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ISSN: XXXX Issue: 1
VOl:1 June-2015
SBKWU Journal of Social Sciences,

Arts and Humanities
SARDAR BAHADUR KHAN WOMEN’S

UNIVERSITY BALOCHISTAN
QUETTA, PAKISTAN
www.sbkwu.edu.pk
SBKWU Journal of Social Sciences, Arts and Humanities
ISSN: 2518-8054
Vol.1 Issue: 1
June-2015
Chief Patron:
Professor Dr Rukhsana Jabeen

Vice Chancellor SBKWU Quetta
Patron:
Dr. Zia- ur- Rahman

Dean of Social Sciences, Arts and Humanities SBKWU
Editors:
Nosheen Zaheer
Head of Islamic Studies Department SBKWU
Mahwish Malghani
English Literature Department SBKWU
Sardar Bahadur Khan Women’s University, Quetta, Pakistan

SBKWU Journal
Issue: 1
Editorial & Advisory Board

National Advisory Editorial Board
1. Prof. Dr Aslam Pervez Memon

Department of Political Science
and
Pro Vice Chancellor
Sufi Campus of University of Sindh,Jamshoro
2. Prof. Dr. Syed Javed Iqbal
Dean, Faculty of Natural Sciences
University of Sindh, Jamshoro
3. Prof. Dr. Muhammad Azam
Psychology Department
University of Balochistan
4. Prof. Dr. Amir Zada
Social Work Department
University of Peshawar
i
5. Prof. Dr. Haider Shah
Department of Islamic studies
6. Prof. Dr. Abdul Ali Achakzai
HoD, Department of Islamic studies
7. Prof. Dr. Saleha Naghmi Habibullah
Department of Statistics
Kinnaird College For Women (Lahore, Pakistan
8. Prof. Dr. Abdul Aziz
Chair Person Urdu Department,
Allama Iqbal Open University, Islamabad
9. Prof. Dr. Faria
English department
Dean social sciences
ii
10. Dr. Hussain Ahmed Khan
Associate Professor,
Department of History,
Government College University, Lahore
11. Dr. Liaquat Ali Channa
Associate Professor,
Department of English,
BUITEMS, Quetta
12. Dr. Sibghatallah Khan
Assistant Professor
Department of English
NUML, Islamabad
13. Dr. Mirza Muhammad Zubair Baig
Assistant Professor of English
Department of Humanities
COMSATS Institute of Information Technology, Lahore,

Pakistan
iii
14. Dr. Ali Usman Saleem
Assistant Professor
Government College University Faisalabad
15. Dr. Mudassar Mahmood Ahmad
In-charge/Assistant Professor
Department of Humanities and Social Sciences
COMSATS Institute of Information Technology, Lahore
16. Dr. Farheen Ahmed Hashmi
Assistant Professor
Quality Enhancement Cell
Editor
NUML Journal of Critical Inquiry,
National University of Modern Languages, Islamabad, Pakistan
17. Dr Sajida Naz
Assistant Professor,
Department of Behavioral Sciences
Fatima Jinnah Women University, Rawalpindi
iv
18. Dr. Shazia Hashmat
Assistant Professor/ Head of Department
Department of Media and Communication Studies
Fatima Jinnah Women University, Rawalpindi
19. Dr. Shahzadi Pakeeza

Assistant Professor
Department of Islamic Studies
Fatima Jinnah Women University
20. Dr. Noreen Saher
Assistant Professor, sociology Department
International Islamic University, Islamabad
International advisory editorial board
1. Prof. Dr. Dikaiou Maria

Department of Social and Clinical Psychology
School of Psychology, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki
2. Prof. Dr. Syed Ashiq Ali Shah

Department of Psychology
Kwantlen Polytechnic University, CANADA
v
3. Prof. William Divale
Professor of Anthropology (History and Philosophy)
York College and CUNY Online Baccalaureate
United States of America
4. Prof. Dr. Issa Mishan

Usmanu Danfodiyo, University
Sokoto, Nigeria
5. Dr. Shahabuddin
Associate Professor
Aligarh, India
6. Dr. Rizwana Rehman
Ph.D, Statistician Southeast Epilepsy Centers of Excellence,
Veterans Health Administration, USA
7. Dr. Maria Staton
Assistant Professor
Ball State University, Muncie, Indiana, USA.
vi
8. Dr. Muhammad Modassir Ali
Research Coordinator
Muhammad bin Hamad Aal-Thani Center for Muslim
contribution to civilization
Qatar Faculty of Islamic Studies
Hamad bin Khalifah University
Managing committee
Fehmida Baloch
Lecturer, Department of Islamic studies,
Shehnaz Mehboob Baloch
Anila Baber
Department of Urdu
vii
SBKWU Journal
ISSN: 2518-8054
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included in this journal are approved by subject specialists.
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not necessarily coincide with those of the institute.
Journal name: SBKWU Journal
Duration (published): bi-annually Issue No: 1
Year of publication: 2015 Total pages: 119
Quantity (copies published): 200
Address: Sardar Bahadur Khan Women’s University, Quetta,

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Publisher: United press, Zonki ram road, Quetta.
Distributor: SBKWU, Quetta, Balochistan.
viii
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Guidelines for Authors

The SBKWU Research Journal of Social Sciences, Arts and
Humanities is a biannual journal that strictly follows a blind
review process for selection of research works. In order to
facilitate this process, the authors are requested to ensure that all
of their submissions whether first or revised should be
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font size 9)
ix
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consisting between 150-200 words, focusing on the objectives
of the study, methodology, key findings and major conclusions.
Key words: 4 to 6 key words may be provided.
Main Text: The main text should have a proper introduction to

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methodology used in the research. (Sub headings can be used
and the format of introduction section may vary according to the
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Concluding Text: The research manuscript should indicate

findings followed by comprehensive discussion.
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Length: The manuscript submitted should preferably be of

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Referencing/Citation: The Referencing/citation must be in

APA 6th Edition format.
x
Preparing the manuscripts on the suggested guidelines can save
unnecessary delays in publication of the papers.
The submission of manuscript to SBKWU Research Journal of

Social Sciences, Arts and Humanities, implies that the work
submitted is original and has not been published before and it is
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The acceptance of the paper depends on the referee’s decision,

which would be considered as final.
Authors can submit their manuscripts at

researchjournal@sbkwu.edu.pk
xi
CONTRIBUTORS
1. Zainab Akram, Lecturer, SBKWU

2. Shehnaz Mehboob Baloch, M.Phil Scholar
3. Naheed Qasim, M.Phil scholar, SBKWU
4. Hajira Masroor, Balochistan University of Engineering
& Technology, Khuzdar
5. Mohammad Abrar Khan, Ph.D Scholar, Illinois State

University, USA
6. Shamaila A. Chaudhry, Dean Social Sciences /
Chairperson of the Department of Education2, SBKWU
7. Dr. Liaquat Hussain, Assistant Professor, Institute of
Education & Research, Gomal University, Dera Ismail
Khan
8. Faheem Khan, PhD Scholar, Institute of Education &
Research, Gomal University, Dera Ismail Khan
9. Asia Gul, PhD Scholar, Institute of Education &
Research, Gomal University, Dera Ismail Khan
10. Nosheen Zaheer, Assistant Professor of Islamic Studies

Department, SBKWU Quetta.
11. Najia Almas, Lecturer of English Department, SBKWU
Quetta.
12. Farzana Kidarzai Lecturer, Jinnah Town college
13. Maria Khalil, Lecturer, SBKWU
xii
14. Kiran Dawood Lecturer, SBKWU
15. Fareeda Kakar, Lecturer, SBKWU
16. Prof. Dr. Ghulam Muhammad Jaffar,UOB
xiii
SBKWU Journal
ISSN: 2518-8054
CONTENTS
Research Papers: Page no.
1. Losing mind and coming to one’s senses: Exploring 1
the Sensual Aspects in the Essays of Elia
Zainab Akram, Shehnaz Mehboob Baloch, Naheed

Qasim, Hajira Masroor
2. The Key Markers of Desegregation of The American 20
Higher Education
Mohammad Abrar Khan, Shamaila A. Chaudhry,

Dr. Liaquat Hussain, Faheem Khan, Asia Gul
3. Ramakrishna’s Neo-Vedanta and the Spiritual 42
Awakening of Hindus
Nosheen Zaheer, Najia Almas
xiv
SBKWU Journal, Issue 1, Vol. 1 June 2015
LOSING MIND AND COMING TO ONE’S SENSES:

EXPLORING THE SENSUAL ASPECTS IN THE
ESSAYS OF ELIA
Zainab Akram1, Shehnaz Mehboob Baloch2, Naheed Qasim3,
Hajira1Masroor4
ABSTRACT
The undertaken research proposed to study Charles Lamb‟s famous

collection of Essays of Elia. Embracing the romantic spirit of the era, it
was produced in the age romanticism which is widely and commonly
known as the age of expression, of feelings, emotions, creativity; the
nature and the spirit of nature which is steeped in imagination and the
abundant use of senses. Lamb‟s essays have been critically analyzed
with many aspects associated to be the prime qualities of the writer as
nostalgia, confidentiality, personal tone, playing pranks with the readers;
but the researcher felt the need to explore the essays through the lens of
sensuousness. Applying random selection to pick three essays, content
analysis was applied to sort out words, phrases and sentences which
seem to implicate the use of senses to depict the idea by the author. The
selected material is presented in tables and the numbers of references
found for each sense are counted individually per essay and later
1
Lecturer, SBKWU
2
M.Phil scholar, SBKWU
3
M.Phil scholar, SBKWU
4
Balochistan University of Engineering & Technology, Khuzdar
1
collectively. The findings depict the variety of results in each essay, but
as for collective results, sense of sight was used more frequently than
taste and touch and lastly sense of smell and hearing hold the standing at
the least.
KEY WORDS:Essays of Elia, sensuousness, lens, perception, experience
1. INTRODUCTION
1.2. Background of the Study
The aspect of sensuousness has never been touched upon by critics
and researchers in the wide collection of Lamb‟s essays. At several
places in Essays of Elia, a rapid, quick, an unconscious reaction
based on a spontaneous response, rather than on a thoughtful, planned
or a deliberate reaction, is witnessed.
Lamb stages himself with a flow of expressions. The manifestations of
his mind are uninterrupted and unchecked, displayed on paper. It‟s like a
carefree, smooth and light, an unhampered flight of a feather, with the
subtle blow of a breeze. Lamb depicts instinctive feelings and emotions,
aroused by the senses.
Several aspects of Lamb‟s essays like his humanity, love of city life,
nostalgia, etc. are widely dealt with, but an exploration of his essays
through the property of senses is yet to be discussed. As DiYanni (1990)
opined that it is important to evaluate how any author‟s cultural, social
and moral convictions affect his/her depiction. Keeping in mind the
above opinion, we can assert that the process of perception through
senses is a life going process which affects the learning experience and
leads to the retrieving of the past. A number of happenings or events
could be forgotten, but at any time in life they are revived by some other
2
happening in present which holds similarity and relevancy to the one in
the present. Wu, Duncan (2006) reviews Lamb‟s assertion about his self,
when Lamb once described his own nature as concise and perceptive in
the following statement that," I want individuals. I‟m made up of queer
points and I want so many answering needles" (p.735). DiYanni (1990)
observes that the essay could be comprised of the elements of
imagination, dramatic or poetic, and that it would be unwise to abstract
only the ides and watch over the style and language they offer, as this
could lead to losing the pleasure they can offer.
2. STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM

The essays of Lamb have been explored and investigated through
various angles, but it is felt by the researchers that senses are an integral
component of living things and no living organism is deprived of this
blessing in the form of senses, which are an aid in perceiving the
physical world. Similarly, the researchres perceive that Lamb‟s
employment of sensuousness in his essays, to create eternal feelings and
emotions, with a long lasting impression and understanding of his essays
for the readers, is yet to be discovered. It is declared by Diyanni (1990)
as of ultimate importance to analyze the words and vocabulary the
essayist employs to structure and dramatize ideas as they mark the
aesthetic merit of these essays.
3. RESEARCH QUESTIONS
The study would focus on the following research questions:
1. What is the effect of using sensuousness as an aid to enhance the
comprehension experience of the readers?
3
2. To what extent is Lamb successful in delivering his message by
using sensuousness in his essays?
3. What would be the possible outcome of excluding the phrases and
passages steeped with the element of sensuousness on the
comprehension by the readers and ostentation of the essays?
4. OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY

The study will focus on the following aspects:
1. To analyze Lamb‟s use of sensuousness as an aid to enhance the
comprehension experience of the readers
2. To determine the extent to which Lamb is successful in delivering his
message by the use of sensuousness in his essays
3. To trace the outcome of excluding the phrases and passages steeped
with the element of sensuousness on the comprehension of the essays by
the readers
4. To analyze the use of five senses, each as independent or in
combination of two or more by Lamb
5. DEFINITION OF THE KEY TERMS

Essays of Elia is regarded as the best collection and a masterpiece
created by Charles Lamb. The essays depict wonderful properties of the
Romantic Era, like humanism, simplicity, kindliness, nostalgia,
autobiographical elements etc.
Jayapalan (2001) records the status of Lamb among the essayists as,
“The Prince of English Essayists”, for his Essays of Elia touch
perfection. The power to charm and the charm of his personality is not
4
possessed by any other essayist (p. 229). Jayapalan further declares
that,” his essays are among the finest in the English language.”(p. 231)
Sensuousness is defined in the Collins English Dictionary, 10th ed.

(2009) as sensuous:
1) Aesthetically pleasing to the senses
2) Appreciative of or moved by qualities perceived by the senses
3) Relating to or derived from the senses
Lens is the angle through which certain aspects in anything are

especially noticed laying aside the rest of the particularities.
Perception is the knowledge and the awareness of the events,

happenings, the articles, situations which occur and take place in the
world around. In writing, the perception of the writer may differ from
the perception of the reader. The writer uses various tools like usage of
words or phrases which are replete with sensual quality, to expand the
similar experience in the reader as the writer wishes to depict.
Experience is the knowledge which enables the individual to keep the

memory and learning of the same aspect for a period of time and certain
happenings and occurrences remind one of the similar experienced faced
in life.
6. DELIMITATION AND LIMITATION OF THE

STUDY
(a) Delimitation of the study
5
The aspect of sensuousness which is a natural and spontaneous response

to external world would only be focused and explored in the above
mentioned work of the author.
(b) Limitation of the study
The study is limited to Charles Lamb‟s collection of Essays of Elia with

a minimum of 3 essays selected randomly from the collection.
7. SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY

1. The study will serve as a useful learning for the people related to the
field of Literature
2. The study will focus on sensuousness as a significant property of
Lamb‟s essays
3. The study will enhance the effect of utilization of sensuousness as an
aid in creating an ample visual effect in the minds of the readers
4. The study will analyze the use of appropriate and accurate words and
terms, to describe happenings and events which involved the use of
sensuousness
8. REVIEW OF THE RELATED LITERATURE

The use of the five senses to explain certain experiences and learning
about the surroundings has been a useful source in the field of English
Literature. The aspect of sensuousness is explored within the context of
psychology. The study of Psychology and Literature has been travelling,
hand in hand, in discovering facts about human life and behavior and
6
explaining the interesting findings in the light of the Psychological
theories and the phenomenon. The literature describes human as a
collection of feelings, emotions, a recipient of stimulus in the
surroundings, to which they reacts in a variety of ways.
The action and reaction process involves certain descriptions which are
best aided by Psychology. Bhatnagar (1996) records the comments of
Sunil Kumar Sarker, who justifies the use of Psychology in Literature
when he comments that," Man makes Literature- man, the whole man,
with human qualities"(p.34) so that makes Literature a psychological,
sociological and philosophical phenomenon.
Magrini (2009) reinstates reality and declares it sensuous, which is the
basic character of existence, further terming it as “perspectival
perceptual” (p. 120). Reality consists of perceptive, which join and are
linked together, creating a unique perceptive. Each living thing has its
own presence, which shows itself through sensuous and is called
semblance, which is the actual appearance. This is the new interpretation
of sensuous or reality. The human being is to be appreciated for its
artistic powers, for it is a prodigy of construction. Whereas other
animals create their environment with materials they collect, man builds
it with a gentle concrete material which he first has to manufacture for
himself.
The psychological method of "inner perception" is, for Wundt the

psychologist, the method of a conscious operating of a memory image in
a psychological process. This method has two serious shortcomings:
First, one can only work with what one remembers of the process in
question -- the manipulation of a memory-image cannot determine new
7
elements. And second, new elements may be involuntarily introduced
through association -- one might obscure one's memory of a process
with one's memory of another associated process or object (Wundt,
2009).
DiYanni, (1990) further comments that the evaluation consists of two

different kinds of assessment:
a) Judgment about the author‟s aesthetic merit, which comprises that

how and to what extent the essays mark their success as works of
Literature, same as a poem or a play can. For this purpose not only the
essays language, style and structure is considered, but also its power to
move, entertain and persuade us.
b) Judgment about the power and validity of the ideas, where the idea is
described as the description, its persuasiveness as an argument or its
impact as an imaginative thinking. The idea is initially to be identified
and isolated, it is to be extracted then interpreted. Once they are
comprehended, it‟s easy to access the value. These values are the writers
own, because what we hear is the author‟s voice not of imagined
character.
The content of any writer is influenced by his personal preferences and
motives. The trend of the time cannot at the same time fails to imprint
its effect upon the author. The use of sensuousness is not something new
to be discovered in Lamb. Several authors and poets have been
witnessed to use this component. Hudson (2008), comments that there is
a simple enjoyment of nature and then different from it is the love of
nature, which is always best described by sensuousness.
The romantics of the 19th century revived the usage of sensuousness as
8
a major tool in description and involvement into the sensations of the
world, physical or spiritual. Hill (1988) describes the utilization of
senses particularly sight, touch and hearing, by the Romantics that they
(the romantics) looked around them, through visionary powers,” with
attentive and loving eyes,” (p.97) which enabled them into the
transcendental order of things. By using senses they were at liberty to
observe nature without conventional prepossessions. The writers were
also gifted with physical sensibility to such an extent that their being
was entirely dominated and were captured and enslaved by what they
saw.
The usage of sensuousness is a synonym for the Romantics. If feelings,

emotions and senses were tabooed in previous ages, these were a tool to
explore the world and surrounding and one‟s self in the Romantic era.
The comment by Jagannath (2010) is a testimony to above opinion when
he declared that the romantic age was steeped in visual arts, music and
Literature; and the emotions experienced in comprehending nature and
its picturesque qualities.
The difference of opinion and attitude in Literature, between the English
Romantics and the eighteenth century writers rests on one basic element,
as Hill (1988) records by referring to the statement made by C. M.
Bowra, that for the 18th century writers, imagination held very little
significance, as they approved the use of fancy and images under the
restraint that these do not cross the judgment line of pacing a little
further then visual impressions. On the other hand, for the Romantics,
the sensuousness opened new doorways of perception, penetration,
profundity and perpetual comprehension of the physical and spiritual
world. Hearing, touch, sight are invisible powers which facilitate anyone
9
into the physical and visible world. The statement thus occurs that,"
every poet has to work with the world of senses, but for the Romantics it
was the instrument which sets their visionary powers in action."(Hill,
1988, p 97)
The statement made by Jagannath (2010) thus occurs that,"
Romanticism emphasized intuition, imagination and feelings" (p.56). A
very popular trend and property of the English Romantics rests on
experience, inspiration, retention and later recalling the past experience
or associating it with similar feeling, event or situation. Osherson,
Kosslyn, and Gleitman, (1995) describe that visual mental imagery is
seen in the absence of immediate sensory input; imagery is the
perception of remembered information, not the new input.
The expressions of perceptions of mind and internal feelings need
natural correspondences like a lake, stream or high mountains (Watson,
1992). Lamb‟s style is considered as a hard one to describe. Jayapalan
(2001) rightly describes when he states that “It is extremely quaint and
mannered” (p. 231). Myers (2005) clearly declares that Lamb being a
close friend of Coleridge and Wordsworth developed a close equivalent
of romantic poetry in an essay form.
Wu, Duncan. (2006) comments that Lamb received the valuable
education from Coleridge and W. Wordsworth by understanding them,
with their beliefs and aspirations, permeate his writings. The author
further comments on the effects of Lamb‟s essays in the following
sensuous manner that, “How often did we cut into the haunch of letters,
while we discussed the haunch of mutton on the table! How we
skimmed the cream of criticism! How we got into the heart of
controversy! How we picked out the marrow of the authors!” (p.738).
Charles Lamb‟s essays are analyzed as sentimental with transience
10
emotions and pathos of what once was with us and is now gone forever.
They concentrate on trivial subjects and award them significance thus
turning the essays into whimsical. The essays might not express mere
fact, but the imaginative sense of fact as the writer himself experienced
it (Bloom & Trilling, 1973).
There is so much, still to be discovered and explored among Lamb‟s

essays. It is rightly stated by DiYanni (1990), that when the thought
flows into the mind of the writer, the speculative essay takes its
form….with an organization which is loose.
9. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
The study would adopt qualitative research as the main research
paradigm. The information would be collected from various resources
which would primarily be secondary. The resources would include
books, journals, articles and webs. The researcher intends to trace the
usage, effects and the impression created by sensuousness. For this
purpose the tool for content analysis would be adopted, to study the text
of selected essays from the collection of Essays of Elia. A minimum of
three essays randomly selected from the collection of Essays of Elia
would comprise the sample size of the study. Three essays randomly
selected from the collection of Essays of Elia would be studied to trace
the utilization, effect and purpose of senses in the essays.
9.1 Description of Analysis Technique

The sample essays would be analyzed keeping in mind the issue of
occurrence of the element of sensuousness. The content analysis would
11
enable to detect the utilization of sense/s. The words, phrases, sentences
and passages replete with the element of sensuousness would be
marked, to be analyzed. The occurrence of the relevant material which
depicts usage of the senses would be presented in a table with columns
for the five senses. The number of usages of the senses would be
counted per essay and then collectively to find out the relative rate of
occurrence.
10. DATA ANALYSIS

Charles Lamb while writing pours out his heart to the readers. He
enhances the effects of his emotions and experiences he shares by
liberating them with an expression of his intimate senses. The five
senses are utilized to experience the happenings and events around and
to expand and widen the sphere of sharing the observations with the
readers. It seems that Lamb felt and experienced with intensity the spirit
and the gist of events or occurrings. The matter of experience differs in
reality and in writing. While writing, the author has to be sure to pick
accurate words and phrases so that the correct gusto of the feeling and
experience associated with senses could be brought out through writing.
The words, phrases and the sentences which seem relevant in the
presentation or experience of any of the five senses are separated and
placed in their appropriate categories for further investigation.
Analysis no. 1
The Christ‟s Hospital:
Sense of Touch: Battening upon our quarter of penny loaf, Hot loaf,
Coarse, Half pickled, Strong as caro equine, Detestable marigolds,
12
Higher regale, Scanty mutton scrags, Warmth of the sun, Such relish,
Shivering at cold windows, In the coldest winter nights, Feet were
perishing with snow, Branded a boy, Disreputable morsals, Devoured, A
brush across the shoulders, Provoking pinch
Sense of Taste: Coarse and choking, Blue and tasteless, “extra-ordinary

bread and butter”, Less repugnant, Endeared to his palate, The more
glibly, Poison the broth, Rather more savoury, Exotics unknown to our
palates, Cates, Satisfies our cravings, Indulgence of a drink of water, He
ate strange flesh, Not very choice fragments
Sense of Smell: Smacking of the pitched leathern jack, Fragrant

cinnamon, Rotten roast or rare
Sense of Sight: Moistened with attenvated small beer, Hot rolls,

Individual faces should be well known, Blue and tasteless,
Enriched...with a slice of “extra-ordinary bread and butter”, Hot loaf,
Mess of millet, Lump of double refined, Smack of ginger, Quite fresh
boiled beef, Floating in the pail, Grudging, Excited our appetites, Hot
plate of roasted veal, Tempting griskin, Disclosing the viands, The
contending passions of L. at the unfolding, Faint and languid, The cattle
at feed about us, Our desired morsel, Young dace in the streams, Callow
overseek, Drove the younger part of us from the fires, With a red-hot
iron, Grand paintings, Seeing scrupulously weighed out for our dinners,
One out of two of every hot joint sight of sleek well-fed blue-coat boys,
Repugnance of the school to gags, Without sight of any, Pale and
frightened features, Enhance the effects of the scene, With turbulent eye,
A fiery column, The dark pillar, Suddenly converted by thy angel-look
Sense of Hearing
13
Hearing any talking, Heard, He must cry roast meat, Blew such a ram‟s
horn blast, Toppling down the walls, Separated him for a brief interval
from solitude, Shut up by himself of nights, out of the reach of any
sound, Our mirth and uproar went on, Re-echoed to the accents, Cordial
laugh
Analysis No. 2
New Year‟s Eve
Sense of Taste: Delicious juices of meats and fishes, Sweet blood,

Another cup of the generous
Sense of Touch: Hot June, Breeze, Not rooted up without blood,

Beneath the sweltering sky, Cold, numbness, dreams
Sense of Smell: None
Sense of Sight: The recognizable face, The freezing days of December,

Greenness of fields , Drop like mellow fruit
Sense of Hearing: Sound of bells, Bells, the music nighest bordering

upon heaven , The blast that nips and shrinks
Analysis No. 3
A Dissertation Upon Roast Pig
Sense of Taste: Wringing his hands over the smoking remnants, A

premonitory moistening, Overflowed his nether lip, He tasted, He licked
his fingers, The pig that tasted so delicious, Cramming it down his
throat, How nice the burnt pigs eats, Sour mouths, Tasted some of its
flavor, Eat, eat, eat the burnt pig, Father, only taste, Mundus edibilis,
14
Princepsobsoniorum, Indefinable sweetness, Judicious epicure, Too
ravishing for mortal taste, Censorious palate, A dash of mild sage
Sense of Touch: He burned his fingers, To cool them he applied them in

his…mouth, He felt and fumbed at the pig, He did not burn him so
much, He felt to tearing up whole handfuls, Scorched skin, Tickling
pleasure, The ears of Ho-ti tingled with horror, Scorching his fingers,
Burning their fingers, Crisp, Coy, Adhesive oleaginous, The cream and
quintessence of the child-pig‟s yet pure food, Scorching heat
Sense of Smell: An odour assailed his nostrils, He had smelt that smell
before, Much less did it resemble that of any known herb, weed, or
flower, Scent was wonderfully sharpened, It was the pig that smelt so,
Fresh from the oven, Smoking plum cake
Sense of Sight: Utmost consternation, Among the smoke rafters, Raked

out another pig, Trembled every joint, Grasped the abominable thing,
Rude form of a gridiron, Tawny, Wel-watched, Bolteth him in reeking
sausages, Now there was nothing to be seen but fires in every direction,
It was observed that…, At length they were watched, Obnoxious food
Senso of Hearing: Scorched skin, Crackling, Brittle resistance, Behold

him while he is “doing”, Seemeth rather a refreshing warmth, To see the
extreme sensibility of that tender age, See him in the dish
The above scrutiny shows that in 1 st analysis, the total count of five
basic senses is: Taste: 18, Touch: 14, Smell: 3, Sight: 35, Hearing: 10
In 2nd analysis, the total count of five basic senses is: Taste: 3, Touch: 5,
Smell: 0, Sight: 4, Hearing: 3
15
rd
In 3 analysis, the total count of five basic senses is: Taste: 19, Touch:
14, Smell: 7, Sight: 13, Hearing: 7
11. FINDINGS
The data sorted above is taken from only three essays from the
collection of Lamb‟s Essays of Elia. The data analysis shows that lamb
utilized the basic five senses in his essays to express the various
experiences in the realm of taste, touch, smell, sight and hearing. Lamb
used the most appropriate and apt vocabulary and the usage of proper
phrases which help to convey the implication and the meaning of the
author to the most close understanding of the phenomenon which is
under description.
Secondly, Lamb not only possess but also expresses to the height the
qualities of the Romantic age he belongs to. The romantic age is
witnessed to bears the tendency of expression by the usage of sensual
description. Though, the usage of senses varies in accordance to the
need of the description and the event that was under discussion. The
proper usage of words to exemplify the situation and to enjoy the
description occurred only with a proper use of words so that the readers
imagine to the fullest and actually through the words experience the
sensuousness of all the senses employed in the essays selected for the
study.
Finally, the data reveals that the sense of sight was most frequently
employed by the author. The usage of sense of taste and touch fall
almost similar at the same rate and the sense of smell and hearing occur
the least.
16
12. RECOMMENDATIONS
The researcher had applied the analysis on only three randomly selected
essays. The analyses could be extended to other essays as well. The
findings could be presented in frequency and also in the percentage for
more elaborate results.
Finally, the success of the author in conveying the message, using

appropriate word/ phrase to describe a certain event or situation with
accurate utilization of a proper sense, could be the prime concern of the
researcher in future.
REFERENCES
Alexander, Michael. (2007). A History Of English Literature, 2nd
Edition. Palgrave Macmillan, New York.
Bhatnagar, M. K. Ed. (1996). Twentieth Century Literature In

English, Volume 1. Atlantic Publishers and Distributers,
New Delhi.
Bloom, H. &Trilling,L. (1973). Romantic Poetry and Prose.

Oxford University Press, New York.
Das, Krishan&Patra, Deepchan. (2009). Studies in English

Literature. Commonwealth Publishers Pvt. Ltd.
DiYanni, Robert. (1990). Literature Reading Fiction, Poetry,
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Drama, and the Essay, 2 Edition. McGraw-Hill,Inc. USA.
Hill, J S. ed. (1988). The Romantic Imagination. Palgrave

Macmillon Publishers, N. Y.
Hudson, W.H. (2008). An Introduction to the Study Of Literature,2nd

Edition. A.I.T.B.S.Publishers, India.
Hudson, W.H. (1998). An Outline History of English Literature.A.P.H

Publishing Corporation, New Delhi.
Jagannath, C. (2010). Major Trends In English Poetry. Swastic

Publications, Delhi.
Jayapalan, N. (2001). History of English Literature. Atlantic

Publishers and Distributers, New Delhi.
Magrini, James (2009). Truth, Art, and the “New
Sensuousness”.[Electronic Version]. Retrieved from:
http://www.kritike.org/journal/issue_5/magrini_june2009.pdf
Myers,Tony (2005). Literature in English Pre-1914.Oxford

University Press Inc., New York.
Osherson,D.N., Kosslyn,S.M., Gleitman,L.R. (1995). An Invitation to
Cognitive Sciences Visual Cognation, 2nd Edition.Library of
Congress Catalogingin-Publication MIT Press.
Saintsbury, G. (2009). A Short History of English Literature,
syerVolume 2. Radha Publications, New Delhi.
18
Watson,J.R. (1992). English Poetry of the Romantic Period1789-

1830, 2nd Edition. Addison Wesley Longman Inc., New York.
Wu,Duncan. Ed (2006).Romanticism an Anthology, 3rd Edition.

Blackwell Publishing Ltd.
Wundt (2009).Self-Observation and Inner Perception.[Electronic

Version]. Retrieved from:
http://schwitzsplinters.blogspot.com/2009/06/wundt-on-selfobservation-
and-inner.htm
19
THE KEY MARKERS OF DESEGREGATION OF THE

AMERICAN HIGHER EDUCATION
Mohammad Abrar Khan1, Shamaila A. Chaudhry2, Dr. Liaquat Hussain3

Faheem Khan4,Asia Gul5
Abstract
This research paper is qualitative in nature with a historical and a
contextual underpinning of the markers, which brought an end to the
racial segregation in the USA higher education system. The presence of
racial segregation in the American higher education institutions was the
result of various laws and policies that were developed and implemented
by courts, state governments and universities. Today‟s desegregated
education systems in the United States are the result of countless
sacrifices and efforts of blacks besides other important factors. The four
key markers explored in this paper are legal, social, economic and
religious. These markers were found to the force that 2created a ripple
effect of change and led towards the realization of immense need and
importance of equality in all aspects of life for all Americans
irrespective of gender, race, color and ethnicity. The theoretical
evidences revealed that it took a long-term struggle and sacrifices of
almost more than a century to have a desegregated American Higher
Education system.
1
Ph.DScholar, Illinois State University, USA
2
Dean Social Sciences / Chairperson of the Department of Education, SBKWU
3
Assistant Professor, Institute of Education & Research, Gomal University, Dera Ismail Khan
4
PhD Scholar, Institute of Education & Research, Gomal University, Dera Ismail Khan
5
PhD Scholar, Institute of Education & Research, Gomal University, Dera Ismail Khan
20
KEY WORDS: Desegregation in America, Desegregation in American

Higher Education, Factors affecting Segregation in America, Higher
Education System in American Universities
1. INTRODUCTION
“Human progress is neither automatic nor inevitable... Every step
toward the goal of justice requires sacrifice, suffering, and struggle; the
tireless exertions and passionate concern of dedicated individuals.”
(Martin Luther King, Jr.)
The United States, from its very beginning, has been an ethically and
racially diverse society. A number of factors such as colonization of
American Lands, the African slavery, the annexation of the large parts
of the southwest and entry of large amounts of immigrants from all over
the world were the key reasons for forming an ethnically and racially
diverse society in America. Ethnicity and race are always considered as
base for inequality in the public life of the America. The evidence of this
fact is prominent in the history of American higher education
(Mickelson, 2009).
School desegregation is defined as the racial (and ethnic) mixing of

students along with various initiatives to achieve curricular,
pedagogical, and other tangible equities across the schools (Hochschild,
1984). It is a process of bringing students of different ethnic or racial
groups into the same school under the same roof. The problem of
segregation in the American higher education system is not a new one. It
existed from the founding of the nation‟s very first university, Harvard,
21
in 1636, to the California‟s proposition 209 in 1997 (Smith,
Altbach&Lomotey, 2002). The existence of racial segregation in the
American higher education institutions was not an accident rather it was
the result of various laws, policies developed and implemented by
courts, state governments and universities.
Today‟s desegregated public and private education systems of the

United States are not the result of a single factor rather it is the result of
countless sacrifices and efforts of blacks and other important factors.
The primary purpose of this paper is to identify and provide a historical
overview of the key markers that led to the enforcement of
desegregation of the American higher education. The four key markers
explored in this paper are legal, social, economical and religious.
The authors have relied on a number of primary and secondary highly

incandescent data sources. To access primary and secondary resources,
help was taken from various library resources such as books and articles
from Milner library of Illinois State University and online resources
such as EBSCO, ERIC, JUSTER, and ProQuest etc.
2. LEGAL MARKERS OF DESEGREGATION OF THE

History of United States is full of legal cases that played a significant
role and led the American higher education towards desegregation.
There is no single court case or event that can be considered as the only
reason for desegregation rather it was a series of different cases in
different states, covering a timeline of more than hundred and thirty
years, that prepared a road map for desegregation. The role of the
National Association for the advancement of Colored People (NAACP)
22
founded in 1909 can never be forgotten for its mission and cause to fight
for the educational equality and to stop segregation practices in various
states.
This part of the paper represents some key and landmark legal cases,
court decisions and important laws that led to the desegregation of
American higher education.
The Plessy v. Ferguson Case (163 US 538 [1896]) is remembered as one
of the Slaughter House Cases. Homer Plessy, an octoroon, tried to sit in
an all-white railroad car and refused to accept 1890 Louisiana statute
that provided “separate but equal” railroad cars. He was arrested and
trial started with Justice John. H. Ferguson presiding. He was found
guilty, but he filed a case against Judge Ferguson in Supreme Court of
Lousiana by claiming that segregation stigmatized blacks which is a
violation of the 13th and 14th amendments of the constitution. However,
the judge Brown stated that 13th and 14th amendments provide no
guidance towards the removal of segregation and “the separate but
equal” doctrine was reinforced legally by the Supreme Court. (Smith,
Altbach&Lomotey, 2002; Chait, 1972).
Segregation in higher education continued as a legal activity in the states
by passing segregation laws such as “Day Law of Kentucky” etc and the
decisions made by supreme court such as Berea College v. Kentucky,
211 U.S. 45 (1908), Plessy v. Ferguson Case (163 US 538 [1896]) etc.
However, in 1933 first step towards desegregation occurred when
NAACP filed a case. The details of all these cases are following.
Murray v. Maryland or Pearson v. Murray (1936)
Donald Gaines Murray was the first African-American who was
successful in securing his admission in the University of Maryland‟s
School of Law (Smith, Altbach&Lomotey, 2002; Chait, 1972;
23
University of Maryland; nd). Murray‟s application for admission was
rejected by the school of law and his appeal to the Board of Regents of
the university was also denied on the basis of race. So he decided to file
a case against the law school. He was represented by the NAACP
lawyers named Charles Hamilton Houston and Thurgood Marshall
(University of Maryland, nd).
The NAACP lawyers argued in the court that Maryland had no „separate
but equal‟ law school for African Americans, so plaintiff must be
admitted in Maryland law school (Smith, Altbach&Lomotey, 2002).
Although the state of Maryland offered tuition fee to Murray for some
other state because it was a common and economical approach practiced
by most states so that in this way they don‟t have to spend money to
open separate black schools. Court ordered Raymond A. Pearson the
president of University of Maryland to admit Murray and raised an
important point that paying tuition and sending African-American
students to another state is not an adequate policy to prove equality of
financial burden because student still had to bear living expenses in
other states (Smith, Altbach&Lomotey, 2002).
The realization of the fact, that sending students to other states on tuition
was not an equal opportunity because extra cost was involved, can be
considered a first step towards change in thinking and attitude about
segregation. This case is extensively studied by historians and lawyers.
This case also helped Thurgood Marshall to produce the arguments in
famous and landmark Brown v. Board of Education case (University of
Maryland, nd).
Gaines v. Canada (1938)
Missouri state practiced separate but equal doctrine. In 1938, Missouri
state‟s separate university for blacks had no law school. Lloyd Gaines, a
24
graduate student of Lincoln University, applied in the University of
Missouri law school and was denied to be admitted in the school. State
offered to pay his tuition in the law school of a nearby state. Gaines was
helped by NAACP lawyers. They filed a case against the law school in
the State court but the decision was against them. However, Supreme
Court reversed the decision of the state court and Gaines got admission
in the law school of Missouri for whites. This case was first Supreme
Court case of NAACP and it served as a milestone towards famous
Brown v. Board of Education Case (Levy & Karst, 2000; Smith,
Altbach&Lomotey, 2002).
Mclaurin v. Board of Regents of the University of Oklahoma (1948)
George Mclaurin was a retired professor. He applied in university of
Oklahoma for admission in PhD in Education but was refused due to
racial basis under Oklahoma statutes. He filed a case in the state district
court and the court found Oklahoma statutes unconstitutional. Then
university‟s Board of Regents agreed to admit Mclaurin but on
segregated basis. He had to sit separately in classroom, in cafeteria and
in library (Chait, 1972).
The NAACP lawyers filed a case in the Supreme Court. The court found
that Mclaurin‟s segregation made him “handicapped in his pursuit of
effective graduate instruction” and that “[s]uch restrictions impair and
inhibit his ability to study, to engage in discussion and exchange views
with other students, and in general to learn his profession” (Chait,
1972). This case was used as a reference in the later coming Supreme
Court‟s famous decision of Brown v. Board of Education.
Sweatt v. Painter (1950)
Herman Sweatt volunteered himself to NAACP to test Texas‟s lack of a
law school for blacks. Sweatt v. Painter was another landmark case in
25
the history of desegregation. Although the State of Texas offered to
establish a separate law school in the basement of Texas State
University for Negroes but the Supreme Court decided that fourteenth
amendment equal protection clause requires that HemanSweatt must be
given admission in the University of Texas‟ Law School for whites
(Lazerow, 2004).
Oliver Brown, et al. v. Board of Education of Topeka, et al. (1954)
In the history of desegregation efforts, the Brown v. Board of Education
(347 U.S. 438, 74 S. Ct. 686, 98 L. Ed. 873 (1954)) is considered as a
landmark United States Supreme Court case, in which the court decided
that the laws of states supporting “separate but equal” doctrine are
unconstitutional and, further, these laws are clear violation of the
Fourteenth Amendment of the U.S Constitution i-e Equal Protection.
This decision of the Supreme Court ended the dark legacy of Plessy v.
Ferguson decision of 1896. Although, this case was not directly related
to the higher education but it‟s after effects on the desegregation of
higher education are undeniable. Richard Kluger (1977) described its
importance as:
“Probably no case ever to come before the nation‟s highest
tribunal affected more directly the minds, hearts, and daily lives
of so many Americans. . . . The decision marked the turning
point in the nation‟s willingness to face the consequences of
centuries of racial discrimination” (p. 10).
The major issue raised in these cases was “is the segregation in public
schools constitutional?” The court decision was not only limited to the
public education rather it was extended to the prohibition of separate but
equal to all aspects of society.
26
The most common misconception about Brown v. Board of Education is
that the case was only about Linda Brown but it was actually the name
given to five different cases filed in the U.S Supreme Court to address
the issue of segregation in public schools. These cases were Brown v.
Board of Education of Topeka, Briggs v. Elliot, Davis v. Board of
Education of Prince Edward County (VA), Boiling v. Sharpe, and
Gebhart v. Ethel, all with different facts but with the same issue of
segregation. Once again, Thurgood and NAACP was the only hope of
plaintiffs (United State Courts, nd).
It took two years to extend the scope of Brown decision towards higher
education. In the case of Hawkins v. Board of Control, Florida; many
African-American students were denied admissions in University of
Florida Law School. Florida State was practicing separate but equal
doctrine. These African-Americans were denied admissions by Florida
Supreme Court. However, the U.S. Supreme Court ordered the Florida
Supreme Court to consider the case in the light of Brown Decision. Thus
Florida Supreme Court agreed that State of Florida must admit all
qualified applicants and Hawkins succeeded to implement the Brown
decision in higher education (Smith, Altbach&Lomotey, 2002).
University of Alabama
The desegregation in the University of Alabama occurred in 1956 when
Miss Autherine Lucy attended the classes. Due to her presence,
university campus faced student riots and she was expelled from the
university. In May, 1963, US District Judge H. Hobart Grooms ordered
that two Negro students, Miss Vivian and Mr. James be admitted in
June, 1963 in the University of Alabama. The Governor George C.
Wallace was a racist and he made several speeches against
desegregation and said that he would stand “in the school-house door” if
27
any Negro student entered in the university. The President Kennedy
took care of the matter and send federal troops to make sure the
implementation of the court order and entry of black students in to the
university (Muir &McGlamery, 1968).
The Civil Rights Act of 1964
Although Brown decision was the first step in desegregating the de jure
education system in south and the de facto education system in the north
but very little progress towards complete desegregation occurred until
the passing of the Civil Rights Act in 1964 (Cross, n.d). The land mark
Piece of legislation, the Civil Rights Act of 1964, prohibited any type of
discrimination towards race, ethnicity, nationality and women. It also
ended racial segregation in all places that provide public service
including education.
After the enactment of Title VI of the Civil Rights Act, nineteen states
were practicing racially segregated higher education system. In 1969-70,
the office of the Civil Rights (OCR) founded under Civil Rights Act,
after thorough investigation, notified those states that they were
violating title VI of the Civil Rights act due to racially segregated higher
education system. OCR prepared the desegregation plans and monitored
carefully for the implementation of those plans (US Department of
Education, 1991).
Huge increase in higher education enrolments was noticed after the Civil
Rights act. For example in 1964, 300,000 African-American enrolments
were on record, but in 1974 this number was increased to 900,000
African-American students, a total of 200 percent increase (Smith,
28
2. SOCIAL MARKERS OF DESEGREGATION OF THE
By the end of the nineteenth century and the beginning of twentieth
century, African- Americans started to fight for their rights. A sense of
social awareness and resistance was originated in African Americans.
The resistance is not limited to only violence rather it can be nonviolent,
a demonstration against government, to refuse to work in poor
conditions, a demand for equal wages, a poem, a song, a speech or a
book etc. Quakers, abolitionists, and black leaders such as Benjamin
Banneker, Fredrick Douglass, Malcolm X, and Martin Luther King
always defended Afro-Americans rights and fought for equality. Some
social scientists also defended equality such as W.E.B. Dubois, Gunnar
Myrdal and Kenneth Clark etc. (Wells, 1989).
Desegregation in education was not merely a result of Brown v. Board
decision. There were many other social efforts, events and movements
that led to the desegregation of higher education. For example the
dedication and work of the National Association for the Advancement of
Colored People (NAACP) will always be remembered in the history of
U.S.
Scholars recorded their protests and efforts with their writings. W.E.B.
Du Bois was a great historian and sociologist. He also played an
important role in desegregation movement. Du Bois criticized
Washington‟s accommodationist philosophy in “The Souls of Black
Folk” (1903). William Monroe was a militant editor of the Boston
Guardian, and Ida Wells-Barnett was a journalist. Monroe and Barnett
insisted that Blacks must demand their full civil rights and the effective
Black leadership was only possible through liberal and equal education.
29
In 1905, in a meeting at Niagara Falls, Du Bois and other Black leaders
founded the Niagara Movement. In 1909, the members of the Niagara
movement and some liberal whites founded the National Association for
the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP). From classroom to
ballot box, NAACP fought for the social justice of African-Americans.
Du Bois served as an editor of a NAACP journal named “Crisis”. This
journal became an effective part of Blacks movement. Similarly,
Charles W. Chesnutt was famous for his short stories. Paul Laurence
Dunbar became famous as Lyric Poet. “Up from Slavery” (1901) was an
autobiography written by Washington, got international fame and
recognition (Lynch, n.d).
In 1920, there was a trend in poetry, literature, arts and music, especially
in New York. African-American started another literary movement
known as “Harlem Renaissance”. Many great personalities such as Du
Bois, James Weldon Johnson, Claude McKay, Jean Toomey, Langston
Hughes and many more were the part of Harlem Renaissance. These
scholars, writers, poets, artists, historians created a sense of awareness in
public about the civil rights and equality of opportunities for Blacks
(Lynch, n.d).
The social forces that led towards desegregation became more
prominent with the start of the civil rights movement. This movement
protested all kind of racial discrimination. U.S. higher education
institutions practiced discrimination against African-Americans and
faced rebellions on campuses across the nation. By 1960, sixty five
African-American student organizations existed in traditionally White
colleges (Smith, Altbach&Lomotey, 2002).
Social unrest in the nation increased as the civil rights movement
reached at its peak. There was no other option for government and
30
educational institutions except to change the discriminatory policies and
practices against the African-Americans. In result, federal government
took the initiative to dismantle the discriminatory laws, policies and
practices (Smith, Altbach&Lomotey, 2002).
In 1965, after the enactment of Civil Rights Act, the President Johnson
in his speaking to an audience of African-Americans at Howard
University said these memorable words:
“You do not take a person who, for years, has been hobbled by
chains and liberate him, bring him up to the starting line in a race
and then say, „you are free to compete with all others‟, and still
justly believe that you have been completely fair” (Smith,
Altbach&Lomotey, 2002, p.11).
The Brown decision effect was very slow towards desegregation,
especially in the South. When the Civil Rights Movement was at its
peak, the protests, boycotts and sit-ins became effective strategies to get
the attention of society against racial discrimination. The resistance from
Southern universities created violence and riots on the campuses such as
the University of Alabama, the University of Georgia, and the
University of Mississippi (Willis, 2005).
Education was another important social factor in igniting the
Civil Rights Movement.
Black colleges produced leaders and students. Black leaders were able
to organize protests and black students were there to participate in
protests. Similarly, the educated White people also avoided violence to
promote segregation. Martin Luther King and other black leaders used
different strategies to record their protest against un-equality (Willis,
2005).
31
Media also played an important role in creating awareness regarding
Civil Rights movement during the 1950s. The press, television and
magazines captured the marches, demonstrations, boycotts and other
events. Media highlighted the poor living conditions of African-
Americans.
Other important social event that contributed towards desegregation was
Montgomery (Alabama), 1955 bus boycott, in which the Supreme
Court, after one year declared that bus segregation is also
unconstitutional like school segregation. It was also a remarkable
achievement.
The most important role in the desegregation movement was played by
the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People
(NAACP), founded in 1909. The NAACP and its lawyers fought for
social justice and inequality with shoulder by shoulder to other black
leaders. Its strategy to attack segregation legally was comprised of three
tactics, (1) to file various cases in courts against segregation policies of
the states by the tax payer citizens, (2) immediate attack on inequality
and unconstitutionality of separate but equal doctrine and (3) to file
cases against graduate/professional schools (Smith, Altbach&Lomotey,
2002).
In short, everyone in its capacity contributed to social movement of the
desegregation, justice and equality; from different places, in different
times, with different point of views and in different ways.
32
3. ECONOMIC MARKERS OF DESEGREGATION OF
THE AMERICAN HIGHER EDUCATION
Education is considered as the most contributing factor towards
economic development and professional success. Discrimination and
lack of educational opportunities kept African-Americans away from
economic development. In “the Souls of Black Folk”, Dubois noted that
color line was the major problem of 20th century, a line that stopped
Blacks from getting rid of social, political and economic problems
(Sanders, n.d).
Southern states governments successfully resisted the education of
African-Americans especially in higher education. Southern Whites
tried to keep the higher education limited for the African-Americans.
Racism in North, although different in law and social practice from
South, continued with similar trends. From the reconstruction era
through World War II, the public education was made difficult for
Blacks and large number of Black students were enrolled in private
Black colleges and universities, established and maintained mostly by
northern mission societies. In 1916, there were 23 black public colleges
(16 land grant and 7 state controlled colleges) in the South, 16 land
grant colleges had virtually no students enrolled. Thus African-
Americans were kept marginalized and economically weak part of the
society (Smith, Altbach&Lomotey, 2002).
The exclusion of Blacks from traditionally White institutions and small
number of graduate and professional schools programs in black
institutions resulted in scarcity of Black engineers, architects,
economists, mathematicians, physicists, hardly 1% of the national totals
(Wilson, 1982).
33
“Separate but equal” doctrine and lack of higher education also
brought some economic burdens on the behalf of both the states and the
African Americans. An economic consequence of segregated higher
education was another driver that led toward the desegregation of higher
education. These economic constraints were not only faced by Blacks
but also by the states. Due to segregation, many states opened separate
colleges, universities and schools for Blacks. States spent a large
amount of money on creating separate but equal resources for Blacks.
Wilson (1982) reported that limited funds to truly “equalize” black and
white universities was one of many barriers towards desegregation in
higher education. Hiring of new faculty for Black educational
institutions, libraries and educational resources required huge amount of
money. If there were no separate institutions for blacks in a state then
providing scholarship to those black students in neighbouring states was
another economic burden. When black students were sent to other states
they have to bear living expenses by themselves as pointed out in
Murray v. Maryland (1936) court decision in which the court said that
sending student to other states is not a proper policy to prove equality of
financial burden because student still had to bear living expenses in
other states (Smith, Altbach&Lomotey, 2002). Large sum of federal
money was spent on opening separate colleges for Blacks (Historically
Black Colleges).
Very few proportion of the higher education institutions were comprised
of black faculty. Research studies shows that presence of faculty of
color is the most significant predictor of enrolment and graduation of
African-American graduate and professional students (Blackwell, 1981).
Institutions for African-Americans were not as established as
institutions for Whites in connection with faculty, facilities, research and
34
standards. Graduates of black colleges and universities were at a
disadvantage as compared to highly ranked white institutions. Due to
poor standards of institutions African-Americans faced difficulties in
finding good jobs in prestigious institutes or other organization. They
were limited to only lower level jobs (Wilson, 1982; Smith,
African-Americans were kept limited to the worst paid and least
desirable jobs by employers and labour unions. Universal Negro
Improvement Association was founded by Marcus Garvey in 1917 to
help African Americans gain economic and political independence
outside of white society (Sanders, n.d).
Black leaders and scholars such as Booker T. Washington, Martin
Luther King, and Dubois etc. from the very beginning realized that
various economic problems such as lack of technical and higher
education, inequity in access to jobs, promotions and income, greater
job security were keeping African-American inferior in academic status
and low in economic development. The only solution to these problems
was the education of African-Americans and their access to White
universities that were advanced in research, infrastructure and other
facilities as compared to Black colleges.
In 1956, Martin Luther King demanded imperial nations must stop their
policies of “segregation, political domination, and economic
exploitation” against poor people. He demanded dignified work, equal
wages and equal housing for all Americans (Jackson, 2009).
These bitter economic realities made African-Americans to think
more seriously about their rights and full freedom.
35
4. RELIGIOUS MARKERS OF DESEGREGATION OF
THE AMERICAN HIGHER EDUCATION
Religion also played an important role in providing blacks a good
education and opening Negro colleges. For example, the
Congregationalists opened seven colleges for Negros between 1866 and
1869, under the American Missionary Association (Chait, 1972). Along
with other factors, religion also played a sufficient role towards
desegregating American higher education.
In May 1953, Bishop Vincent S. Waters of the Catholic Diocese of
Raleigh, North Carolina, issued a letter, read in every Catholic Church
in his diocese. In his letter, he stated that in the Diocese of Raleigh,
segregation on the base of races will not be tolerated in any Catholic
Church. Segregation, hatred of nations, races, and classes in human
beings are used by Satan (Devil) to achieve division among human
beings and to destroy nation‟s peace. He further declared that all people
belonging to Catholic Church would be considered the part of single
union no matter what color, race or body they possess. Bishop Waters
was not completely successful in desegregating churches and church
related other institutions like hospitals, schools, colleges etc. However,
he carried on his efforts and participated actively in Civil Rights
Movement (Newman, 2008).
Black churches also performed significant role in the Civil Rights
movement. Martin Luther King JR, Ralph David Abernathy, Bernard
Lee, Fred Shuttles worth, and C.T. Vivian are among the many notable
and influential minister-activists during the later years of the Civil
Rights movement in the 1950s and 1960s.
36
5. CONCLUSION
Today‟s desegregated higher education system of the America is the
result of laborious court cases, long efforts of African-Americans and
many scholars, leaders, activists and organizations. No single event or
effort can be credited as the only reason of the desegregation and
equality movement. Further, demand for desegregation was not limited
to only higher education rather it was expanded to all aspects of life
such as school, colleges, transport, jobs, churches etc. All of the above
legal, social, economic and religious forces created a ripple effect of
change and led towards the realization of immense need and importance
of equality in all aspects of life of all Americans irrespective of gender,
race, color and ethnicity.
It required a long term struggle and sacrifices of almost more than a
century. Martin Luther King, in 1955, once stated in his address to the
First Montgomery Improvement Association Mass Meeting in Alabama
that:
“When history books are written in the future, somebody will
have to say, „there lived a great people, a black people . . . [who]
injected new meaning and dignity into the veins of history and of
civilization‟” (Lazerow, 2004, p.429).
Rivkin (2000) noted that due to changes in demographic
compositions and politics, support for desegregation in recent years has
declined. Another reason for less support of desegregation that he
specified is because school desegregation proved to be an ineffective
way of improving long term academic and labour outcomes.
We must raise this question that came into my mind, can the
government of the USA claim that desegregation in all aspects of life
(social, economic, religious, cultural, legal, and education) has been
37
achieved completely? is there still segregation in people‟s mind that is
reflected in their behaviors? --- Not the de jure segregation but may be
the de facto segregation is still in practice. Is just desegregation the real
solution of academic problems or is there some missing link that must
be addressed by the government?
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Black professionals. Bayside, New York: General Hall.
Chait, R. P. (1972). The desegregation of higher education: A legal

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Muir, D. E. &McGlamery, C. D. (1968).The Evolution of desegregation
attitudes of Southern University Students.Phylon, 29(2), 105-117.
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Myers, Sr., editor. Lanham: University Press of America, c1989
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Catholic Church in North Carolina and Desegregation, 1945-1974.
The North Carolina Historical Review. p. 317-351
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Earnings.Journal of Human Resources, 35(2), 333-346.
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American higher education: Continuing challenges for the twenty-
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U.S. Department of Education.(1991). Historically Black Colleges and
Universities and Higher Education Desegregation. Retrieved from:
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Wells, E. Julia. (1989). Strategies for combating racism and

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in Higher Education / edited by Reginald Wilson. Washington,
D.C.: American Council on Education, 1982.
41
RAMAKRISHNA’S NEO-VEDANTA AND THE

SPIRITUAL AWAKENING OF HINDUS
NosheenZaheer13, Najia Almas24
ABSTRACT
The Nineteenth century Bengal witnessed many neo-Vedantin reformers

among these the Ramakrishna‟s neo-Vedanta was marked with the
spiritual awakening of Hindus through his experiential neo-Vedanta.
The span of his religious experiences was not limited to Hinduism, he
rather claims to realize the God of different religions (Islam, Christianity
and Buddhism etc.). Ramakrishna‟s religious experiences within
Hinduism was based on his spiritual neo-Vedanta that according to his
claim derives its blood and flesh from the advaita Vedanta of
Shankaracharya. The close examination of Ramakrishna‟s claim
discloses he was more inclined towards tantric advaita Vedanta than
advaita Vedanta of Shankaracharya while in case of non-Hindu
religions, he fails to maintain the soul of a religious pluralist. His
realization of different Gods culminates into the merging of these
religions into nirguna and sirguna Brahman (Hindu Gods).
KEY WORDS: neo-Vedanta, Advaita Vedanta, Religious Pluralism

and Tolerance.
1
Assistant Professor of Islamic Studies Department, SBKWU Quetta. nosheenirma@gmail.com
2
Lecturer of English Department, SBKWU Quetta.
42
1. INTRODUCTION
Ramakrishna‟s (1836-1886) accurate biographical description is not an

easy task as the biographies were written by his followers after twenty
years of his death. These biographies are seemed to be firstly,
hagiographical and secondly, these are regardless of historical sequences
of time and place. These works appeared as mere edited work to portray
their master according to their aims. Scholar evaluated these work with
historical and textual analytical approaches (Hauch, 2013). Instead of all
these above mentioned facts this research is trying to explore the
biography of the Ramakrishna from other sources like research theses
and western scholar‟s works.
Khudiram and Chandra were blessed with the second son on February
18, 1836 and they named him Gadadhar, the future Ramakrishna. Their
elder‟s son's name was Ramkumar. Ramakrishna was deprived from the
love and affection of his father while he was only seven years old in
1843. The death of the father shifted the responsibilities of the family on
the shoulder of Ramkumar(Tejasananda, 1999) who was the appointed
priest in the temple of Dakshineswar near Kolkata. Ramakrishna moved
to Dakshines in 1855 where he was overwhelmed by the death of his
elder brother in 1857 and found his survival in serving mother Kali in
the temple (Hauch, 2013). He remained here as a Brahmin priest for the
rest of his life and devoted his love for the goddess Kali (Richards,
1985). He satisfied his soul by experiencing different type of Hinduism
that ranges from the devotion of the goddess of Kali, tantric to non-dual
Vedanta (Rinehart, 2004). The tantric and non-dual Vedanta represented
two different Indian traditions. The instruction in these two opposite
tradition subjected Ramakrishna to the teaching of female Tantric
43
teachers,BrahmaniBhairavi and a Vedantic teacher,
TotaPuriParamahamsa(Hauch, 2013).
2. RAMKRISHNA’S RELIGIOUS EXPERIENCES OF

NON-HINDU CREEDS
The thirsty soul of Ramakrishna remained unquenched by the devotional

practices within the boundary of Hinduism. He started worshiping Allah
in 1866 when he came in contact with Govinda Roy(Richards, 1985)
probably a Sufi who chanted the mantra of Allah, performed five daily
prayers at the appointed time and did not visit thetemple. The
Ramakrishna performance of the religious practices as instructed by
masters yielded in three day a vision of Allah as an old man having long
beard. And Allah after illumination merged into nirguna Brahmin (God
without attributes). Ramakrishna also explored the Christian devotional
practices under the patronage of SambhuchandraMallick, while it is not
clearly evident that Mallick was a Christian. Ramakrishna visited his
home daily on his invitation where he read the Bible for Ramakrishna.
That resulted in a vision to Ramakrishna in which Jesus appeared as a
great yogi who embraced him and disappeared into his body. This
ecstatic experience lets him conclude that Jesus the God incarnate is
saguna Brahman (Omnipotent God with attributes). Ramakrishna‟s
religious experiences were not limited to Islam and Christianity; rather,
he claimed to experience Buddhism, Jainism and Sikhism except
Judaism. It is quite surprising that Ramakrishna while experiencing
these religious practices claimed to be the true follower of that specific
religion. This claim appeared to be ambiguous when different religious
practices of every religion ended with Ramakrishna‟s vision only in
44
term of nirguna and saguna Brahman of AdvaitaVedanta (Hauch,
2013).
Ramakrishna‟s vision raised many doubts as he's experiencing of Allah
by devotional practices that extended to the period of just three days,
appeared quite superficial. The merging of Allah in nirguna Brahman
pointing toward the infinite nature of Hinduism that makes possible the
absorption of Islam on Hinduism (Hauch, 2013).
3. RAMKRISHNA’S RELIGIOUS PLURALISM

If the issue of the authenticity of the claims of religious experiences and
visions mentioned by Ramakrishna is put aside, then it would help to
focus on his idea that all religions are the paths that culminates in the
unity of one God. This was the point that made Ramakrishna a pluralist
and enabled him to attract the crowd of young disciples. These disciples
wanted to benefit their souls from Ramakrishna‟s teachings. Among
these disciples was NarendraDatta, the future Swami
Vivekananda(Hauch, 2013). These disciples remained with him
throughout his life and these disciples would not be only credited in
portraying the image of Ramakrishna as AdvaiticVedantic master. But
they were also involved in promulgating Ramakrishna‟s
AdvaitaVedantic teachings while ignoring and to some extent hiding
tantric teachings of Ramakrishna (Richards, 1985).
In 1880 Ramakrishna was inflicted with an irritable throat that later on
developing into cancer and the curing attempts from Indian and western
doctors brought no desirable results. Ramakrishna died in 1886 when
he was fifty one years old(Hauch, 2013).
45
4. RAMAKRISHNA’S SPIRITUAL NEO-VEDAMTA
In the nineteenth century Hindu reform movement, Ramakrishna
reinterpreted the rational and western neo-Vedanta of Ram Mohan Roy
with Indian spirituality. This spiritual neo-Vedanta of Ramakrishna was
characterized by experiencing and realizing God. This realization is free
from the limitation of caste, race, gender and even
religions(Bhajanananda, 2012) that constitutes the gist of Ramakrishna
neo-Vedanta. This same core concept of God‟s realization and
experience attains different name and ideology when dealt in watertight
compartments of Hinduism and other world religions. Within Hinduism,
Ramakrishna claimed to utilize the classical Advaita Vedanta of
Shankaracharya, but with few amendments, while in the case of the rest
of the religions he employs the pluralist approach in the context of the
classical Hindu text of Bhagvatgita and Advaita Vedanta to postulate his
theory of religious toleration and harmony.
The root factors that appeared to prompt Ramakrishna to reform and
revive Hinduism in terms of Advaita Vedantaseem to reside in the
nineteenth century Bengal. The spiritual neo-Vedanta of Ramakrishna
took the blood and flesh from religious encountering of the then Bengal
society. That persuaded Ramakrishna to experience the God of Muslims
and Christians. Ramakrishna concluded on the basis of his spiritual
experiences that there were no other than saguna and nirguna Brahman.
Spiritual neo-Vedanta of Ramakrishna within the boundary of Hinduism
emphasizes on the spiritual experience and realization of one God. This
one God attains the different names of Brahman, Bhagvana,
Paramatman and Kali (primordial power of creating, preserving and
destroying)(Richards, 1985). The apparent difference in their different
names according to Ramakrishna resides in the different spiritual paths a
46
devotee selects to experience one God. In Hinduism, the term spiritual
path is indicated with two terms yoga and marga. Yoga comprises of all
those techniques that are used by the devotee to transform his
consciousness to divine consciousness. Vedantins accept three yogas:
jnana yoga, bhagti yoga and Karma yoga(Bhajanananda, 2012).
The term marga is used to specify the highway toward liberation or
mukti. Vedantins recognize only two margas; jnanamarga and
bhagtimarga. The non-dualistic AdvaitaVedantins admit jnanamargas
the superior one, while dualistic Vedantins believe in the superiority of
bhagtimarga(Bhajanananda, 2012). Ramakrishna claims to employ
AdvaitaVedanta of Shankaracharya for his spiritual neo-Vedanta, but
denies the validity of jnanamarga in realizing God. He stresses that the
knowledge considered by jnani is not the highest knowledge. He points
out that beyond this Brahmanjnani isvijnana. But what is vijnana and
how is it superior to jnana? Ramakrishna distinguishes these two by an
example that the knowledge of thefire‟s presence in the woods is jnana,
but utilization of this fire for cooking rice and getting nourishment from
the rice is vijnana. To know God by self-experiencing is jnana, while
conversation with God and enjoying God as a child, friend, master and
beloved is vijnana. In other words, experiencing God alone in the
universe and all living beings are vijnana(Smith, 1976).
Ramakrishna replaces the jnanamarga, the basic and compulsory
constituents of the Shankaracharya‟sAdvaitaVedanta, with bhagti. The
amendments of Ramakrishna are not confined to this marga rather his
interpretation of the maya is different from Shankaracharya‟smaya.
According to Shankaracharyasaguna Brahman becomes personal God
due to its association to maya. Shankaracharya believes that apparent
world is the product of maya or avidya. Maya is the indescribable power
47
of Brahman that hides the real (Brahman) and manifests itself real till
the devotee acquisition of knowledge of the Real result in vanishing of
maya. The existence of maya is directly relates with avidya (ignorance)
(Sivananda, 1999). Ramakrishna‟s AdvaitaVedanta revolves around the
core concept in which his categorization of nirguna Brahman he sees his
mother Kali in potential form while in saguna Brahmin his mother Kali
manifests herself dynamically (Sivananda, 1999). In relation to mother
Kali as saguna Brahmin the world of Ramakrishna‟s AdvaitaVedanta is
confirmed due to goddessSakti(energy) (Kripal, 1998, p. 155).
Ramakrishna feels this world mansion of mirth where lover of God
enjoys his life (Smith, 1976, p. 83). Sakti fulfills all wants of child
(bhagta) and facilitates all necessities and energies requires for this
(Sivananda, 1999).
However Ramakrishna may have adopted the terminologies of maya,
vidya and avidya from Shankaracharya‟sAdvaitaVedanta to describe his
spiritual neo-Vedanta (Smith, 1976). But structural and constitutional
elements of the ShankaracharyaAdvaitaVedanta and Ramakrishna neo-
Vedanta are describing two distinct ways of realizing God. Here it is
harder to deny that Ramakrishna was not an Advaitin. But was this
Advaita of Ramakrishna comparable with Shankaracharya‟sAdvaita?
The answer of this question could be traced by critical evaluation of the
concept of Brahman in his teachings.
5. COMPARISON OF SHAKAR ADVAITA VEDANTA

AND RAMAKRISHNA’S NEO-VEDANTA
Ramakrishna describes Brahman to his disciples in Gospel of Sri
Ramakrishna as
48
He whom you address as Brahma is none other than She whom I call
Sakti, the Primal Energy. It is called Brahman in the Vedas when it
transcends speech and thought and is without attributes and action. I
call it Sakti, AdyaSakti, and so forth, when I find it creating,
preserving, and destroying the universe.
Brahman alone is addressed as the Mother. This is because a mother is

an object of great love. One is able to realize God just through love.
Ecstasy of feeling, devotion, love, and faith – these are the means
(Gupta, 1952, p. 660).
Ramakrishna is comparing Brahman with Kali. Does such comparison
of Brahman and Kali appear in Shankaracharya‟sAdvaitaVedanta?
Ramakrishna‟s Advaita is not Shankaracharya‟sAdvaita rather it is
tantric SaktaAdvaita(Smith, 1976). The first and foremost evidence of
the supremacy of tantric Advaita over Shankaracharya‟sAdvaita can be
seen when his Vedantic teacher Totapuri during his attempt to drown in
Ganges experience Kali‟s presence rather Brahman. That convinces the
acceptability of Kripal evaluation and conclusion regarding the
experiential presence of Kali in Ganges that Totapuri was converted to
Sakta theology rather Ramakrishna‟s conversion to Advaitin(Gier,
2000).
In the teachings of the Ramakrishna one finds that he denies the
applicability of jnana in Kali yuga (his own time) when he asserts that
“in the Kali yuga, man, being totally dependent on food for life, cannot
altogether shake off the idea that he is the body. In this state of mind it is
not proper for him to say, 'I am He.' When a man does all sorts of
worldly things, he should not say, 'I am Brahman”(Nikhalanda).
49
Ramakrishna does not limit himself in denying jnana rather, he points
out the limitation and superficiality of the AdvaitaVedanta by explaining
AdvaitaVedanta with an example. It is like a master sleeping in the dark
room and someone searching that master in the darkness. During that
search he comes in contact with many different things, but he says no to
anymaster. Thus uttering of the word “no” by devotee, while searching
his master is the constitutional element of AdvaitaVedanta system. At
last devotee succeeds in searching master and exclaims that he is
amaster. Ramakrishna believes that devotee succeeds in searching his
master, but he is only conscious of his master existence. The devotee is
unable to know God closely and thoroughly at that time. So he not only
proposes, but also preferred the way of love and devotion for the
intimate knowledge of God (Nikhalanda).
Unlike AdvaitaVedantins who believe to see God with theknowledge
that shatters the veil of ignorance, Ramakrishna tells his disciple that
one can see God with the body of love. The devotee receives this love
body due to his baghta. This claim of Ramakrishna‟s love body has love
eyes, love ears and so on. The devotee sees God with loving eyes and
hears God with love ears while explaining this love body Ramakrishna
fails to restrain his tantric Advaitabhagti when he mentions that love
body, even gets sexual organ that is made up of love and devotees
commune with God through this (Nikhalanda).
Ramakrishna‟s utilization of the avidya and vidya in the context of the
universe appears different from AdvaitaVedanta.
Shankaracharya‟savidya is ignorance that restrains man to attain the true
knowledge of God while vidya is knowledge attain by the devotee by
jnana. In Ramakrishna teachings Sakti (Kali) is theroot cause of this
universe. Vidya and avidya are the two aspects of this primordial energy.
50
Avidyais related to the temptation of woman and gold while vidya
causes the love, devotion, wisdom and kindness that directs devotee to
one God. How to propitiate this avidya according to Ramakrishna?
Ramakrishna believes that this avidya must be propitiated by the rites of
the Sakti worship (Nikhalanda).
Ramakrishna‟s tantraSaktiAdvaitawas revealed from his reply to

Vivekananda. One day Vivekananda asked Ramakrishna, is the presence
of women a must in the prescribedtantra spiritual discipline? In his
reply he mentions three kinds of disciplines in tantra which considers
women as mistress or considered oneself her handmaid or her child
(Nikhalanda). He further shared his own spiritual experience that
worshiping Sakti is an uphill task. I experienced her two years as
handmaid, and companion to divine mother, but my natural inclination
and satisfaction resides as a child longing her mother (Nikhalanda).
Vivekananda claimed that VedanticTotipuri taught Ramakrishna
something higher and ultimate that made Kali to lose its authenticity and
legitimacy in Ramakrishna‟s life (Gier, 2000). When this saying of
Vivekananda is compared and evaluated in light of the statements of
Ramakrishna that he uttered while describing his Advaitasadhna that
“once I fell into the clutches of a jnana, who made me to listen to
Vedanta for eleven months. But he couldn‟t altogether destroy the seed
of Bhagti in me. No matter where my mind wandered, it would come
back to the Divine Mother (Smith, 1976).
Therefore Ramakrishna appears to follow the tantraAdvaitaVedanta
during his whole life. Even two years before his death during the pain of
throat cancer, he utters the words that completely negated him as the
follower of Shankaracharya‟sAdvaitaVedanta (Smith, 1976). He said,
51
“O Mother does not plunge me in the knowledge of Brahman and take
away my consciousness! Do not give me Brahmanjnānā; I am but thy
child. I have fears and anxieties! I do want my Mother! A thousands
salutation to Brahmanjnānā! Give it to him who wants it, O Mother”
(McDaniel, 2004, p. 194).
It appeared from the above discussion that Ramakrishna was Kali‟s
priest throughout his life and his devotion and love was for his mother
Kali. He shows no interest and inclination in the impersonal Brahman,
rather finds satisfaction and contentment in Mother
Kali‟stantricdevotional Advaita practices as his personal saguna God.
Ramakrishna‟s tantric inclination becomes evident when he utters that I
never wish to become sugar (Brahman) rather want to taste it. He further
adds that he never denies God, but I think that the attitude hidden in the
uttering in I am He is not wholesome. Because if any devotee acquires
this idea without annihilating the consciousness of his physical self than
instead of moving up, his spiritual growth will be retarded day by day.
In this way he will not only deceive another, but also himself in uttering
this mournful repetition (Smith, 1976).
It can be concluded that Vivekananda and the other disciples of
Ramakrishna and the neo-Vedanta mission place Ramakrishna‟s Sakta
tantric Advaita on the scheme of Shankaracharya‟sAdvaitaVedanta
(Smith, 1976).
The main concern of Ramakrishna was to dissolve the caste system.
Firstly, he tries to interconnect the selfless services of humanity to
transcendental duties. AdvaitaVedanta of Shankaracharya on the other
hand, seems to emphasize on spiritual transcendence by denouncing
world. In classical AdvaitaVedanta karma marga (the selfless services
of Ramakrishna) has no concern with the AdvaitaVedantin, who
52
believes their salvation from this world is only byjnana. Ramakrishna
being a bhagt(devotee) of Mother Kali considers liberation in Kali yuga
impossible without bhagti. This slogan of Ramakrishna “Work is
worship” that connects karma and bhagti yoga enables him to substitute
the jnanamarga of Shankaracharya(Ricci, 2012). The amalgamation of
these two margas enables Ramakrishna to abolish the caste system of
Hinduism. According to Ramakrishna God dwells in every man and
selfless services of aman with love and devotion is equal to the services
of God. He further incorporates his idea to fabricate equality of man
irrespective of their caste which, according to him is the representation
of the social dharma not social status of superiority and inferiority
(Bhajanananda, 2012).
Though Ramakrishna was the result of his spiritual experiences, but
these experiences did not remain locked within the Hindu boundaries. In
the historical context Ramakrishna realizes one God through different
religious paths of Islam, Christianity and Buddhism. This experiential
attitude of Ramakrishna was shared by many preceded historical figures
of India like saint Kabir (o. 1500 CE), Guru Nanak (1469-1539),
Chaitanya (1486-1533), Sufis and Mughal Emperor Akbar (1542-1605).
Ramakrishna considers religious experience as an authentic source of
knowledge in the realms of religion (Hauch, 2013).
6. RAMAKRISHNA’S THEORY OF RELIGIOUS

HARMONY AND TOLERATION
Ramakrishna‟s theory of religious harmony and toleration was based on
his above mentioned approach of pluralistic religious experiences to
which he concluded with these words that “I have practiced all religions,
53
Hinduism, Islam, Christianity, I have also followed the paths of different
Hindu sects…I have found that it is the same God towards whom are
directing their steps, though along different paths. You must try all
beliefs and transverse all the different ways once” (Gupta, 1952, pp.
264-265).
Ramakrishna‟s words demand critical evaluation when he believes that
following of diverse path and practices (within Hinduism and in other
religions) is yielding the realization and experiencing of one God. This
scrutinizing approach generates many questions to work on as what
gives Ramakrishna the confidence and confirmation that every time he
was experiencing one same God? Why Muslim God, theChristian God
and Buddha were realized by Ramakrishna in pure Hindu nirguna and
saguna Brahman? If all religions are equal according to Ramakrishna
then why he categorizes three levels of the devotee as lower, mediocre
and superior on the basis of realizing God by adopting different paths?
Why he describes persuasion of different paths by a devotee due to
different levels of knowledge?
The answer of these entire questions demands an overview of
Ramakrishna experiencing of Allah and Jesus. In his realization,
according to him, Allah appears as an old man with awhite beard who
becomes illuminated and merges into nirguna Brahman. While Christ
appears as a yogi who embraces him and disappears with his body to
which he names thesaguna Brahman (Hauch, 2013). Here the
appearance of Allah as a man highlights the loopholes of superficiality
and incompatibility of his Islamic knowledge on one hand, and the
dominance of his Hindu frame of love that can be traced from his
anthropomorphic concept of God. This anthropomorphism is totally
against the Islamic teachings. And merging of Allah in nirgunaBrahman
54
affirms the presence of another God beside Allah that confirms
Ramakrishna‟s incompatibility with theMuslim creed that there is no
God but Allah (Akram, 1998).
During his experiential realization he realizes merging of Allah in
nirguna Brahman, but very interestingly not vice versa. This shows
Ramakrishna‟s preference for nirguna Brahman. In the context of
Christianity this same Hindu fondness can be noticed in the vision of
Ramakrishna about Christ. Christ was materialized in his vision as a
yogi who is asymbolical representation of a Hindu monk that
Ramakrishna perceived and later explained him in terms of saguna
Brahman.
It can be assumed that Ramakrishna‟s tolerant and harmonious pluralist
does not match with his religious experiences due to his favorite for
Hinduism. Ramakrishna is a Hindu and a bhagta child of Kali seems to
be unsuccessful in breaking the shackle of his own religion. And he fails
to justify his claim ofatrue follower of Islam and Christianity.
“There is no doubt that Ramakrishna, in spite of his universality, was a
Hindu of Hindus” (Akram, 1998, p. 64). As a Universalist, he claims
that every religious path is equal in offering universal Truth that appears
ambiguous when he categorizes devotees in three different levels on the
basis of the path they selected. His sequential arrangement placed the
devoteein the lower position who believed that God resides in heaven
and placed the devotee on the upper most position who believes that
God has penetrated in everything. While the center position between
these two extreme (upper and lower position) is destined to that devotee
who believes that seat of God occurrence is at heart as the Inner
Controller (Bhajanananda, 2012).
55
7.CONCLUSION
In the end it can be concluded that Ramakrishna from his childhood was
the true devotee of Mother Kali and the intensity of his devotion was not
affected by the religious experiences of Ramakrishna within Hinduism
and in other religions. Although he claims that he formulated his neo-
Vedanta on the foundation of Shankaracharya‟sadvaita Vedanta, but his
neo-Vedanta was Tantric Advaita Vedanta that revolves around the
devotion of Mother Kali as a Supreme authority. While in case of other
non-Hindu religions his claimed pluralistic approach appears to be
inclined more towards inclusivity because he preached the Universality
of one Truth in every religion, but again categories different religions as
inferior, mediocre and superior on the basis of this truth. And finally he
opines that all religions are part and parcel of Hinduism.
8. REFERRENCES
Akram, M. (1998). Ramakrishna's Theory of Religious Pluralism an
Analytical and Critical Study. International Islamic University,
Islamabad.
Bhajanananda, S. (2012). Sri Ramakrishna: The „New Man‟ of the Age:
Prabuddha Bharata.
Gier, N. F. (2000). Spiritual Titanism: Indian, Chinese, and Western
Perspectives. Albany: State University of New Yor.
Gupta, M. (1952). The Gospel of Sri Ramakrishna (Nikhilanda, Trans.).
New York: Ramakrishna-Vivekananda Center.
Hauch, S. (2013). Reassessing Religious Experience in a Scientific Age: Early
Approaches to Religious Pluralism. University of Glasgow.
56
Kripal, J. J. (1998). Kali's Child: The Mystical and the Erotic in the Life and
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Abstract
The History of preaching dates back to the missionary religions but from Islamic
point of view the history of the preachers can be traced from the creation of the
first man (Hazrat Adam A.S.) who was given the responsibility of preaching
Almighty's command. This duty was later on shifted to many Prophets who
succeded Hazrat Adam A.S.The chain of the obligation was ended with last
Prophet Muhammad (P.B.U.H) who is the seal of the Prophethood. Almighty

guided Prophet Muhammaad (P.B.U.H) on every step that how and from where
he should start preaching (secretly and openly)? At which doctrine he should
start inviting people and in the situation of opposition and hatred from his
enemies how he treated them with patience and love. And how he would be able
to establish Islamic states and invites the people of other areas towards Islam
.Muhammad (P.B.U.H) is succeded from the reformers of his ummah and

among these reformers were the founder of tableeghi jam mat, Molana
Muhammad Ilyas Kandhelwi. This research paper will compare the similarties of
Muhammad's(P.B.U.H) Da'wah with tableeghi Jammat, that range from the
correction of faith, individual to collective preaching (through speeches, sending
of groups and letters), establishments of preaching centers,face every situation
with patience to the fulfilment of sacred task of preaching with out any worldly
rewards in the form of ransom.
Key Words: Preaching, Tablighi Jammat, Mulana Muhammad Ilyas Kandhelwi
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úÆï[~ï! Š ZÅzŠgZ
UVc*
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Abstract
The research in Urdu literature utilizes the traditional descriptive and historical
approaches to allocate the unexplored aspects of the research areas. The new
trends in the Western world have changed the worldview of the researches in the
east because the previously pure approaches of research appear outdated to the
modernist s. This result ed in a shift from pur e research int o

quantitative research approaches in Urdu literature. In this context, it was
required to conduct quantitative research in the area that was previously
examined by the descriptive approach. Therefore, in Urdu literature the

quantitative research also follows the same route that starts from a research
problem, data collection, data analysis and then deriving conclusion from
these statistics.
Key Words: Historical,Research Areas ,Worldview, Modernists,Discriptive

approch.
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Abstract
The term Seerat un Nabi (S.A.W.) denotes the life of Alla's last messenger
M u h amma d, may p ea ce an d blessin gs of Allah b e u p on H im. Th e
comprehension of significance and importance of Prophet's Seerah can be
assessed through the statement that no Muslim code of conduct can be imagined
without the Seerat un Nabi (S.A.W.). As the significance and importance of

Prophet's Seerah is many fold, but this paper aims to explore the importance
and significance of the Prophet's Seerah in two different dimensions; firstly,
developing links with Allah and secondly by following his life as a last Prophet
of Allah. The first point is going to cover the adoption of Prophet's Seerah not
only for obeying Allah's commamnds by knowing the prescribed rules of
Awamir o Nawahi, but also for the completion of Iman, understanding of the
Quran and implementation of Shariah in their life. While the second point is
going to encompass the following of flawless life of Prophet Muhammad as the
mos t s u cces s fu l ma n wh o is p rov id in g g u i d elin es t o h i s
followers in every sphere of life.
Key Words: Seerat un Nabi, Awamir o Nawahi, Shariah

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Abstract
From 1971 to 2000, the period of forty years in Baluchistan history of Ghazal
narration has poetically presented new perspectives. The poetess of this period
has amalgamated old versions of poetry with new and has produced avant-garde
in Ghazal narration. Besides this, their repository of words entails new
standards in extending the domain of poetry. The use of similes, metaphors

enabled readers to gauge their artistic abilities. Their use of literary devices
presents new avenues to measure their individual intellectual capabilities. The
application of this new avenues is also instrumental in making comparative

studies of other poets. This investigation proves that the poetess of Baluchistan is
engendering a fertile area. Although in order to reach the pinnacle of higher
standard they need perpetual struggle. These indexes enact as a beam of light
for others.
Key Words: Ghazal narration,Old versions of Poetry, Baluchistan,

Similies, Metaphors.
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‫‪ISSN: 2518-8054‬‬ ‫دلجربمن‪۱:‬‬
‫ع‬ ‫وجن‪۲۰۱۵‬‬ ‫امشرہربمن‪۱:‬‬
‫مم‬
‫وينویوینریٹسہّلجمرباےئوسلشاسزسنئ‪،‬‬
‫اسی۔یب۔ےک‪ -‬ز‬
‫ٓارسٹاڈنیویہینیمزیٹ‬
‫مم‬
‫ويویوینریٹسولباتسچن‪،‬اپاتسکن‬
‫رسداراہبدراخن ن‬
‫‪www.sbkwu.edu.pk‬‬

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ISSN: XXXX Issue: 1

SBKWU Journal of Social Sciences,

SARDAR BAHADUR KHAN WOMEN’S

Professor Dr Rukhsana Jabeen

Dr. Zia- ur- Rahman

Sardar Bahadur Khan Women’s University, Quetta, Pakistan

Editorial & Advisory Board

1. Prof. Dr Aslam Pervez Memon

Sufi Campus of University of Sindh,Jamshoro

2. Prof. Dr. Syed Javed Iqbal

Dean, Faculty of Natural Sciences

University of Sindh, Jamshoro

3. Prof. Dr. Muhammad Azam

4. Prof. Dr. Amir Zada

Social Work Department

Department of Islamic studies

6. Prof. Dr. Abdul Ali Achakzai

HoD, Department of Islamic studies

7. Prof. Dr. Saleha Naghmi Habibullah

Kinnaird College For Women (Lahore, Pakistan

8. Prof. Dr. Abdul Aziz

Chair Person Urdu Department,

Allama Iqbal Open University, Islamabad

9. Prof. Dr. Faria

Dean social sciences

Government College University, Lahore

11. Dr. Liaquat Ali Channa

12. Dr. Sibghatallah Khan

13. Dr. Mirza Muhammad Zubair Baig

Assistant Professor of English

COMSATS Institute of Information Technology, Lahore,

Government College University Faisalabad

15. Dr. Mudassar Mahmood Ahmad

Department of Humanities and Social Sciences

COMSATS Institute of Information Technology, Lahore

16. Dr. Farheen Ahmed Hashmi

17. Dr Sajida Naz

Fatima Jinnah Women University, Rawalpindi

19. Dr. Shahzadi Pakeeza

Fatima Jinnah Women University

20. Dr. Noreen Saher

Assistant Professor, sociology Department

International Islamic University, Islamabad

International advisory editorial board

1. Prof. Dr. Dikaiou Maria

2. Prof. Dr. Syed Ashiq Ali Shah

4. Prof. Dr. Issa Mishan

6. Dr. Rizwana Rehman

Ph.D, Statistician Southeast Epilepsy Centers of Excellence,

Veterans Health Administration, USA

7. Dr. Maria Staton

Ball State University, Muncie, Indiana, USA.

Lecturer, Department of Islamic studies,

Shehnaz Mehboob Baloch

All rights reserved by Journal SBKWU. All research papers

Journal name: SBKWU Journal

Duration (published): bi-annually Issue No: 1

Year of publication: 2015 Total pages: 119

Quantity (copies published): 200

Address: Sardar Bahadur Khan Women’s University, Quetta,

Publisher: United press, Zonki ram road, Quetta.

Distributor: SBKWU, Quetta, Balochistan.

For the other countries: