull Block Coating Method (HBCM) that was
introduced at IHI at that time.
As the steel and outfit work was better understood and
brought under control, the importance of the
management systems required to assure predictability
was also highlighted and lead to the next big challenges
in control of the shipbuilding process.
© 2007: JASNAOE-RINA
The inspection of many aspects of the coatings activity
(surface cleanliness, finish of coating) are often
subjective, rather than objective). This means that often
the variation in expectations can add considerable
unscheduled work for the yard (this situation is likely to
be aggravated by the new IMO MSC.215 (82)
performance standard for ballast tank coatings. There is a
real need to better standardise the assessment in a readily
measurable way and to ensure that the data to be
recorded for the Coating Technical File required by the
regulations also does not overburden the yard.
3. PROCESS IMPROVEMENT
Shipbuilding process improvement has often shown that
it is not the technology that is a barrier to improvement
but the managerial processes and worker skills that are
required to effect change, that are the most important
elements.
Managerial tools are needed to bring processes under
control, to improve stability and most importantly in
coating activities to increase predictability by reducing
variation.
Imbalance in the development of shipbuilding
technology and management systems between, design,
pre-production activities, steel, outfit and coating work
lead to “islands of automation” [8] this results in
inherently unstable and non-predictable processes, that
are difficult to balance and hence difficult to control and
schedule effectively and give poor quality output and
hence increased costs.
The importance of putting in place good management
control systems to enable productivity improvements to
be made with modest technology investments was
comprehensively reviewed By Ohno and Sekiya [9] in
1990.
However what has become clear over the last 20 years is
that despite all the work undertaken to bring both
management and production processes under control to
improve productivity is that somehow the coating
process and often the coating department has been left
behind and the recent challenges raised by the
environmental regulations and the end-user focus on
coatings has highlighted these failings in many yards
around the world.
4. RECENT DEVELOPMENTS
In the last 17 years there have been no less than 20 pieces
of regulation that have impacted in one form or another
on how shipyards prepare steel and apply coatings. These
have included:
TBT ban
VOC management
Ballast tank coatings
134
Shipbuilding Technology ISST 2007, Osaka, 2007
Ballast water treatment technology
Worker exposure limits
Etc.
There have also been IACS guidelines as well as
concerns raised by accelerated corrosion and the uses of
higher tensile steels on vessels of all types but in
particular Bulk Carriers.
This rate of change has tended to further de-stabilize the
coating process at a time when the production tempo
(TACT time) has been steadily improving to maintain
competitiveness.
It has also meant that yards have had to continually adapt
their processes at both pre-production and production to
meet the needs of the changing regulatory environment.
Despite all these problems that have burdened the
coating process in shipyards, over the last 10 years,
There have been at least 4 major shipyard developments
(in China, Korea, Europe and the USA) where
inadequate consideration was given to the need to
integrate the coating process into the facilities and build
strategy and indeed in two of the yards major
investments in steel throughput was not matched with
any investment in coating facilities to deal with the
increased output, resulting in severe bottlenecks and poor
return on investment in terms of improved throughput.
Some shipyards have attempted to buy their way out of
trouble by investment in new facilities, most notably
paint cells or climate control. However this is an
expensive route for yards to adopt as coating facilities are
not cheap.
Often the management systems have also simply failed to
get the best out of the facilities or indeed, the facilities
were poorly served as a result of lack of investment in
infrastructure (such as transport/materials handling to
support the facilities).
5. TECHNOLOGY DEVELOPMENT
It is a fact that the description of the technology used in
coatings given by Takezawa in 1972 is still a fairly
accurate description of the coating processes today. So
why is this the case? When in many other aspects of ship
production technology from design to welding and from
cable trays to the chemistry of the paints, technology has
moved on considerably and has often left the processes
of 40 years ago unrecognisable.
It should therefore be no mystery to understand why the
coating process is causing difficulties today.
The penalties of the lack of control and stability in the
coating process manifest themselves in quality, time and
cost penalties [10].
© 2007: JASNAOE-RINA
In their paper [10] the authors reported a study of the
leading US shipyards under the auspices of the National
Shipbuilding Research Programme SP-3 Panel (Paint and
Blast) and developed a benchmarking tool to enable them
to compare best practice from Europe, Korea and
America in both pre-production and production activities.
The work highlighted the need for new technologies and
better management tools to manage the coating process
and bring it under control. However most importantly it
identified the lack of integration or consideration of
coating activities when other processes are being planned
for both facility development and the physical production
process.
The work also highlighted the poor levels of
understanding of other departments within the yard of the
role of coatings and the increasingly high proportion of
man-hours the coating process now absorbs out of the
total shipbuilding man-hour budget.
The time penalties in many yards are significant as time
lost at the bottleneck is time lost at the whole facility.
This has recently been demonstrated during the
discussions revolving around the introduction this year of
the IMO Resolution MSC.215 (82), or the Performance
standard for protective coatings for ballast tanks and
double sided skin spaces.
The yards were very quick to realise the implications of
the increased demand placed on them by this regulation,
while owners were rightly concerned about the through
life performance of their assets.
The cost penalties are not insignificant, apart from the
investment in facilities the cost of re-work has at times
come very close to bankrupting some yards. In recent
years a number of yards (from around the world) have
suffered huge cost over-runs resulting from poor control
of the coating processes and the problems are being
evidenced by increasing number of claims being settled
both within the public eye and in private.
6. SOURCES OF INADEQUACY
The current status of the coating process within shipyards
is unsatisfactory. The coating processes need to be made
more predictable and brought under better control.
They also need to be properly integrated into the
production strategy and the levels of re-work in the form
of touch-up, burn damage etc. reduced to levels that are
more in line with those achieved in steel and outfit work.
To suggest improvements, the nature of the
failures/inadequacies must first be understood. The
author has been fortunate to be involved with many
shipyard projects related to the evaluation of the
performance of coating activities. As a result of this work
over the last 17 years the author has been able to
135
Shipbuilding Technology ISST 2007, Osaka, 2007

categories the inadequacies under the following elements/tools and emerging technologies that a shipyard
headings: can use to help meet the challenges posed by the coating
activities.
Design
Ship design This however should not in any way indicate that a
Facility design shipyard could achieve benefits of change without
Coating selection cultural change. As Ohno and Sekiya [11] declared:
Coating production technology
Surface preparation It is first necessary to create a sense of trust among all
Application members of an organisation, from top to bottom. By this
Management systems there will emerge “open communication” between the
Quality management and workers. Thus both will often have
Training and education “common sharing of the objective” and “general
Inspection knowing of the results”. It is also necessary that the
Environmental managers and workers have informal meetings on some
Health and safety occasions…
Planning/Scheduling
Etc. Thus it is very important to create the right cultural
Human issues environment to enable the challenges posed by the
coating process to be tackled successfully.
The focus of any improvement activity must be based on
Quality (to minimise re-work and improve ease of 7. IMPROVEMENTS
production), Cost (man-hours) and Delivery (time).
The experience of the author indicates that the critical
In terms of quality this has to be reflected in both design factor to the longevity of the applied coating through life
and production, man-hours can only be controlled is its application during new build. The better the quality
through good management systems and stable processes. of the initial application, the longer the life of the coating
While delivery in terms of coating activities is about in service. There are still occasionally problems with the
productivity improvement, planning and scheduling and paints themselves but often premature failure is caused
this is normally dictated by factors such as: by inadequacies in the coating process itself.

Drying time Taking each of the sources of inadequacy in turn, some

Access time
Over-coating intervals
Transport time
Re-work time
These three elements Q (quality), C (cost) and D
(delivery) must be applied to all aspects of the
inadequacies that arise so as to improve the performance
of the coating activities in total and leave them in balance
(no island of automation) with each other and with steel
and outfit work.
possible solutions/techniques are proposed and some
suggestions made as to how yards should modify their
current practices to meet the future challenges.
Of course in shipbuilding the first challenge posed for
coatings is that of material selection. The use of mild
steels in one form or another for the hull structure and
many other aspects of the vessel, and the placing of the
vessel in an electrolyte (seawater) will lead to corrosion
unless a barrier can be created between the Air, Metal,
Cathode, Electrolyte (ACME).

It is also therefore important to standardise the processes,
simplify the work and enable productivity increase
through specialisation.
The challenge therefore is to:
- Identify the sources of the inadequacies
- Prioritise the benefits that can be gained by their
management and subsequent elimination.
- Put in place the tools/culture to enable the
inadequacies to be reduced over time.
The achieving of cultural change is the greatest barrier to
productivity improvement and as how this can best be
achieved is different from one company to the other, the
remainder of this paper will focus on the technical
The current chosen form of this barrier is a coating
applied in a liquid form and allowed to cure.
7.1 DESIGN
Design has to be broken into two elements, the design of
the ship itself and the design of the shipyard facilities for
coating work
7.1.1 Ship Design
Designers have long been accustomed to designing ships
to meet the operational criteria and also to allow ease of
production and outfit installation. However, little or no
attention has been paid to design for corrosion prevention.

© 2007: JASNAOE-RINA 136

Shipbuilding Technology ISST 2007, Osaka, 2007
In fact the tendency is to design in corrosion problems
by:
Creating complex geometries that are difficult to
prepare and coat and result in many edges that can
corrode.
Creating tight spaces that are difficult to access and
to ventilate/de-humidify
Creating tight spaces that cannot be easily coated
using an airless spray gun but require build up coats
to be applied by brush and roller.
Creating spaces that are subsequently difficult to
repair and maintain
Having flat surfaces with no camber, tumble-home
or rise of floor to assist with drainage
Making use of dissimilar metals
Poorly designing outfit items for installation,
resulting in corrosion traps.
To overcome some of these problems the author suggests
some possible solutions that may be considered at the
design stage:
Conduct a shadow analysis of the compartment. This
can be undertaken by a Computer Aided Design
system (CAD). It would provide a measure of the
difficulty to coat a compartment. If the CAD system
can be used to provide the basic view a worker
would see before he starts work on a surface then a
flat surface (external hull) would have a shadow area
of 0%, as the worker can see the complete surface.
As the surface becomes more complex then the
percentage of shadow areas (those the worker cannot
see from his work position) increases, making the
work harder. The aim of the designer therefore is to
try and design spaces to reduce shadow areas. This
will tend to result in alternative structural
configurations such as corrugated sandwich panels
[12] using laser welding. These structures have
shown how complex internal spaces could be built
using structural configurations that could offer 0%
shadow.
Conduct an edge analysis as for shadow analysis by
CAD. Stripe coating of edges is a very time
consuming, labour intensive and hence costly
exercise. Despite the availability of edge retentive
coatings there is inadequate confidence to eliminate
these from critical areas [13]. This is a key area for
designers to consider and again could be helped by
alternative structural configurations.
A material analysis should be conducted to see
which elements of the design can be replaced by
© 2007: JASNAOE-RINA
materials that offer greater resistance to corrosion,
whether that is in the form of alternative steels or
alternative materials for non-structural elements. For
example increasing use of composite pipes and other
fittings.
Access analysis could also be made to ensure that
the area to be coated can be worked on with
minimum access requirements and provide good
ventilation routes as well as ingress and egress for
workers and equipment.
Total area coating analysis earlier in the design
phase would allow better planning and scheduling
activities. Some CAD systems have this capability
but often there is a degree of inaccuracy or it
provides only limited information.
Structural detail of individual components should be
reviewed to make them easier to prepare and coat
and hence aid longevity of coating through life.
7.1.2 Facility Design
Facility design for coatings often has less engineering
thought and effort put into it than that which is applied to
other steel and outfit facilities. Faced with the current
levels of variability in the production process there is a
need for flexibility in how the facilities can be used to
allow for the variation. Yet all too often the layout or
design of the facilities create bottleneck themselves for
example by only having one route in and out or by
providing zero capacity to deal with the known variation
in the process.
As build times have steadily reduced, then the degree of
surface preparation has been reduced in some yards, as
the shop primer has been able to afford adequate
weathering capability.
As vessel size/block size has steadily increased, many
paint workshops have become too small to be efficient in
their use.
Using single workshops for both preparation and coating
also creates problems in terms of efficiency, cleaning and
maintenance as well as good schedule control.
There is therefore a need for a more engineering based
approach to the design and layout of coating facilities
based around the present and future production
technology.
7.2 COATING SELECTION
Paint selection methods have not changed for many years.
Yards create a makers list and develop a standard generic
specification to try and fix on a standard approach.
However, there is a considerable reliance on the paint
137
Shipbuilding Technology ISST 2007, Osaka, 2007
supplier to create the contract specific specification
(often with some consultation with the ship owner).
This approach creates considerable problems for the
shipyard. In general terms the shipyard scheme may state
that for the ballast tanks the coating must be in line with
the new IMO regulations and would be a multi-coat
scheme of 320μ nominal Dry Film Thickness (DFT),
plus two stripe coats.
This is then issued to the paint suppliers to bid against.
The paint supplier has now been provided with a target
answer that must be met, and hence can now only
compete on price.
Instead the shipyard should consider the important
functional aspects of paint selection for each area or each
task it will perform. For example in ballast tanks, drying
time to gain access for the second coat is very important,
so one of the functional requirements should be drying
time at the appropriate DFT. Each vessel area should be
reviewed in a similar manner and the key functional
attributes required of the coating identified. In addition
the criticality of the area to enable the yard to meet
schedule can be further assessed so that the importance
of each attribute can be determined.
Undertaking a paint specification assessment in this
manner often provides very different results to the
generic scheme approach and also offers real
opportunities to integrate the coating scheme into the
requirements of the build programme.
In the experience of the author, this fundamental change
in approach can save yards in the region of 10-15% of
total coating costs during new build.
It also allows consideration of the ideal time for scheme
breaks and an assessment of coating progression on a
compartment-by-compartment basis to maximise
integration, improve quality and delivery time and hence
reduce costs.
For many years the selection of shop primer has been the
choice of the shipyard. This has allowed the yard to
standardise its processes. There is evidence of the
potential for think about standardising on other products.
The emergence of the “universal primer” offers the
potential for yards to select the best-fit anti-corrosive and
use that exclusively on all contracts and hence move the
selection for this away from the owner. A yard has much
to gain from the selection of the right functional
specification for a universal primer to enable integration
with the production process.
7.3 COATING PRODUCTION TECHNOLOGY
The development of tools for surface preparation and
application processes has lagged behind the rate of
development of many other production technologies used
© 2007: JASNAOE-RINA
in shipyards. The process of coating is still recognisable
to any one who worked in a shipyard 20 - 30 years ago.
This results from a lack of really large companies
involved in the marine coating tool development business
sector, as it is a relatively small sector when compared to
the needs of other industries. Thus developments in
surface preparation methods and techniques as well as
application methods have lagged as a result of inadequate
investment. The use of this older technology in the
increasing regulatory environment leads to waste,
emissions, H&S issues that compound the fairly static
productivity rates that have been achieved over that
period of time, against a background of increasing areas
to be coated (double hulls).
There is a real need to improve the technology associated
with surface preparation and application to reduce labour
costs, improve quality and reduce the time of work.
In addition there is a need to also improve inspection
technology by using colour attributes in coatings [14,15].
These technologies are slowly emerging but do offer
savings and better access for inspection.
7.4 MANAGEMENT SYTEMS
Many studies carried out over the years have reinforced
the basic finding of Deming [16] that management
systems can account for up to 85% of all quality related
problems. The coating process is no different.
There are a number of key processes that need to be
properly managed ensure proper integration of the
coating process into the production process, these are:
Quality
Training and education
Inspection
Environmental
Planning/Scheduling
This is not an exhaustive list, but in the opinion of the
author the items that are currently critical to the effective
improvement of the coating process.
Quality in the form of minimising the man-hours
used on re-work in the form of touch up and repair is
critical. Many yards still find considerable
interference between the coating process and the
remainder of the production processes that often
results in damage to the coatings. The cost of repair
has been assessed and can be up to 14 times more
costly than the initial application [17]. Thus it is very
important for a yard to have a clear coating strategy
that is properly integrated into the build strategy for
the vessel.
Training and education is critically important, not
just to improve the capability of the paint department
but to raise awareness in other departments and
138
Shipbuilding Technology ISST 2007, Osaka, 2007
trades of the limitations and capabilities of the
coating process.
Inspection problems have been reviewed earlier,
however there is clearly emerging a need for not
only more objective systems of inspection, but also
better data management of the records obtained for
future reference by the vessel through it service life.
The target life of 15 years being set for ballast tank
coatings will tend to increase the inspection burden
on the yard and this will result in further schedule
and quality disruptions. It is important therefore that
inspection systems are reviewed. It is likely that
there will be an increased pressure on inspection and
audit that will add an extra burden on the coating
department. The obvious route to improving this
process is to consider the use of computer-based
tools for the collection of data records [18].
The physical process of inspection could be greatly
assisted by improved designs with fewer shadow
areas and reduced complex geometry as well as
access.
Regulatory environment is constantly changing and
yard personnel must be up to date with the
regulations and assess the likely implications to the
coating strategy, rather than try to make the existing
procedures fit the regulations, they should be
optimised/reviewed to take into account the new
regulations and seek opportunities for competitive
advantage.
Environmental challenges are on the increase in
terms of emissions, overspray, and waste
management. All these factors have added a burden
to the paint process and have tended to be reviewed
in a piecemeal manner rather than carefully
considered within the coating strategy of the yard.
Planning and scheduling have been reviewed and the
need for more predictability identified. For the
present the need to consider the build strategy and
the needs of the coating process are paramount to
attain integration. However over time the key
element will be to reduce variation and achieve
higher degrees of predictability by a combination of
improved, technology, systems and understanding.
7.5 Human issues
Human issues are critical, coating work is perhaps the
most dirty, the most dangerous and relatively poorly paid,
thus ensuring workers are well motivated is important to
the success of the required changes and developments.
Without the people the problems will persist. There is no
real evidence of automation being applied extensively in
painting as there has been in welding and so the
challenge of managing these personnel has to be
considered carefully.
© 2007: JASNAOE-RINA
8. CONCLUSIONS
It has been shown that the coating process has not
developed in step with other activities in a shipyard. As a
result it has become the bottleneck and created an
imbalance in the production process. This problem is
aggravated by the fact the process experiences
considerable variation.
To date a proper engineering approach to resolving these
problems has always taken second place to steel and
outfit technology and developments. However, this
situation can no longer be sustained. The MSC.215 (82)
marks a potential shift in the relative importance of the
coating process at new building and what has been
applied to ballast tanks, is likely to be applied to other
critical areas.
Shipyards must rise to the challenge and do so in a
structured and methodical way, this means looking at all
aspects of the process, from design, production, product
selection, management and cultural issues. If these
challenges are not met head on, then the increased
burden on the bottleneck, will limit the throughput of the
yard reducing competitiveness.
Solutions have been proposed, some may readily be
adopted while others may require some effort to put into
place and gain acceptance. What is clear however is that
there is much unused technology available to improve
the performance of the coating process, the application
must follow.
9. REFERENCES
1. Dr K Terai, T Kurioka, Future Shipbuilding
Methods, Shipbuilders Association of Japan 20th
anniversary commemorative prize essay, August
1969.
2. I Takezawa, Development of the automated
shipyard, Paper presented to the Royal Society
discussion meeting, January 1972
3. M Hargroves, J Teasdale, R Vaughan, The
strategic development of ship production
technology, TRINA 1975.
4. Kattan R, Townsin R, Baldwin L. Painting and
Ship Production – Interference or Integration,
RINA Conference on Corrosion, 1994
5. Kihara H, Yamamoto N, Recent Developments
in Management and Production Methods in
Japanese Shipyards, SNAME Diamond Jubilee
meeting New York, June 1968.
6. Ichinose Y, Improving Shipyard Production
with Standard Components and Modules,
TSNAME, April 1978.
7. Shinto H, The progress of production techniques
in Japanese Shipbuilding, University of
Michigan Short Course, October 1980.
139
Shipbuilding Technology ISST 2007, Osaka, 2007

8. Bellonzi R, Islands of Automation in

Shipbuilding, Journal of Ship Production, Vol 2,
No 1 February 1986.
9. Ohno I, Sekiya O, Improving Productivity in a
Japanese Shipyard, TRNECIES, May 1990.
10. Kattan, R, Blakey J, Panosky M, DeVinney S,
Time and cost effects of the coating process,
Journal of Ship Production, Vol 19, No.4
November 2003.
11. Ohno I, Sekiya O, Discussion to Improving
Productivity in a Japanese Shipyard,
TRNECIES, May 1990.
12. Roland F and Metschkow B, Laser welded
sandwich panels for shipbuilding and structural
steel engineering, Marine Technology II,
Transaction of the Built Environment, Edited by
Brebbia C, 1997
13. IMO, MSC.215(82) Performance standard for
protective coatings for dedicated seawater
ballast tanks in all types of ships and double-
sided skin spaces of bulk carriers, December
2006.
14. Nippon Paint Co Ltd, NOA Coating Press
release, October 2000.
15. Buckhurst M, Seeing things in a different light,
Maritime Reporter pp 28, February 2005
16. Deming W E, Quality productivity and
competitive position, MIT Press, 1982
17. Baldwin L, A Techno-economic assessment of
new coating application for new-building
marine production. PhD Thesis, Newcastle
University, 1995
18. Speed L, WP6 Coating management system,
Environmentally friendly coatings for
shipbuilding and ship operations, European
ECODock project, www.ecodock.net

10. AUTHORS’ BIOGRAPHY

Dr. Raouf Kattan is the Managing Director of Safinah

Ltd. a company specialising on the management of
coating activities from raw material supply through to
end of life use. He started his career in the merchant
marine as a deckhand and has through his career
focussed on ship-production issues. Since 1991 his main
area of interest and research has been marine coatings.

© 2007: JASNAOE-RINA 140

Shipbuilding Technology ISST 2007, Osaka, 2007

SI technology and its Unique paint property

Nobuhiro Sasaki (Author) Nippon Paint Marine Coatings, Japan

Masana Takayama (Presenter) Nippon Paint Marine Coatings, Japan

SUMMARY
New technology of SI enables painter to control coating thickness during application, thereby uniform
coating with minimum DFT and minimal excessive coating is secured. Due to Self-Indicating / Inspecting
function, coating thickness applied can be judged by naked eyes without spot physical thickness measurement. This SI
technology will contribute to materialize and fulfill requirements of IMO-PSPC, and will be coating system for 21st
century. It is time saving and cost saving coating system, and gives benefits and merits for shipyard & shipowner.
We propose to disseminate this coating system to marine paint industry in view of substantially increasing
demands of coatings especially for water ballast spaces.

NOMENCLATURE suppliers is to protect vessels, one of social assets, from

corrosion during ship’s life at sea.
SI Self-Indicating or Self-Inspecting The corrosion protection during ship’s service life is
PTM Physical Thickness Measurement easier said than done under severe environment the
D&S Dots-and-Spots vessels are exposed to.
S&A Sheet-and-Area Two pack epoxy paint complies to this requirement with
NB Newbuilding pretty good coating performance endorsed by laboratory
M&R Maintenance & Repair testing and becomes the mainstay coating for long life
corrosion protection.
1. INTRODUCTION Having said this, long life corrosion protection of vessels
Have you ever heard any paint which shows thickness by at sea is not yet fully achieved with epoxy coatings and
color and a painter can control coating thickness in the does not live up to the expectation of ship owners.
process of color changes ? Take water ballast spaces, for example.
Partial corrosion is inevitable in several years even
2. WHAT IS SI PAINT ? painted with utmost care on properly treated coating
2.1 PREFACE surfaces.
2.2 EFFICIENCY OF SI BY PICTURE REPORT Why the coating gets rusted on the water ballast tanks of
2.3 EFFICIENCY OF SI AND ITS FUNDAMENTAL vessels when the coating is proved perfect and rust-free
PROPERTY on test panels painted & tested in the laboratory?
2.4 PRODUCTS INCORPORATED WITH SI The difference or gap comes mostly from low paint
PROPERTY thickness, or low coating build, due to enormous painting
2.5 CONCLUSION AND OUR PROPOSAL areas and difficulty of proper painting on complicate
2.1 PREFACE critical parts of tanks.
Uniform coating of 250 microns on test panel does not
The most important mission imposed upon marine paint represent all painted surfaces of the vessel. Parts painted

© 2007: JASNAOE-RINA 141

Shipbuilding Technology ISST 2007, Osaka, 2007

below 100 microns will be rusted in an early stage after

painting.
SI (Self-Indicating or Self-Inspecting) paint is an answer
to solve such deficiency in painting. SI function enables
to make coating of paint panel represent the coatings
applied to water ballast spaces of vessels, or in other
words, the gap between test panel coating and working
horse coating on actual vessels is minimized by SI
property.
We herein introduce the concept of this new coating
system with picture reports of our reference list.
Picture 1 “EAGLE TOLEDO”(Tanker)
2.2 EFFICIENCY OF SI BY PICTURE REPORT SI paint 1 coat X 250µm
WBT condition after 31months
Look into the Picture 1and 2. inspected in Oct 2005
This shows coating condition of water ballast tanks 31 * No corrosion on plate edges, corners and
months after SI paint (NOA) was applied. pieces…
No corrosion noticed on all parts inclusive of critical
areas, plate edges etc.
Perfect condition.
The good result is achieved by proper application of
self-inspecting paint thereby the painted thickness is self
indicated and self inspected by painter. Painter can
judge painted thickness by his naked eyes during
spraying.
He is able to realize “when to stop spraying” and can
secure minimum thickness and avoid excessive thick
coating.
The coating on all water ballast tanks is done in the same Picture 2 ANSAC LEGACY ( Bulk Carrier )
manner or as near to that of test panel with “uniform SI paint 1 coat X 250µm
coating”. WBT condition after 42months
inspected in July 2007
* No corrosion on plate edges, corners and
pieces…

2.2 EFFICIENCY OF SI BY PICTURE REPORT

On top of surface preparation coating thickness (DFT) is

very important for long life corrosion protection.

© 2007: JASNAOE-RINA 142

Shipbuilding Technology ISST 2007, Osaka, 2007

Physical thickness measurement (PTM) on wet/dry Look into Picture 3.

coating is carried out for ensuring paint thickness. The
PTM is to check coating thickness on dots-and-spots
(D&S) basis and not in sheet-and-area (S&A) basis.
The D&S measurement does not represent coating
thickness on vast surrounding plate areas.
SI technology enables painter to judge coating thickness
on “S&A basis” (not “on D&S basis”) during painting
without using thickness gauge.
SI paint is developed and launched in the marine paint
market (NB and M&R) based on opacity / pigmentation /
dispersion control technology.
Painter himself can realize when to stop painting during
spraying in the process of wet color change.
This will substantially reduce painting and inspection
workload and make painting job simple and easy.
2.3 EFFICIENCY OF SI AND ITS FUNDAMENTAL
PROPERTY
3 panels show how SI paint looks like in comparison with
non-SI paint.
Far left panel was applied with SI paint, and the rest 2
panels were applied with non-SI paint.
There are 3 areas which do not reach the specified DFT
(300 microns) in each panel, but the areas of 2 panels
painted with non-SI version do not show the color
difference. Color looks the same irrespective of different
thickness. 70 microns or 300 microns ? (e.g.) We cannot
see.
As is non-SI panels, very low DFT areas exist in vast and
complicated surfaces of vessels, and such areas will be
corroded with the lapse of time.
On the other hand, lower DFT areas in SI paint can be
visually judged and such designated areas are touched-up
during or after application before stagings are taken off.
This reduces overall painting and inspection workload,
especially in case of water ballast tank coating.

On top of surface preparation coating thickness (DFT) is Colour Shows Thickness ! Thickness Shows Colour !
very important for long life corrosion protection. S I Paint Non - S I Paints Non - S I Paints
300 um < 500 ~ 800 um 500 ~ 800 um

Å 80 um
Physical thickness measurement (PTM) on wet/dry Å 70 ~ 100 um
Å 70 ~ 100 um

coating is carried out for ensuring paint thickness. The 300 um <
Thickness difference
Å 150 um but, No colour difference
PTM is to check coating thickness on dots-and-spots Å 200 ~ 250 um

Å 200 ~ 250 um
(D&S) basis and not in sheet-and-area (S&A) basis. 300 um <

Å 230 um
The D&S measurement does not represent coating Å 300 ~ 400 um

This area measures 11 times thicker Å 300 ~ 400 um

thickness on vast surrounding plate areas. Non - S I Paints
20 ~ 50 um 20 ~ 50 um Than general paint !!
Still, See-through texture
with 230 microns !!!
SI technology enables painter to judge coating thickness
on “S&A basis” (not “on D&S basis”) during painting
without using thickness gauge. Picture 3 Panel of SI paint and non-SI paint
SI paint is developed and launched in the marine paint
market (NB and M&R) based on opacity / pigmentation / 2.4 PRODUCTS INCORPORATED WITH SI
dispersion control technology. PROPERTY
Painter himself can realize when to stop painting during
spraying in the process of wet color change. By making best use of SI technology,
This will substantially reduce painting and inspection we have product line-up for ;
workload and make painting job simple and easy. z Newbuilding
NOA 10 F for outside hull & all exterior areas

© 2007: JASNAOE-RINA 143

Shipbuilding Technology ISST 2007, Osaka, 2007

NOA 60 HS for water ballast tanks / other tanks.
z Maintenance & Repair
NOA 10 M for outside hull & all exterior areas
2.5 CONCLUSION AND OUR PROPOSAL
SI paints explained as above are recommended to
positively comply with new IMO coating requirements.
It is time saving and cost saving coating system, and
gives benefits and merits for shipyard & shipowner.
Ultimate mission and objective of marine paint makers is
to provide vessels with quality coatings to live up to IMO
requirements of long life (over 15 years) corrosion
protection in water ballast spaces.
We strongly recommend to save the “negative cost” for
inspection and to invest “positive cost” for research and
development of genuine quality products for the ultimate
long life corrosion protection of vessels.
3. AUTHOR’S BIOGRAPHY
Nobuhiro Sasaki holds the current position of technical
director at Nippon Paint Marine Coatings Co., Ltd.
Responsible for research & development of marine
paints.

The integral quality of coatings will be achieved only

when paints are properly coated with uniformity of
specified thickness on all parts of painted surface.
Marine paint makers, so far, have not succeeded in
supplying paint to users which provides painters with
self-inspecting function to control coating thickness
during paint application. Therefore, coating thickness
must be checked / inspected by physical thickness gauge
after painting.
This PTM (Physical Thickness Measurement) is nothing
but a mean / measure / step to confirm paint thickness.
IMO new coating regulation demands hefty PTM
inspection.
This will cause big cost increase during new construction.
The cost of such inspection is a very “negative cost”.

We, Nippon Paint Marine Coatings, propose the visual

self-inspecting paint instead of conventional type which
needs PTM on D&S (dots & spots) basis.
Which do you think is the better coating system, PTM
type or SI version ?
We strongly recommend SI system for the coating of 21st
century.

© 2007: JASNAOE-RINA 144

Shipbuilding Technology ISST 2007, Osaka, 2007

CORROSION PROTECTION REGULATIONS TO IMPROVE SHIP’S SAFETY?

Thorsten Lohmann, Germanischer Lloyd AG, Germany

Daniel Engel, Germanischer Lloyd AG, Germany

SUMMARY

The International Maritime Organization sets new standards in the corrosion prevention of seawater ballast tanks on
steel ships. With the adoption of an international valid coating standard a uniform quality shall be achieved to raise
ship’s safety. This means at the same time that new requirements come into force with partly huge impact on the
shipbuilding industry.

1. INTRODUCTION
From a corrosion point of view, seawater ballast tanks on
steel ships are one of the most critical areas. Hence the
following article deals mainly with the corrosion
protection in these tanks. Specific corrosion problems
and protections through coatings will be discussed with
reference to a newly released, internationally valid
standard for the corrosion protection of seawater ballast
tanks on steel ships.
With the constant contact to seawater, different levels of
filling and possibly extreme varying temperatures, a
proper corrosion protection in these tanks is essential.
With a damaged or improper corrosion protection in
ballast water tanks severe corrosion rates are possible.
These can, if not detected in time, lead to immense
damages with devastating consequences for the
construction and therewith possibly for humans and the
environment.
Unprotected ship steel shows considerable rates of
corrosion in seawater. In average, rust-off rates of 0.4 to
0.8 mm per year have been observed, unprotected steel in
water ballast tanks of ships showed partly up to 3 mm per
year. The corrosion rates in these tanks are subject to
considerable fluctuations and can rarely be determined in
a precise way. Operational area of the vessel, frequency
of water changes, the corrosion protection system and its
condition, the character of tank design and especially the
composition of the ballast water are key factors.
With the knowledge of the occurrence of corrosion in
these tanks corrosion factors are added to the calculated
steel thicknesses. In addition, an effective corrosion
protection system is to be applied in ballast water tanks
usually by a hard coating system, sometimes in
combination with sacrificial anodes.
2. NORMALLY USED PROTECTION
SYSTEMS IN SEAWATER BALLAST TANKS ON
STEEL SHIPS
Typical paint systems for ballast water tanks are epoxy
based systems with a nominal dry film thickness of
around 300 µm. The main coating is most commonly
applied in two layers. One of the key issues for a
resistant coating system is the surface preparation which
consists of the surface profile and the surface cleanliness.
Furthermore special attention has to be paid to the
preparation of the welding seams and the edges of
profiles and stiffeners.
The steel plates and profiles to be used for the ship’s hull
and therewith in the ballast water tanks are normally
blasted to a surface cleanliness of Sa 2 ½ acc. to
ISO 8501-1 with a defined roughness profile. To protect
the surface during the following building period an
overweldable shop primer is applied on the steel surface
afterwards. Depending on the compatibility with the
main coating system it is not unusual that the shop
primer partly remains on the surface and therewith forms
the underground layer of the following main coating
system.
Further critical factors for a good surface preparation are
the salt and dust level on the surface. Especially the salt
level is often intensified with most shipyards lying close
to the sea. With a too high salt level the risk of blistering
and loss of adhesion of the coating system is given. The
same problem of loss of adhesion might occur with too
much dust on the surface whereas with dust, the amount
and the size have to be observed. The salt and dust limits
for a coating system are specified by the paint
manufacturer in the relevant coating specification.
Another critical area within the coating process of ballast
water tanks on ships is the surface preparation of profile
edges and welding seams. Sharp edges have to be
grinded to give the possibility of reaching the specified
dry film thickness.
Figure 1: Stripe Coat
The same applies to welding seams which often have to
be smoothened if not welded automatically. Weld
spatters have to be removed to ensure smooth and even
surfaces for the paint application. Edges and welding
seams not only have to be smoothened but it is essential
to apply a stripe coat by brush or roller (usually one or
two stripe coats are necessary) to ensure the achieving of
the nominal dry film thickness (see pictures). The full
coat is then applied by spraying.
In some water ballast tanks in addition to the coating
system, which forms the passive barrier against corrosion,
an active corrosion protection system by sacrificial
anodes is installed. The anodes are a supplementary

© 2007: JASNAOE-RINA 145

Shipbuilding Technology ISST 2007, Osaka, 2007
protection if installed in a proper way. This means that
they have to be evenly distributed in the tank to avoid
shadow effects and to have an overlap of the ranges of
the anodes. It is also very important to ensure a
permanent electrical connection. Special attention has to
be paid to the fact that sacrificial anodes only work when
they are submerged in the electrolyte (seawater), which
might not permanently be achieved in a ballast water
tank. Further it has to be proven that the coating system
is compatible with a cathodic protection system.
3. CORROSION PROTECTION RULES AND
REGULATORY BODIES
3.1 CLASSIFICATION SOCIETIES
In the shipping industry, classification societies are non-
governmental organisations that promote the safety and
protection of the environment of ships and offshore
structures. This is achieved by setting technical rules,
confirming that designs and calculations meet these rules,
surveying ships and structures during the process of
construction and commissioning, and periodically
surveying vessels to ensure that they continue to meet
these rules.
Classification societies employ or comprise of naval
architects, engine specialists, material and welding
specialists, electrical engineers, etc. and are usually
located at ports around the world. The ships are
accompanied and surveyed during the new building
process and periodically during their entire lifetime.
Marine vessels and structures are classified according to
the soundness of their structure and design for the
purpose of the vessel. The classification rules are
designed to ensure an acceptable degree of stability,
safety, environmental impact, etc.
In particular, classification societies may be authorised to
inspect ships and other structures and issue certificates
on behalf of the state under which flag the ships are
registered.
Concerning the seawater ballast tanks the classification
societies are publishing rules requiring not only routine
inspection of these tanks but also a corrosion protection
system in order to avert the risk of an unprotected or not
sufficiently protected seawater ballast tank.
Thus, the International Association of Classification
Societies (IACS), an association of the leading
classification societies of ships, elaborates so called
‚Unified Requirements’ (binding standards for all
members), which define certain minimum requirements
for seawater ballast tanks among other things concerning
corrosion protection.
These minimum requirements released by IACS state
that the seawater ballast tanks are to be provided with an
effective protective coating system. However there is no
defined standard of how to achieve an effective
protective coating system which means that there are no
requirements concerning surface preparation, dry film
thickness, qualification of the coating system for the
range of application, application method or the like. The
© 2007: JASNAOE-RINA
interpretation and technical implementation of these
minimum requirements is left to the associated IACS
members, which determine – more or less precisely – the
details of admissible methods via their rules and under
consideration of other standards.
The classification societies have extended these
minimum IACS requirements by setting further demands
concerning the corrosion protection of seawater ballast
tanks. Germanischer Lloyd (GL) requires a
corresponding corrosion protection in all seawater ballast
tanks on every GL-classified ship – independently from
dimension and ship type. This means that a product
certification of coating systems applied in ballast water
tanks is necessary, i.e. qualification tests have to be
carried out by laboratories, independent from the coating
manufacturer, in order to prove the performance of the
product. After passing these tests successfully (normally
following ISO 12944), the coating system will receive a
type approval valid for seawater ballast tanks by
Germanischer Lloyd. A list of every GL type approved
seawater ballast tank coating is published in the Internet.
Furthermore is in the current edition of Germanischer
Lloyd Rules a minimum dry film thickness for the ballast
water tank coating system of 250 µm required as well as
an appropriate surface preparation. These requirements
are part of the drawing approval, i.e. the coating
specification for seawater ballast tanks has to be
submitted to Germanischer Lloyd for examination and
approval at an early state of construction and especially
prior the starting of the coating work. Other classification
societies require similar additions exceeding the
minimum ‘Unified Requirements’ defined by IACS.
The coating requirements will change in the future which
is described under point 4.
These measures of corrosion protection only determined
by minimum requirements are very different concerning
their quality. These differences shall now be harmonised
on an international level. The measure representing the
greatest scope of an international harmonised standard is
the development of a coating performance standard by
the International Maritime Organization (IMO), which
shall be applied to the coating of seawater ballast tanks
of ships above 500 GT and on the double skin spaces of
bulk carriers longer than 150 m.
3.2 INTERNATIONAL MARITIME
ORGANIZATION
The International Maritime Organization (IMO) with its
head office in London has been established in 1948 with
the intention to improve the safety of ships by developing
and adopting international regulations, which have to be
observed by the Member States. Today the IMO consists
of 167 Member States.
IMO's first task was to adopt a new version of the
International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea
(SOLAS), the most important of all treaties dealing with
maritime safety. This was achieved in 1960 and adjusted
in 1974. Further Conventions and Resolutions have
followed and will follow with the permanent adjustment
146
Shipbuilding Technology ISST 2007, Osaka, 2007
of these conventions. Surely, the main focus of IMO is
and will remain the ship’s safety, but there is a further
task which needs international regimentation and
conventions – the protection of our environment. IMO’s
Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships
(MARPOL) is the most important regulation in this
matter.
IMO is divided in different committees and sub-
committees; the committee responsible for ship’s safety
is the ‘Maritime Safety Committee’ (MSC).
In the scope of further development of the safety of
tankers and bulkers, MSC decided in December 2002
that it is necessary to address the need to develop an
international coating standard for seawater ballast tanks
and void spaces in the double hull of these ships. IMO’s
sub-committee ‘Ship Design and Equipment’ (DE) was
charged with this task.
The main reason for this decision lies in the required
double hull construction of tankers and bulkers which
have a greater surface exposed to possible corrosion
problems. Further the inspection of these areas is much
more difficult due to its construction. Moreover the
reigning atmosphere in double hulls makes corrosion
effects very probable, which may lead to a higher rate of
corrosion.
In June 2005, MSC decided – based on an already
existing draft of an international coating performance
standard for ballast water tanks and void spaces on
tankers and bulkers – to extend the scope of this standard
also to ballast water tanks of every ship type. As before,
this duty was delegated to the sub-committee DE.
At the beginning of December 2006, MSC finally
adopted the designed coating standard for ballast water
tanks (meanwhile void spaces are considered separately).
The coating standard is settled in the IMO Resolution
MSC.215(82). It will be made internationally mandatory
by an amendment of the SOLAS Convention.
4. CONTENT OF IMO’S COATING
STANDARD
In detail IMO’s Performance Standard for Protective
Coatings implies new requirements that, by far, exceed
and render more precisely the above mentioned ‘Unified
Requirements’ by IACS and even the classification
societies’ standards. Today one can say that the adoption
of this standard means extensive changes for shipyards,
ship owners, coating manufacturers and classification
societies.
The aim of the coating standard is to achieve a coating
lifetime of 15 years in the seawater ballast tanks.
Up to now there is no regulation that specifies the
intended lifetime of a coating in seawater ballast tanks.
The intention is that the coating remains in good
condition after 15 years. The future will show whether
this target can be obtained following the new standard.
The intention is that the lifetime shall be achieved by the
definition of concrete requirements, limit values and
control mechanisms during the construction phase.
Accordingly, the coating standard indicates clearly
© 2007: JASNAOE-RINA
defined limit values for the surface preparation
concerning cleanliness, surface profile, salt level, dust
grade, dry film thickness, etc. Precepts are also given
with respect to the selection of an appropriate coating
system, application methods and required pre-
qualification tests of coating systems.
Naturally limit values and application requirements are
already existent and come along with each coating
system. However they are usually defined by the coating
manufacturers with regard to specific characteristics of
the coating systems and not by an international unified
standard. Moreover verification and inspection methods
concerning these requirements and limit values in
practice are not regulated in a harmonised way nowadays
and are fulfilled with a very varying diligence.
Three main items shall specifically be amplified because
they are completely newly introduced and representing at
the same time major consequences for the shipbuilding
industry.
4.1 PRE-QUALIFICATION AND
CERTIFICATION OF THE COATING SYSTEM
According to the IMO PSPC, coating systems have to be
pre-qualified in a laboratory test prior to be used on
board. The laboratory test is clearly described in the
standard including the testing facility, the panels to be
tested, the test duration and the acceptance criteria to be
achieved after the testing period. The testing facility
simulates the conditions in a seawater ballast tank
including ship’s movement, adjacent heated tanks and
different levels of filling. In the testing tank different
panels, coated with the coating system to be tested, are
positioned. One panel is assembled with a sacrificial
anode whereas on other panels the coating is artificially
hurt. The testing period in the tank is 180 days.
Figure 2: Wave tank for testing of ballast tank coatings
Further the coating on two test panels is tested in a
condensation chamber also for 180 days.
One more panel will be exposed to dry heat for 180 days
to simulate boundary plating between a heated bunker
tank and a ballast tank in the double bottom.
147
Shipbuilding Technology ISST 2007, Osaka, 2007
With successful testing results the coating will be
certified by a type approval or statement of compliance
issued by the administration or recognised organisation
which is usually the classification society. The control of
this certificate will be part of the coating inspection
process.
4.2 COATING INSPECTORS
Another big issue that comes along with the IMO
Coating Standard is the implementation of verification,
inspection and documentation items. Those items shall
ensure that the defined limits concerning surface
preparation, salt and dust limit, dry film thickness, etc.
are achieved and obeyed. This means that new control
persons in form of coating inspectors have to be included
in the ship yard’s quality control system.
Coating inspectors need a special qualification which has
to be verified by the administration or recognised
organisation. They inspect and document the complete
coating process of the ballast water tanks. The inspection
and documentation items of the coating inspectors are
clearly defined in the standard.
4.3 COATING TECHNICAL FILE
The documentation of each single step of the coating
process will be filed in a Coating Technical File (CTF),
the third major introduction of the IMO standard. The
CTF will include, amongst others, the reports of the
coating inspector, technical data sheets of the coating
system, type approval certificates, procedures for in-
service maintenance and repair of coating systems, etc.
The CTF remains on board of the vessel and shall be
maintained throughout the life of the vessel. This means
that inspection and maintenance of the coating shall be
continuously recorded including location and work
specification.
5. IMPLEMENTATION PROCEDURE AND
DATES
The IMO PSPC will be made mandatory through an
amendment of the SOLAS Convention (see point 3),
settled in Resolution MSC.216(82) Page 3, and is
therefore a statutory requirement. Basically all
commercial vessels are built under the SOLAS
Convention nowadays which means that with the
amendment the coating standard will be made
internationally mandatory.
IMO has set three different dates to activate the new
coating standard. It will apply to seawater ballast tanks of
all types of ships of not less than 500 gross tonnage and
double-side skin spaces arranged in bulk carriers of
150m in length and upwards
• for which the building contract is placed on or
after 1 July 2008; or
• in the absence of a building contract, the keels
of which are laid or which are at a similar stage
of construction on or after 1 January 2009; or
© 2007: JASNAOE-RINA
• the delivery of which is on or after 1 July 2012.
An exception from the a.m. dates exists for tankers and
bulkers built under the Common Structural Rules (CSR)
released by IACS. For those types of vessels the coating
standard is already mandatory from its date of adoption
on which was 8 December 2006. This date applies to the
contracting date of vessels.
6. CONCLUSIONS
With the intent of the constant improvement of the ship’s
safety the newly developed standard might be a good
contribution from a corrosion protection point of view.
With seawater ballast tanks being one of the most
jeopardised areas on a steel ship and with devastating
damages in these areas still appearing, it can been seen as
a good approach to set international valid rules and
technical requirements concerning the coating of these
tanks.
It is however to be awaited the issue how the technical
requirements will be realised and if it is practicable to
have one standard for ballast water tanks on different
types of vessels. All involved parties (shipyards, owners,
classification societies, coating manufacturers,
application companies, etc.) will be faced with partly big
changes.
Certainly Germanischer Lloyd will give all necessary
support that is needed and will provide the class relevant
inspection requirements that come with this standard.
It is already decided by IMO to develop and release
further coating standards for steel ships. This includes
regulations for the coating of void spaces on certain type
of vessels, the coating of the cargo tanks on crude oil
carriers and a maintenance standard for the seawater
ballast tanks as a supplement to the described coating
standard.
It is obvious that the ship’s safety can be improved by
proper corrosion protection. It has however to be paid
attention that the regulations are a good compromise
between sufficient protection and economical efficiency.
This ensures the acceptance of such regulations and
therewith the optimum realisation.
7. AUTHORS’ BIOGRAPHIES
Daniel Engel is the head of the Competence Centre
Materials and Products and the Department Materials and
Corrosion Protection at Germanischer Lloyd.
Thorsten Lohmann is engineer in the Department
Materials and Corrosion Protection at Germanischer
Lloyd. He is responsible for the certification of coatings,
corrosion protection measures and antifouling systems.
148
Shipbuilding Technology ISST 2007, Osaka, 2007

Class NK’s Course of Action to Protective Coating – Guidelines for Performance

Standard for Protective Coating Contained in IMO Resolution MSC.215(82)

Toshitomo Matsui, Class NK

1. PREFACE

IACS Common Structural Rules (hereinafter referred to “CSR”) has been effected from 1st April, 2006, and
applied to a ship of which the building contract is signed on and after that date. In the section of Corrosion
Protection of CSR the followings are specified for sea water ballast tanks and the void double skin spaces of
bulk carriers:

“For ships contracted for construction on or after the date of IMO adoption of the amended SOLAS
regulation II-1/3-2, by which an IMO “performance standard for protective coatings for ballast tanks and void
spaces” will be made mandatory, the coating of internal spaces subject to the amended SOLAS regulation are
to satisfy the requirements of the IMO performance standard.

Consistent with IMO Resolution A.798(19) and IACS UI SC122, the selection of the coating system,
including coating selection, specification, and inspection plan, are to be agreed between the shipbuilder,
coating system supplier and the owner, in conjunction with the Society, prior to commencement of
construction. The specification for the coating system for the spaces is to be documented and this
documentation is to be verified by the Society and is to be in full compliance with the coating performance
standard.

The shipbuilder is to demonstrate that the selected coating system with associated surface preparation and
application methods is compatible with manufacturing processes and methods.

The shipbuilder is to demonstrate that the coating inspectors have proper qualification as required by the IMO
standard.

The attending surveyor of the Society will not verify the application of the coatings but will review the
reports of the coating inspectors to verify that the specified shipyard coating procedures have been followed.

It goes without saying that protective coatings are not just for ballast tanks, they are necessary for ease of
maintenance and keeping ships in good condition.

CSR having maid Society’s surveyors not to verify the coatings’ application but to review the coating
inspector’s reports, Class NK recognizes the important role of coating inspectors and therefore has decided to
prepare the guidelines for them in order to clarify the methods and criterion of inspections, criteria for them.

On the other hands Class NK concerned much that there are too few coating inspectors qualified as “FROSIO
Red” or NACE level 3” in this industry comparing to duly implement IMO PSPC to the rushing amount of
new shipbuilding vessels.

2. GUIDELINES FOR COATING INSPECTION

2.1 For Guidelines

In order to maximize the effectiveness of protective coatings, it is especially important to improve the

© 2007: JASNAOE-RINA 149

Shipbuilding Technology ISST 2007, Osaka, 2007

quality of coating application. The IMO PSPC 1 stipulates that the following be taken into account when
developing a coating design and coating work plan:

It is essential that specifications, procedures and the various different steps in the coating application
process (including, but not limited to, surface preparation) are strictly applied by the shipbuilder in order
to prevent premature decay and/or deterioration of the coating system. (IMO PSPC 3.3.1)

The coating performance can be improved by adopting measures at the ship design stage such as
reducing scallops, using rolled profiles, avoiding complex geometric configurations and ensuring that
the structural configuration permits easy access for tools and to facilitate cleaning, drainage and drying
of the space to be coated. (IMO PSPC 3.3.2)

Inspections by the coating inspector during the application process are crucial in order to ensure conformance
to IMO PSPC, or in other words, to ensure that the basic requirements stipulated in IMO PSPC are being
followed adequately.

Class NK believes that coating inspectors need to share a common understanding of what (level of quality) is
deemed acceptable in regards to protective coating for any vessel. Therefore, Class NK put together the
“Guidelines for the Performance Standard for Protective Coatings” from the sources below, as a guide for
shipyards and coating inspectors regarding coating inspections in accordance with IMO PSPC.

“Guidelines for Coating Inspection on PSPC,” prepared by the Japan Ship Technology Research Association
(hereinafter referred to “JSTRA”) to provide guidance for coating inspection carried out by shipyards and
coating inspectors in regards to Japanese and international standards, is included in the ANNEX of these
guidelines for your reference. An official response is yet to come from IACS regarding the questions from
Japanese industry, but any new developments will be incorporated into these guidelines promptly.

IACS established the IACS-Industry Joint Working Group on Coating (JWG/COATING) to address the
problems that arise in regards to the application of IMO PSPC. These guidelines will be updated regularly
with interpretations from the IACS Common Interpretation and Q&A developed by JWG/COATING to
ensure that the latest information is available.

Hoping that “Guidelines for Performance Standard for Protective Coatings contained in IMO Resolution
MSC.215(82) (draft)” will be of good use to you.

Generally speaking there are very many negotiations between a ship owner and a ship builder before signing
a building contract. In this contract it is one of the obligations to comply with IMOPSPC. However, there
seldom happens for a ship owner and a ship builder to negotiate the details of coating inspections.

1 IMO Resolution MSC.215(82) (adopted on 8 December 2006 at MSC82）Performance Standard for Protective
Coatings for Dedicated Seawater Ballast Tanks in All Types of Ships and Double-Side Skin Spaces of Bulk Carriers

© 2007: JASNAOE-RINA 150

Shipbuilding Technology ISST 2007, Osaka, 2007

Classification societies are usually not involved in the negotiations at this moment.

As like class rules specifies the details of the scantlings of construction and welding, Class NK realize the
necessity to give both ship owners and ship builders the guidelines of coatings for the duly compliance with
IMO PSPC as one of the conditions for class registration.

Needless to say, the coating inspectors play the important role to apply IMO PSPC to a ship during
construction in order to assure her coating works to be complied with the requirements of IMO PSPC.

As CSR specifies, class surveyors will only review the report of coating inspector to verify that the specified
shipyard coating procedures have been followed.

In other words coating inspectors shall share with the allowable standards of coating work performances and
also the unified understanding of quality of coating works. Class NK has worked from the scratch for
preparing the “Guidelines for Performance Standard for Protective Coatings contained in IMO Resolution
MSC.215(82)” (hereinafter “Class NK Guidelines”) for coating inspectors.

2.2 JSTRA’s “GUIDELINE FOR COATING INSPECTION ON PSPC”

The working group for PSPC has been set out by JSTRA for duly implementation of IMO PSPC. The
members of this working group are from shipyards, manufacturers, ship owners, institutes and class society.

Under the above working group two sub-working groups were also set. One is for the approval test and
certification of coating system and the other one is for drafting guidelines for coating inspectors. ClassNK
chaired the sub-working group for guidelines for coating inspectors and also took part in the other
sub-working group.

The sub-working group for guidelines extensively worked to draft the “GUIDELINE FOR COATING
INSPECTION ON PSPC” (hereinafter referred to JSTRA Guideline) around year end of 2006.

JSTRA Guideline has been developed on the principles of coating inspection as follows:-

The objective of the coating inspection is to ensure that the required minimum level and quality of
protective coatings by PSPC is adequately applied.

Coating inspector should understand that perfect execution of coating application and inspection,
throughout the entire surface without any small imperfectness is hardly achievable and all inspectors
should have unified understanding as to what extent is acceptable as the required minimum level and
quality of the protective coatings for any ship built in any shipyard.

For example, the check points for DFT measurements for the judgment of 90/10 rule are clearly
indicated in the annex 3 of PSPC, but this cannot guarantee that 90/10 rule is perfectly achieved for
the entire surface. The common understanding is that such sampling methods is practically enough
for making the judgment, and if the sample measurements do not satisfy the criteria, additional spot
checks should be taken for any area considered necessary by the coating inspector.

© 2007: JASNAOE-RINA 151

Shipbuilding Technology ISST 2007, Osaka, 2007

Unless expressly provided otherwise in PSPC and this Guideline, inspection by sampling and
statistical method should be adopted to the extent necessary for making practical judgment. This
means that the extent of inspection depends on the quality control of shipyards and should be allowed
to vary better shipyards to ensure that the required minimum level and quality is achieved.

The sub-working group drafted the JSTRA Guidelines taking into consideration that it will be not only
domestic but also global guidelines. Its final draft was proposed to IACS by Shipbuilding Association of
Japan with the cooperation (SAJ) of Korean Shipbuilders Association (KOSHIPA), and IACS Joint Working
Group/Coating used it as one of the key materials for ”GUIDELINE FOR IMPLEMENTATION OF
MSC.215(82) PERFORMANCE STANDARD OF PROTECTIVE COATINGS” (hereinafter referred to
IACS Guidelines) in its meeting at Pusan, Korea in May, 2007.

IACS has established its internal expert group and joint working group with industries concerned to develop
practical approaches to implement IMO PSPC, and the meeting were held in last May and August. The IACS
common understandings being developed by the working groups will be timely incorporated into Class NK
Guidelines.

3. COATING INSPECTION

As for coating inspection, a superintendent with a shipyard inspector daily inspect the surface preparation
such as edge preparation, blasting, salt content check, dust, and coating application such as coating, drying,
recoating, dry film thickness measurement.

IMO PSPC requires those inspections, such as work log and measurements to be documented and also to be
filed in the Coating Technical File.

In case of VLCC the amount of dry film thickness measurements is reported 80,000 to 100,000 if measured in
accordance with IMO PSPC.

It is questionable that dry film thickness shall be measured by qualified coating inspectors even though you
can easily measure it by the device.

During drafting JSTRA Guidelines this issue was disputed very much, and eventually assistants may be used
into coating inspections under the coating inspector’s supervision. These assistants shall complete the due
training course. These assistants may mitigate the lack of quailed coating inspectors in the marine industry.

IACS defines the coating inspectors’ qualification in the Procedural Requirement No.34 taking into
consideration the current small number of qualified inspectors in the marine industry even though IACS is of
the opinion that all inspections are to be executed by qualified inspectors and/or inspector with equivalent
qualification.

As for qualification of coating inspectors, the scheme of assistant coating inspectors has been adopted by the
attendants from the all industries but IACS at Joint Working Group/Coating in Pusan in May, 2007. It may
help for lack of qualified coating inspectors. IACS may develop the qualification of the assistant and the

© 2007: JASNAOE-RINA 152

Shipbuilding Technology ISST 2007, Osaka, 2007

scope of his duties.

4. CLASS NK’s ACTION

4.1 Rules

As you know well, the amendment of regulation 3-2, Ch. II-1, SOLAS has been adopted by MSC82 on 8th
December, 2006 and will be effective from 1st July, 2007.

Simultaneously IMO PSPC is to be applied to a ship under IACS CSR of which the building contract is
signed on and after 8th December, 2006. IACS Procedural Requirement No. 34 has been also implemented for
the smooth application of IMO PSPC.

The amendments of Class NK rules have been approved by the Technical Committee in March, and by
Council and Japanese Administration in April, 2007.

The amendments of Class NK rules are only the requirements as class related of IMO PSPC and IACS PR34,
such as Type Approval of Coating System, Approval procedures of manufacturers, qualification of coating
inspectors, monitoring the coating inspectors and approval of CTF..

4.2 Class NK Guidelines

Class NK has developed both Class NK Guidelines for coating inspectors and NK instructions for Society
surveyors.

Class NK Guidelines explains the Society surveyors’ review of inspection records and the inspections of
coating inspectors. Class NK Guidelines consists of PR 34, IMO PSPC and JSTRA Guidelines.

As IACS has established JWG/Coatings for drafting IACS Guidelines, IACS Guidelines will timely be
incorporated into Class NK Guidelines.

4.3 Class NK Instructions for the Society surveyors

Class surveyor need not be qualified as FROSIO Red or NACE Level III for the review of inspection records.
However Class NK gets Society surveyors to have training course of FROSIO or NACE not only in Japan but
also China and Korea.

Society surveyors qualified by FROSIO or NACE will give other surveyors the lectures of coating works in
order to duly review the inspection records.

NK instructions are being prepared for Society surveyors as follows:-

4.3.1 Type Approval of Coating System

-1 Statement of Compliance issued by MARINTEK or Research Institute of Marine Engineering, Japan

Ship-Machinery Quality Control Association.

© 2007: JASNAOE-RINA 153

Shipbuilding Technology ISST 2007, Osaka, 2007

-2 Approval certificate issued in accordance with the Society’s “Guidance for the Approval and Type
Approval of Materials and Equipment for Marine Use”.

-3 Where the shop primer is not removed, either one of the followings is to be confirmed:-

(1) Statement of Compliance or Type Approval Certificate for the coating system consisting of
epoxy-base paint and shop primer.

(2) Where neither the statement of compliance nor type approval certificate is available, followings are
to be confirmed:-

- statement of compliance nor type approval certificate of the shop primer

- statement of compliance nor type approval certificate for coating system consisting of the said shop
primer and other main coating than the intended one

- statement of compatibility between the intended coating system issued by the manufacturer

4.3.2 Approved Course for Coating Inspector’s Equivalent Qualification (program, materials & etc.)

-1. A course may be established by either shipyards, paint manufacturers or any third party, and should be
approved by the Society.

-2. A course is to have those syllabus specified by IACS PR 34.

-3. The qualification of course tutor is to follow IACS PR 34.

-4. The Society shall confirm the followings for approval of the course:-

(1) A course tutor: qualification and experience.

(2) List and maintenance instructions of devices and/or equipments for the course.

(3) Syllabus

(4) Test procedures and its criterion.

(5) Procedures of certification for course and tests .

4.3.3 Kick-off meeting on coating (coating system, surface preparation, inspection, recording and etc.)

Shipyards strongly request class to take part in the Kick-off meeting. The Society acknowledge that it is
important for the Society to participate in the tripartite kick-off meeting by a shipyard, a ship owner and
manufacturer. Therefore the Society surveyor will attend the kick-off meeting as an observer.

Followings are the key agenda of the kick-off meeting:-

-1 Technical Data Sheet of Coating System.

-2 Statement of Compliance or Type Approval Certificate of coating system.

© 2007: JASNAOE-RINA 154

Shipbuilding Technology ISST 2007, Osaka, 2007

-3 Qualification of coating inspectors

-4 Procedures of surface preparation and coating application

4.3.4 Verification of the coating works(Monitoring the coating inspectors、sampling check of reports
&etc.)

-1 Correspondence of paints

-2 Monitoring coating inspectors’ performance

(1) Primary surface preparation

(2) Block assembly

(3) Erection of blocks

-3 Coating Log/Reports

(1) Each report of surface preparation and each stage of coating works.

(2) Above reports shall be signed by a coating inspector.

4.3.5 Approval of CTF (Coating Technical File)

Followings are to be included in CTF:-

-1 Shipyard work records of coating application, including:

- applied actual space and area (in square meters) of each compartment

- applied coating system

- time of coating, thickness, number of layers, etc.;

- method of surface preparation;

-2 Procedures for inspection and repair of coating system during ship construction;

-3 Coating log issued by the coating inspector – stating that the coating was applied in accordance with the
specification of the coating supplier representative and specifying deviations from the specifications

-4 Shipyard’s verified inspection report, including:

- completion date of inspection;

- result of inspection;

- remarks (if given); and

- inspector signature.

© 2007: JASNAOE-RINA 155

Shipbuilding Technology ISST 2007, Osaka, 2007

-5 Procedures for in-service maintenance and repair of coating system

-6 Approved CTF placed on board.

4 REFERENCE

IMO PSPC:

IMO Resolution MSC.215(82) (adopted on 8 December 2006 at MSC82）Performance Standard for

Protective Coatings for Dedicated Seawater Ballast Tanks in All Types of Ships and Double-Side Skin
Spaces of Bulk Carriers

IACS PR No.34:

IACS Procedural Requirement （adopted on 8 December 2006 at IACS Council）Applied until the date
of application referred to in para.1 of SOLAS Chapter II-1, Part A-1, Reg.3-2, as adopted by resolution
MSC.216(82) for the purpose of flexible enforcement of IMO PSPC requirements related to
classification in order to solve the difficulties with regard to approved coating systems and coating
inspectors.

NK sources:

“Rules for the Survey and Construction of Steel Ships,” Part B, Part CSR-B, and Part CSR-T; and
related sections from “Guidance for the Survey and Construction of Steel Ships” and “Guidance for the
Approval and Type Approval of Materials and Equipment for Marine Use”

5 CURRENT ACTIVITIES

As every class society develop its own rules and/or guidelines, Class NK Guidelines is continuously updated
every time when IMO PSPC, IACS Guidelines and relevant standards are amended.

Class NK joins in the working group with Japan Ship Technology and Research Association and the Japan
Society of Naval Architects and Ocean Engineers for improving and/or developing coating guidelines,
coating maintenance & etc.

© 2007: JASNAOE-RINA 156