#1 5 DISEASES AFFECTING NERVOUS SYSTEM

Aneurysm - An aneurysm occurs when an artery’s wall weakens and

causes an abnormally large bulge. This bulge can rupture and cause internal
bleeding. Although an aneurysm can occur in any part of your body, they’re
most common in the:

 brain
 aorta
 legs
 spleen

About 13,000 deaths occur each year in the United States from aortic
aneurysms.

What causes an aneurysm?

Although the exact cause of an aneurysm is unclear, certain factors

contribute to the condition. For example, damaged tissue in the arteries can
play a role. The arteries can be harmed by blockages, such as fatty deposits.
These deposits can trigger the heart to pump harder than necessary to push
blood past the fatty buildup. This stress can damage the arteries because of
the increased pressure.

Stroke - A stroke occurs when the blood supply to part of your brain is
interrupted or reduced, depriving brain tissue of oxygen and nutrients.
Within minutes, brain cells begin to die.

A stroke is a medical emergency. Prompt treatment is crucial. Early action

can minimize brain damage and potential complications.
The good news is that strokes can be treated and prevented, and many
fewer Americans die of stroke now than in the past.

Meningitis - is an inflammation (swelling) of the protective membranes

covering the brain and spinal cord. A bacterial or viral infection of the fluid
surrounding the brain and spinal cord usually causes the swelling.

Epilepsy - Epilepsy is a central nervous system (neurological) disorder in

which brain activity becomes abnormal, causing seizures or periods of
unusual behavior, sensations, and sometimes loss of awareness.

Anyone can develop epilepsy. Epilepsy affects both males and females of all
races, ethnic backgrounds and ages.

Seizure symptoms can vary widely. Some people with epilepsy simply stare
blankly for a few seconds during a seizure, while others repeatedly twitch
their arms or legs. Having a single seizure doesn't mean you have epilepsy.
At least two unprovoked seizures are generally required for an epilepsy
diagnosis.

Treatment with medications or sometimes surgery can control seizures for

the majority of people with epilepsy. Some people require lifelong
treatment to control seizures, but for others, the seizures eventually go
away. Some children with epilepsy may outgrow the condition with age.

Sciatica - Sciatica is when the sciatic nerve, which runs from your hips to
your feet, is irritated. It usually gets better in 4 to 6 weeks but can last
longer.
#2 HOW TO TAKE CARE OF YOUR NERVOUS SYSTEM

Endocrine System – Your endocrine system includes all the glands in your
body that make hormones. These chemical messengers play a key role in
making sure your body works the way it should.
If your endocrine system isn't healthy, you might have problems developing
during puberty, getting pregnant, or managing stress. You also might gain
weight easily, have weak bones, or lack energy because too much sugar stays
in your blood instead of moving into your cells where it's needed for energy.

Key Parts - Many different glands make up the endocrine system. The
hypothalamus, pituitary gland, and pineal gland are your brain. The thyroid
and parathyroid glands are in your neck. The thymus is between your lungs,
the adrenals are on top of your kidneys, and the pancreas is behind your
stomach. Your ovaries (if you're a woman) or testes (if you're a man) are in
your pelvic region.

Hypothalamus - This organ connects your endocrine system with your

nervous system. Its main job is to tell your pituitary gland to start or stop
making hormones.

Pituitary - This is the "master" gland of your endocrine system. It uses

information it gets from your brain to "tell" other glands in your body what to
do. It makes many different important hormones, including growth hormone;
prolactin, which helps breastfeeding moms make milk; and luteinizing
hormone, which manages estrogen in women and testosterone in men.

Pineal - This gland makes a chemical called melatonin. It helps your body get
ready to go to sleep.

Thyroid - This gland makes thyroid hormone, which controls your

metabolism. If this gland doesn't make enough (a condition
called hypothyroidism), everything happens more slowly. Your heart rate
might slow down. You could get constipated. And you might gain weight. If it
makes too much (hyperthyroidism), everything speeds up. Your heart might
race. You could have diarrhea. And you might lose weight without trying.

Parathyroid - This is a set of four small glands behind your thyroid. They
are important for bone health. The glands control your levels of calcium and
phosphorus.
Thymus - his gland makes white blood cells called T-lymphocytes that fight
infection and are crucial as a child's immune system develops. The thymus
starts to shrink after puberty.

RESEARCH NO . 3
Dwarfism - is a condition of short stature. It is defined by the advocacy
group Little People of America (LPA) as an adult height of 4 feet 10 inches or
under, as a result of a medical or genetic condition. Although other groups
may extend the criteria for certain forms of dwarfism to 5 feet, the average
height of an adult with dwarfism is 4 feet.
There are two main categories of dwarfism -- disproportionate and
proportionate. Disproportionate dwarfism is characterized by an average-size
torso and shorter arms and legs or a shortened trunk with longer limbs. In
proportionate dwarfism, the body parts are in proportion but shortened.

Gigantism - Gigantism is a rare condition that causes abnormal growth in

children. This change is most notable in terms of height, but girth is affected
as well. It occurs when your child’s pituitary gland makes too much growth
hormone, which is also known as somatotropin.

Goiter - A goiter (GOI-tur) is an abnormal enlargement of your thyroid

gland. Your thyroid is a butterfly-shaped gland located at the base of your
neck just below your Adam's apple. Although goiters are usually painless, a
large goiter can cause a cough and make it difficult for you to swallow or
breathe.
 #4 ENEMURATE THE PREVENTION / CURE
OF THE GIVEN CONDITION
Male Hormones

At the onset of puberty, the hypothalamus causes the release of FSH and LH into the
male system for the first time. FSH enters the testes and stimulates the Sertoli cells to
begin facilitating spermatogenesis using negative feedback, as illustrated in

Figure 24.14. LH also enters the testes and stimulates the interstitial cells of Leydig to
make and release testosterone into the testes and the blood.

Testosterone, the hormone responsible for the secondary sexual characteristics that
develop in the male during adolescence, stimulates spermatogenesis. These secondary
sex characteristics include a deepening of the voice, the growth of facial, axillary, and
pubic hair, and the beginnings of the sex drive.

Figure 24.14. Hormones control sperm production in a negative feedback system.

A negative feedback system occurs in the male with rising levels of testosterone acting
on the hypothalamus and anterior pituitary to inhibit the release of GnRH, FSH, and LH.
The Sertoli cells produce the hormone inhibin, which is released into the blood when
the sperm count is too high. This inhibits the release of GnRH and FSH, which will cause
spermatogenesis to slow down. If the sperm count reaches 20 million/ml, the Sertoli
cells cease the release of inhibin, and the sperm count increases.
Female Hormones

The control of reproduction in females is more complex. As with the male, the anterior
pituitary hormones cause the release of the hormones FSH and LH. In addition,
estrogens and progesterone are released from the developing follicles. Estrogen is the
reproductive hormone in females that assists in endometrial regrowth, ovulation, and
calcium absorption; it is also responsible for the secondary sexual characteristics of
females. These include breast development, flaring of the hips, and a shorter period
necessary for bone maturation. Progesterone assists in endometrial re-growth and
inhibition of FSH and LH release.

In females, FSH stimulates development of egg cells, called ova, which develop in
structures called follicles. Follicle cells produce the hormone inhibin, which inhibits FSH
production. LH also plays a role in the development of ova, induction of ovulation, and
stimulation of estradiol and progesterone production by the ovaries. Estradiol and
progesterone are steroid hormones that prepare the body for pregnancy. Estradiol
produces secondary sex characteristics in females, while both estradiol and
progesterone regulate the menstrual cycle.

The Ovarian Cycle and the Menstrual Cycle

The ovarian cycle governs the preparation of endocrine tissues and release of eggs,
while the menstrual cycle governs the preparation and maintenance of the uterine
lining. These cycles occur concurrently and are coordinated over a 22–32 day cycle,
with an average length of 28 days.

The first half of the ovarian cycle is the follicular . Slowly rising levels of FSH and LH
cause the growth of follicles on the surface of the ovary. This process prepares the egg
for ovulation. As the follicles grow, they begin releasing estrogens and a low level of
progesterone. Progesterone maintains the endometrium to help ensure pregnancy. The
trip through the fallopian tube takes about seven days. At this stage of development,
called the morula, there are 30-60 cells. If pregnancy implantation does not occur, the
lining is sloughed off. After about five days, estrogen levels rise and the menstrual cycle
enters the proliferative phase. The endometrium begins to regrow, replacing the blood
vessels and glands that deteriorated during the end of the last cycle.
 #5 DESCRIBE THE EVENTS DURING THE
MENSTRUAL CYCLE OF A FEMALE
Menstruation describes the female period. The menstruation cycle begins
when a woman gets her periods. The menstrual blood which leaves her
body are products shed from the uterus (the uterine lining also called
the endometrium). During the remainder of the menstrual cycle the uterine
lining regrows. It does so in preparation for pregnancy, which occurs if the
egg (oocyte) a woman releases about half way through her menstrual cycle
is fertilized. When fertilization occurs, the lining stays in place to nourish the
fertilized egg. When fertilization does not occur the menstrual cycle
continues and the uterine lining is shed marking the start of the woman’s
next menstrual period. Women begin menstruation at an average age of 13
(called menarche) and on average continue menstruating till age 51
(called menopause).
Menstruation involves highly complex hormonal interactions. The
key hormones involved in menstruation are estrogen and progesterone
(produced by the ovaries) and luteinising hormone and follicle stimulating
produced by the pituitary gland, under the influence of hormones secreted
by the hypothalamus. The interactions between these organs are referred to
as the hypothalamic-pituitary-ovarian axis (HPO axis).
#6 COMPARE DNA AND RNA
- DNA is double-stranded, RNA is single-stranded.

- DNA contains a pentose sugar Deoxyribose, RNA contains the pentose

sugar Ribose. A pentose is a 5-carbon sugar molecule.

- DNA is limited to the nucleus, RNA is made in the nucleus, but can travel
outside of it.

- DNA has a nitrogenous base called Thymine, but RNA doesn't. Instead,
RNA has Uracil. In DNA thymine pairs with adenine, but in RNA uracil pairs
with adenine.
 #7 EXPLAIN THE PROCESS OF TRANSCIPTION AND
TRANSLATION OF DNA
TRANSCRIPTION AND TRANSLATION
Genes provide information for building proteins. They don’t however
directly create proteins. The production of proteins is completed through
two processes: transcription and translation.

Transcription and translation take the information in DNA and use it to

produce proteins. Transcription uses a strand of DNA as a template to build
a molecule called RNA.

The RNA molecule is the link between DNA and the production of
proteins. During translation, the RNA molecule created in the transcription
process delivers information from the DNA to the protein building
machines.

DNA → RNA → Protein

DNA and RNA are similar molecules and are both built from smaller
molecules called nucleotides. Proteins are made from a sequence of amino
acids rather than nucleotides. Transcription and translation are the two
processes that convert a sequence of nucleotides from DNA into a sequence
of amino acids to build the desired protein.

These two processes are essential for life. They are found in all organisms
– eukaryotic and prokaryotic. Converting genetic information into proteins
has kept life in existence for billions of years.
 #8 GENETIC MUTATION

Down Syndrome - (DS or DNS), also known as trisomy 21, is a genetic

disorder caused by the presence of all or part of a third copy of
chromosome 21. It is typically associated with physical growth delays,
characteristic facial features, and mild to moderate intellectual disability.

CRI – DU – CHAT - syndrome , also known as 5p- (5p minus) syndrome

or cat cry syndrome, is a genetic condition that is caused by the deletion of
genetic material on the small arm (the p arm) of chromosome 5. Infants with
this condition often have a high-pitched cry that sounds like that of a cat.

Turner Syndrome - is a chromosomal condition that affects

development in females. The most common feature of Turner syndrome is
short stature, which becomes evident by about age 5. An early loss of
ovarian function (ovarian hypofunction or premature ovarian failure) is also
very common.

Edwards Syndrome - (also known as Trisomy 18 (T18) or Trisomy E) is a

genetic disorder caused by the presence of all or part of an extra 18th
chromosome. The majority of people with the syndrome die during the
fetal stage; infants who survive experience serious defects and commonly
live for short periods of time.

Klinefelter Syndrome - (KS) also known as 47,XXY or XXY, is the set of

symptoms that result from two or more X chromosomes in males. The
primary features are infertility and small testicles. Often, symptoms may be
subtle and many people do not realize they are affected. ... Klinefelter
syndrome usually occurs randomly.