Motivation T following could be a true but not unique story Laura had everything going for her. From the age of 6 she had weekly violin lessons with outstanding teachers, Her parents spazed no expense on her. She sarled winning competitions at a young age, and at 12 she won a coveted place in a preparatory program at a prestigious conservatory. Yet after gradu ating from high school, she abandoned the study af music altogether, sod her violin, and enrolled asa rience major in college. ‘To provide a clear account of what allowed Laura to achieve so much with ‘music—and then change life direction so abruptly—we tum to the psychology ‘of motivation, This is a etitical consideration for those trying to improve their ‘musicianship or for teachers and parents of young musicians. As an aspir- ing performer, it is one thing to know what you need to do (o improve your skills, but itis quite another thing to actualy doit. Similarly, itis easy for a teacher to write down a list of exercises tobe practiced but much more difficult to get students o cazry them out. Often musicians and teachers talk about moti- vation as a feeling or inner desire. But to study motivation, we have to look to its manifestations as behaviors, such as a young child saying he wants to learn to play the trumpet, a teenager continuing her music studies in schoal when oth- ers have dropped out, ora collegiate musician employing spevial strategies to ‘maximize his practice time (Machr, Pintrich, & Linnenbrink, 2002) ‘Maltiple sources of motivation exist inthe lives of musicians. One simple ‘way of understanding these many sources is o categorize them as intrinsic ver- sic, Intrinsic motivation comes from the activity itself and the enjoy: ‘ment experienced from engaging in it In general, people make music because fof the enjoyment and fulfillment they get from doing it However, because 44Motivation 45 Acquiring musical skill takes much time and effort, developing musicians also rely on extrinsic motivation, or secondary nonmusical rewards that come with ‘musical participation, This is seen when young musicians respond to the sup- port and encouragement of people close to them, including parents, teachers, and peers, At any one time in their development, musicians may be drawing on several intinsic and extinsic sources simultaneously. Some performance ex- periences include both intrinsic and extrinsic elements, The pleasure of group ‘music making is intrinsically rewarding, and additional extrinsic motivation is ained through the applause of an audience. It is sometimes dificult to distin- ‘uish berween extrinsic and intrinsic motivation (see the later section on beliefs and values) Although a great many people are attracted to music as children (either in- twinsically or extinsically, asin the case of parental coercion) and set cut to lear an instrument, relatively few of them achieve a satisfying level of profi- ciency. Building a skill of any kind necessarily involves effort. In music, the e {ort can include a lot of concentrated time repeating musical exercises that are ‘ot intrinsically enjoyable, Many musicians in the classical tradition—even highly successful ones—admit that they do not like to practice (Hallam, 1997). [But must practice be unpleasant? Popular musicians often talk of their individ- val and group practicing in a much more positive light. A beter understanding ‘of motivation may cause musicians to alter practice routines to make them more personally rewarding and to find ways to sustain the needed effort in the un- avoidably unpleasant activities ‘Based on the research that has examined motivation and music achievement, this chapter explains the following principles: 1. Music is intrinsically motivating, Barly pleasurable experiences with mu- sic draw children into pursuing greater involvement, including formal training, Maintaining an intrinsic love of music can ultimately determine how long musicians will continue in the field and how rewarding it will be Tor ther, 2. ‘The support of parents and teachers ean be the difference between a young student's benefiting from music training and dropping out alto- ‘ether (see chapter 2). Motivating a child musician todo the practice nec- essary for skill development requires the supervision of parents and the encouragement of respected teachers. 3. Social standing among their musical peers prompts many teenagers and young adults to strengthen their commitment to music. The social struc- {ute of the “conservatory culture” exerts a strong influence on the moti- vation of musi students 4, The persistence that musicians show in learning activities is largely de- termined by their beliefs about music and about themselves. Students46 Musical Learning self-perceptions of ability and their expectancies for success (or failure) are strong indicators of achievement ‘5. Motivation is also related tothe extent to which musicians embrace chal- lenges. Those with a mastery orientation are willing to expend the effort needed to achieve and tend to set specific goals for themselves, which ‘makes practice activities more efcient, productive, and rewarding. Intrinsic Motivation for Music ‘Human beings have a “love affui” with musi. Virtually everyone claims to Like ‘music, at least some kind of music, and most people would say they love music Generally speaking, making and liking music are intrinsically motivating ectiv- ilies. People are naturally attracted to them because the activities themselves are rewarding experiences. Research with infants suggests th sic is not acquired (although tastes for certain styles of music certainly are) but is something inherently human attaction to mu- Childhood Experiences Although a person may not begin to study music until school age, the motiva- tion for tha later involvement has likely been buill very early in life, Young children's home environments can differ greatly in opportunities for musical discovery and experimentation, People who go om to become musicians charac- terize their early childhood musical experiences as playful, fun-filled, and ex- citing (Bloom, 1985; Sloboda, 1990). They report music being a normal part of| their home environments, often through parents or siblings (Howe & Sloboda, 1991), Toddlers” first music-making experiences involve playful singing and experimenting with musical instruments (Sloboda & Howe, 1991). Musicians earliest memories often describe more active participation (singing, playing), as compared with more passive experiences (listening, watching) for nonmusi- cians. For instance, conductor and composer Michael Tilson Thomas once described his childhood: Teouldn’t pass the piano, so my parents tell me, without touching it They al- ‘ways knew when Twas coming and going... Because everytime T would go bck and forth between the living room and another part ofthe house T would have to goby the piano and have to play it Jacobson, 1974, p. 262), Although the inclusion of music in a chil’s everyday play activities can build lasting positive associations, it may be more exceptional musical events that capture one’s musica interests for life, Many musicians remember having highly emotionally saistying “peak experiences,” characterized by feelings of ‘wonder, awe, or surrender (Sloboda, 1990), The great classical guitarist Andrés