Powder Metallurgy

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Satellite formation mechanism in gas atomised

powders

S. Özbilen

To cite this article: S. Özbilen (1999) Satellite formation mechanism in gas atomised powders,
Powder Metallurgy, 42:1, 70-78, DOI: 10.1179/pom.1999.42.1.70

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Satellite formation mechanism in
gas atomised powders
S. Özbilen
An Al–1Li alloy along with tin (under argon and
helium) and pure copper powders (under helium) were
produced in a pilot plant gas atomiser. The pressure
of the atomising gases used was 1·85 MPa, except that
of argon gas in Sn powder production (1·56 MPa).
The atomising agents were used in a confined design
nozzle operating vertically upwards. The morph-
ology, size, size distribution, and surface features of
the powder particles used in the present study (i.e. Al,
Al–Li, Cu, Mg, and Sn powders) were examined by
scanning electron microscopy and by dry sieving in
order to size the powders. It was observed that for
satellite formation in gas atomised powders there is a
need for both coarse and fine particles. Under tur-
bulent atomisation conditions these two families
of particles of different size and mass must interact
with each other. The probability of this interaction
increases not only when the amount of fine particles
is high, arising from efficient secondary breakup
depending on the type of atomising gas used and its
pressure, but also when the shape of the coarse
particles is irregular and the surface texture is rough.
If this probability of interaction results in welding of
finer particles to larger ones during in flight collisions
then this increases the true satellite formation process.
When the susceptibility of the material being atom-
ised to oxidation is high, the oxygen potential of the
atomisation environment and the atomising gas press-
ure are effective in controlling the shape irregularity
of the coarse powders produced. The inhomogeneity
of the surface oxide film thicknesses influences the
surface roughness. PM/0713
The author is in the Metal Education Department,
Faculty of Technical Education, Gazi University,
Teknikokullar Ankara, Turkey. Manuscript received
12 December 1995; in final form 9 June 1998.
© 1999 IoM Communications Ltd.
LIST OF SYMBOLS
ȧ
gas flowrate, kg min−1
d mass median diameter, mm
m
dN number of particles in size band
d volume mean diameter, mm
vm
d Sauter mean diameter, mm
vs
dx: width of size band, mm
dw content in size band, wt-%
ṁmetal mass flowrate, kg min−1
P absolute gas pressure, MPa
0
Q metal volume flowrate, m3 min−1
T temperature of atomisation, °C
at
T melting temperature of atomised material, °C
m
urelative velocity between liquid and atomising gas
(u −u ), m s−1
g 1
u velocity of gas, m s−1
g
u velocity of liquid, m s−1
1
70 Powder Metallurgy 1999 Vol. 42 No. 1
x: average diameter of size band, mm
DT metal superheat (T −T ), °C
at m
s geometric standard deviation
g
INTRODUCTION
Atomisation is a method for production of rapidly solidified
(RS) metal and alloy powders.1,2 These powders have
outstanding properties which can not be obtained using
conventional processing methods. The advantages of RS
metal and alloy powders are a result of the faster cooling
rates reached during atomisation. These advantages are
mainly lowered segregation, eliminated phase segregation,
solid solubility increase, and a finer microstructure in the
powder and in the end product. These microstructures
exhibit chemical homogeneity, a high level of resistance to
corrosion, and improved mechanical properties, especially
hot and warm workabilities2–4 and good creep resistance.
Rapidly solidified powders of metals and alloys have found
wide application especially in the aerospace industry.5
However, the atomisation process is a difficult to control
process: properties relevant to metallurgy are generally
difficult to predict, and unfortunately end product rejection
rates are not negligible. These types of problems arise from
difficulties in the control of the atomisation process that
result in variation of grain size, wide particle size distri-
butions, and high operation costs. Tedious and costly
classification of powders is generally carried out after
atomisation to ensure that the powder used meets the
desired characteristics. During this stage there is danger
of powder contamination. Moreover, the development of
fine powders for novel applications has been an elusive
commercial goal as a result of the lack of understanding
and control of the process.6
In this context, powder size and size distribution are
important factors when considering powder compaction
and further processing (including extrusion) to achieve
improved structures and properties. Several routes are
available for the processing of powder to fully dense billets.7
All routes include three main steps: cold compaction,
degassing under vacuum, and hot compaction. Hot consoli-
dation may be carried out by extrusion, forging, or hipping:
the last is not as effective in breaking up the oxide film
on the metal or alloy powder particles, as there is no
metal shear.
During hot consolidation, very fine particles do cause
processing problems. They are harder and more difficult to
deform than the coarse particles in the powder and
therefore during hot deformation they resist plastic deform-
ation, thereby decreasing the efficiency of hot consolida-
tion techniques. Because of this, it is important to know
how satellites do form such that their occurrence can be
controlled during atomisation: a process which is difficult
to control because of the many dependent and independent
process variables, as indicated above.
Thus the aim of the present work was not only to
investigate by scanning electron microscopy (SEM) the
ideal conditions for satellite formation in gas atomised
powders, but also to investigate the effects of the properties
of the atomised liquid metals, atomising gas types, and
ISSN 0032–5899
 Özbilen Satellite formation mechanism in gas atomised powders 71

their pressures on these conditions to control the occurrence
of satellites, i.e. fine particles firmly attached to larger
particles.
EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE
Atomiser and nozzle
The study was carried out using the Imperial College
atomiser described in detail elsewhere.8 It is necessary to
note that the design of this atomiser is specifically
engineered to reduce the recirculation of gas in the area of
the atomising nozzle. This means that it should produce
relatively small amounts of satellite powder, as the fine
particles are not swept back into the atomising plume. This
should allow particularly good opportunities for examining
the fundamentals of the hot impact phenomena which
would give rise to true satellite formation. The atomisation
conditions and the nozzles selected are listed in Table 1 for
the powders produced.
Material
An Al–1Li alloy for runs 403 (under Ar) and 406 (under
He), pure copper for run 413 (under He) and pure tin for
runs 408 (under Ar) and 410 (under He) were used as the
melting stock. Atomising gases, namely argon and helium,
were used as the atomising agents, supplied from three gas
cylinders through the gas supply system of the atomiser.
Material details for pure Al, Cu, Mg, and Sn powder
production in other runs of Table 1 had been reported in
earlier studies.9–14
Atomisation
An Al–1Li alloy charge and Sn charge were melted under
Ar and He in alumina and clay–graphite crucibles respect-
ively, and a Cu charge was melted under He in a
clay–graphite crucible for the present study by means of
medium frequency (6 kHz) induction heating. Operation
was started by running the atomising gas into the nozzle,
which caused the liquid metal to be drawn up to the tip of
the metal flow tube where it was atomised. Oxygen in the
gas was kept constant at 0·5% by volume in all the runs
carried out for Al–1Li, Cu, and Sn powder production.
The atomisation conditions are given in Table 1 for the
Al–1Li alloy powders and Cu and Sn elemental powders
together with the Al, Mg, Cu, and Sn powders produced
in runs of earlier studies.9–14
Particle sizing
Dry sieving, mentioned in detail in previous studies9–14 of
Al, Cu, Mg, and Sn powders, was used for the sizing of
Al–1Li, Cu, and Sn powders produced for the present
work. The volume mean diameter d and Sauter mean
vm
diameter d were calculated from the sizing data using the
vs
following two equations
d =Sx: 4 dN/Sx: 3 dN=Sx: dw/100
vm
d =Sx: 3 dN/Sx: 2 dN=S dw/S(x: 3 dN/x: )
vs
=100/S(dw/x: )
These two diameters give a balanced view of the powder,
as d is sensitive to the presence of fine particles and d
vs vm
is sensitive to the coarser powder particles. Additionally,
the mass median diameter d and, as a measure of the
m
dispersion of sizes in the sample, the geometric standard
deviation s of the powders were determined from the
g
following equations10
log d =S( log x: dw)/S dw=S( log x: dw)/100
m
ln s =(S{[ ln(x: /d )]2 dw}/100)1/2
g m
Microscopy
Morphology and surface features of the powders produced
for the present work and for earlier studies9–14 were
examined under a Cambridge Stereoscan F4–20 and S4–10
SEM. In order to distinguish between a large particle with
small particles touching it, which would not comply with
the definition of a satellite particle given above, and a large
particle with satellite particles definitely attached to it,
large particles which had first been vigorously sieved so
that finer particles which were not securely attached to the
surface would have been removed were examined in detail
under SEM. In this way it was possible to examine
a fraction (for example 32 or 125 mm size fractions) of
the powder with the fines screened off so as to reduce the
risk of small particles touching large particles and being
reported as satellites. The samples were prepared with these
points in mind by conventional methods, as mentioned in
previous publications.9–14
EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS
Particle size
Powders in the present study (Al–1Li, Cu, and Sn) were
free from flakes. Data from dry sieving that was used to
draw log normal plots of these powders indicated15 the
validity of log normal distribution laws for the powders in
the present study, as observed in previous studies.9–17 These
plots confirmed the wide size range of the powders
produced. The values of d , d , d , and s for dry sieving
vm m vs g
were calculated as before10 and are shown in Table 1 for
all the powders produced.

Table 1 Conditions of atomisation and mean particle size of experimental powders

Atomising P , a, ṁ, Q×103, T , DT , d d , d ,

0 at vm, m vs
Material Run gas MPa kg min−1 Nozzle kg min−1 m3 min−1 °C k mm mm mm s
g
Al (Refs. 9, 11) 365 Ar 1·85 4·93 IN4/ON18/4.0 1·09 0·47 875 215 38·7 29·8 20·7 2·2
318 N –11·7O 1·56 3·57 IN4/ON18/4.0 0·56 0·24 875 215 33·5 25·0 20·2 1·97
2 2
367 N 1·56 3·57 IN4/ON18/4.0 1·23 0·53 875 215 45·1 30·9 18·6 2·6
2
366 He 1·85 1·57 IN4/ON18/4.0 0·91 0·39 875 215 20·4 14·4 10·3 2·4
Al–Li 403 Ar 1·85 4·8 IN4/ON18/4.0 1·21 0·52 890 225 41·4 28·7 21·2 2·3
406 He 1·85 1·43 IN4/ON18/4.0 0·98 0·42 895 230 22·6 15·9 11·2 2·33
389 Ar 1·85 5·58 IN4/ON18/3.5 0·6 0·39 870 220 46·7 35·1 24·1 2·1
Mg (Ref. 18) 390 Ar 1·05 3·29 IN4/ON18/3.5 0·5 0·33 870 220 32·3 29·0 22·5 1·7
392 He 1·77 1·66 IN4/ON18/3.5 1·22 0·80 911 261 46·4 33·0 23·5 2·2
396 He 1·03 0·98 IN4/ON18/3.5 0·87 0·58 950 300 38·4 22·5 13·0 2·3
Cu 351 (Ref. 10) N 1·85 4·2 IN3/ON12/4.7 1·86 0·24 1355 270 37·1 28·0 18·7 2·02
2
413 He 1·85 1·46 IN3/ON12/4.7 1·74 0·22 1422 337 28·0 22·1 17·3 2·03
Sn 408 Ar 1·56 4·07 IN4/ON18/4.0 1·01 0·15 450 218 29·3 23·4 18·2 2·0
380 (Ref. 11) N 1·56 3·57 IN4/ON18/4.0 0·97 0·14 450 218 17·4 12·2 9·0 2·3
2
410 He 1·85 1·44 IN4/ON18/4.0 0·96 0·14 450 218 14·8 9·7 6·6 1·9

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72 Özbilen Satellite formation mechanism in gas atomised powders

5 coarse satellite particles (Fig. 2c) together with coarse

(a) and fine powders. There is also a large satellite particle
Run Atomising Po, MPa embedded in the surface of the coarser particle, as shown
4 gas in Fig. 2c. A size fraction >45 mm resulted in globular,
b 365 Argon 1·85 cylindrical, and slightly irregular coarse particles with
3 × 318 (N2–11·7O2) 1·56 satellites and splash caps (Fig. 2d). The Al powder produced
q 367 Nitrogen 1·56
under an N –11·7O gas mixture in run 318 exhibited
g 366 Helium 1·85 2 2
bimodal size distribution of irregularly shaped coarse
2 particles (Fig. 2e). Satellites were attached and embedded
in the coarse particles with rough surfaces from dendritic
1 reliefs. The Al powder produced under He gas in run
366 contained, in the size range >45 mm (Fig. 2f ), coarse,
globular, and a few cylindrical particles free from satellites.
0 The AA powder in run 366 (Fig. 2g) exhibited bimodal size
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
distribution, with very fine, smooth spherical particles and
5
(b) agglomerates.
The Al–1Li alloy powder produced under Ar gas in run
Run Atomising Po, MPa
Mass frequency, % µm_1

4 gas
403 contained spherical, coarse particles with rough surfaces
of size fraction >125 mm (Fig. 3a). These coarse particles
c 389 Argon 1·85
a 390 Argon 1·05
had satellites firmly attached to and embedded in the
3
g 392 Helium 1·77 oxidised surfaces. In Fig. 3b the same powder showed
b 396 Helium 1·03 abundant coarse satellite particles embedded in the rough
2 surfaces of coarse particles as a result of in flight collision
during atomisation before the solidification of coarse
molten droplets. When the same material was produced
1 under He gas in run 406, it also exhibited coarse, spherical,
dumbbell shaped particles with very rough surfaces on
0 to which very few fine satellites were attached (Fig. 3c),
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 together with many very fine oxide particles of around
5 1–4 mm. In the 32–125 mm size fraction of the same powder
(c)
(Fig. 3d) there were numerous fine oxide particles or flakes
Run Atomising Po, MPa on the surface of the coarse spherical particles, with very
4 gas few embedded satellites.
c 408 Argon 1·56 Scanning electron micrographs showed that Mg powders
3
a 380 Nitrogen 1·56 also have a wide particle size range, as shown in Fig. 4,
p 410 Helium 1·85
with the exception of the powder produced in run 390,
which exhibited a narrow size range (Fig. 4c and d). The
2 Mg powder produced under high pressure Ar gas in run
389 (Fig. 4a) showed bimodal size distribution in the AA
condition. There were fine, spherical, and coarse globular
1
particles with very few small particles embedded in the
surface. It should be noted that there were crater and
0 globular shaped holes on the surface of some large particles
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 as a result of their interaction with hard, small, fast moving
Diameter, µm particles during high pressure atomisation, as in Fig. 4a. A
a pure Al; b pure Mg; c pure Sn size fraction >32 mm of the same powder (Fig. 4b) produced
irregular, rough, coarse particles with very few satellites
1 Frequency distribution plots for given powders together with very fine oxide particles. The Mg powder
produced under low pressure Ar gas in run 390 had a
bimodal, narrow size distribution, as shown in Fig. 4c and d
When plotted in the form of frequency curves, Al
in the AA condition. There were a few coarse particles with
(Fig. 1a), Al–1Li,15 Mg (Fig. 1b), Cu,10 and Ar produced
some surface irregularities in addition to coarse, spherical
Sn (Fig. 1c) powders showed typical bimodal size distri-
particles with very few satellites. There were large particles
bution, while Sn powders produced both under N and He
2 with holes on their surfaces (Fig. 4c) and with satellite
showed unimodal size distribution (Fig. 1c), as observed in
particles embedded in their surfaces (Fig. 4d). The Mg
other atomised metal powders9–18 when sieving was carried
powder produced with high He gas pressure in run 392
out dry.
showed, in the 32–125 mm size fraction (Fig. 4e), highly
irregular coarse particles with very rough surfaces. Over
Morphology 125 mm, the powder was irregularly shaped, with a rough
Scanning electron micrographs showed that Al powders surface that was virtually free from satellites (Fig. 4f ).
have a wide particle size range (Fig. 2). The Al powder When the He gas pressure was lowered, as in run 396, the
produced under Ar gas in run 365 exhibited typical bimodal Mg powder exhibited irregular coarse, globular particles
size distribution in the as atomised (AA) condition (Fig. 2a). without satellites in the 32–125 mm size range (Fig. 4g).
With the coarse size range of the powder (i.e. >32 mm) in The surface of the coarse, irregularly shaped particles
this micrograph, rough globular particles consisting of greater than 125 mm in size was rough, as shown in Fig. 4h.
dendritic reliefs with attached satellites can be seen. The There was no observation of satellite particles on the rough
fine powder (<32 mm in size) is spheroidal. A size fraction surfaces of these coarse particles.
of >32 mm for the same powder (Fig. 2b), obtained by The Cu powder greater than 125 mm in size produced
vigorously sieving the AA powder, produces a coarse under N gas in run 351 showed coarse, irregular particles
2
powder with fine particles which are firmly attached to the without satellites, as shown in Fig. 5a. The as atomised
large ones and therefore termed as satellites. The Al powder powder shows bimodal size distribution (Fig. 5b) with few
produced under pure N gas in run 367 showed only a few fine particles on the surface of the coarse powder particles.
2

Powder Metallurgy 1999 Vol. 42 No. 1

 Özbilen Satellite formation mechanism in gas atomised powders 73

a b

c d

e f

a atomising gas Ar, run 365, as atomised powder with bimodal size distribution; b Ar, run 365, particles >32 mm; c N , run 367, as
2
atomised powder with few coarse satellite particles; d N , run 367, particles >45 mm, few satellites; e N –11·7O , run 318, as atomised
2 2 2
powder with bimodal size distribution of irregularly shaped particles; f He, run 366, particles >45 mm, shows no satellite formation;
g He, run 366, as atomised powder with many fine particles
2 Scanning electron micrographs of Al powder produced under varying conditions

These fine particles were not satellites, as they were not
observed after vigorous sieving, indicating that they were
loosely bound to large particles as a result of static
electricity. The Cu powder produced under He shows a
bimodal size distribution without satellites (Fig. 5c), as
confirmed by examining particles with a size fraction
>32 mm (Fig. 5d), which showed very few satellites and
abundant fine particles (not satellites) which were separated
from larger ones during vigorous screening to obtain the
coarse powder fraction.
The Sn powder produced under Ar gas in run 408 had
in the >32 mm size fraction coarse particles with smooth
surfaces and some satellites (Fig. 6a). The same powder
produced under He gas in run 410 had in its >32 mm size

Powder Metallurgy 1999 Vol. 42 No. 1

74 Özbilen Satellite formation mechanism in gas atomised powders

a b

c d

a atomising gas Ar, run 403, particles >125 mm, satellites embedded in rough oxidised surface; b Ar, run 403, particles 32–125 mm,
with many satellites; c He, run 406, particles >125 mm, rough surface resulting from oxidation; d He, run 406, particles 32–125 mm,
exhibits numerous fine oxide particles
3 Scanning electron micrographs of Al–1Li alloy powder produced under varying conditions

fraction very smooth large particles without satellites, as particles which from coarse powder; the products of
shown in Fig. 6b. The as atomised powder from this run secondary breakup from the fine powder. The stable droplet
exhibited (Fig. 6c) bimodal size distribution and coarse size depends on the properties of the atomised liquid11 and
particles that were totally free from any satellite formation. on the conditions of the gas flow obtained at the point in
the jet, and hence on the original droplet size in primary
DISCUSSION breakup. For these reasons, a range of stable sizes is
Particle formation during atomisation observed. High gas velocities in the jet (as estimated from
the height of the supersonic core19) are considered essential
A comparison of gas flow patterns19,20 with the atomisation
for the formation of fine powders in the secondary breakup
behaviour summarised in Refs. 13 and 19 showed that a
stage, both by ensuring a smaller critical size for the parent
long supersonic region in the jet is a prerequisite for the
droplet at the end of disintegration and finer secondary
production of fine powders. The requirement of a long
breakup products. High velocities at the tip of the nozzle
supersonic core for the production of fine powders may
are also expected to lead to finer primary droplets, which
be understood as follows: it is known from previous
are another contributing factor (the effect of high gas
research13,19 into the operation of confined nozzles in
pressure18). The importance of high gas velocity, or high
atomising conditions that the liquid metal spreads radially
relative velocity u, in determining the particle size and
on the top of the delivery tube, forming a thin film under
shape of gas atomised powders was experimentally con-
the influence of the toroidal recirculation vortices.21
firmed in recent studies.15,17,18
Particles form through the disintegration of the film by the
The mechanism summarised above explains the presence
high velocity gas jet.
of two families of particles in gas atomised powders (Fig. 1a
Earlier studies13,19 have indicated that disintegration
and b) in the present study. It can be deduced from these
takes place in two stages. In the first stage, the thin film,
curves that stable particles are greater than 34 mm in
under regular operating conditions, breaks up on contact
diameter and that the products of secondary breakup are
with the high speed gas at the periphery of the delivery
smaller. The stable droplets will vary in size between those
tube to form droplets (primary breakup). These droplets
obtained at the primary breakup stage (which will be the
undergo further disintegration in flight (secondary breakup)
smallest, since at this point the relative velocity is at a
to produce the powder. It has been proposed13 that
maximum) and those obtained after the completion of
secondary breakup is likely to proceed by the ‘stripping’
secondary breakup, which will be larger depending on the
mechanism in which the droplet presents a convex surface
gas flow conditions obtained.
to the gas. Liquid is drawn out from the edges of the
droplet into thin sheets and fine ligaments, and these
disintegrate into fine droplets (daughter particles). The Satellite formation mechanism in atomisation
secondary breakup stops when the liquid droplet reaches a It is well known from previous work9–17 that a wide
critical size, determined by the relative gas velocity and range of particle sizes is found in gas atomised powders.
liquid properties.11,13,17,18 This critical size produces stable The powders in the present work also showed this trend.

Powder Metallurgy 1999 Vol. 42 No. 1

 Özbilen Satellite formation mechanism in gas atomised powders 75

a b

c d

e f

g h

a atomising gas Ar, run 389, as atomised powder, high pressure, nearly satellite free surface; b Ar, run 389, particles >32 mm,
irregularly shaped coarse particles with few satellites; c Ar, run 390, as atomised powder, low gas pressure, very few satellites; d Ar,
run 390, powder virtually free from satellites; e He, run 392, 32–125 mm particle size, large, highly irregular particles with no satellites
but some fine oxide particles; f He, run 392, particles >125 mm, coarse irregular particles with no satellites; g He, run 396, particles
32–125 mm, low gas pressure, with large irregular particles and very few fine particles; h He, run 396, particles >125 mm, less
irregularly shaped coarse particles with no satellites
4 Scanning electron micrographs of Mg powder produced under varying conditions

Satellite formation was observed only in the form of very
small particles, typically <5 mm, attached to much larger
ones but not between particles of comparable size. This
tends to suggest differential acceleration as an important
cause of satellite formation. Since small particles accelerate
at higher rates and have higher velocities at a given position
above the nozzle than large ones,3 welding of particles
would take place as a result of impact, even when the large
particle is fully solidified. This would also apply when the
large particle is liquid but undercooled, in which case the
result is likely to be an embedded satellite. When the large
particle is a liquid droplet above melting point, the satellite
may in principle redissolve or embedding may occur as
before, depending on the actual conditions of impact
and heat transfer obtained. From observation of satellite
formation it is clear that there must be a relatively large

Powder Metallurgy 1999 Vol. 42 No. 1

76 Özbilen Satellite formation mechanism in gas atomised powders

a b

c d

a atomising gas N , run 351, particles >125 mm, coarse irregular particles with no satellites; b N , run 351, as atomised powder
2 2
showing bimodal size distribution; c He, run 413, as atomised powder showing bimodal size distribution; d He, run 413, particles
>32 mm, few satellites, but many non-satellite fine particles
5 Scanning electron micrographs of Cu powder produced under varying conditions

particle on to which a fine particle or a group of fine
particles (i.e. agglomerates) attach by sticking, and a
relatively smaller particle (candidate for satellite formation)
which not only collides with the larger particle (as a result
of velocity differences arising from mass differences of
coarse and fine particles during atomisation), but also
firmly attaches to the large particle. Frequency distribution
curves of the powder particles (Fig. 1) in the present study
give information about particle size and distribution. Figure
1a shows that the highest value of mass frequency of
particles smaller than 10 mm is in the Al powder produced
under He (run 366), while the lowest value is found in the
Al powder produced under Ar (run 365), indicating the
highest level of fine particles in the powder of run 366
among all Al powders in the present study, as confirmed
by SEM (Fig. 2). This is related to the higher efficiency of
the secondary breakup mechanism13,15,17,18 in atomising
runs carried out with He gas, hence increasing the
proportion of fine particles in the powder. Frequency
distribution curves of Al–1Li alloys15 and Mg (Fig. 1b),
Cu,10 and Sn powders (Fig. 1c) along with relevant SEM
images (Figs. 2–6) showed the same trend, i.e. the higher
the amount of particles smaller than 10 mm, the lower the
amount of satellites, regardless of the material being
atomised, but depending on the type and pressure of
atomising gas used.
Atomising gas type and pressure are influential in the
formation of satellites, according to the findings of previous
work.3,15,17,18 Most subsonic gas atomisation processes
produce powders with a heavy satellite population wherein
fine powder particles are physically joined with coarse
powders either by sintering or by a welding melting process.
Under turbulent conditions, satellites are produced by a
process of collisions or impingement of fine solidified
powder particles on to the coarser molten or semimolten
particles during various solidification stages. If the cooling
rate is increased, the occurrence of satellites would diminish,
since powder particles would have solidified before frequent
collisions occurred, as shown in Figs. 2b and f, 3b and d,
and 6. The heat transfer coefficient for He is an order of
magnitude higher than that for Ar (for a 10 mm particle).
Therefore, powders atomised with He solidify more rapidly,
providing less occasion for satellite formation, as observed
in the present study. In conventional subsonic gas atomis-
ation, metal powders are produced by a three step breakup
process, with fine powder formation well removed from the
point of impingement of the gas on the liquid metal stream.
Slow solidification rates, as with Ar atomised powders in
the present work (Figs. 2a and 4a and b), provide many
opportunities for droplet coalescence and for satellite
formation in subsonic gas atomisation. Ultrasonic gas
atomisation was studied using a high speed video system,
and the obtained data confirm single step atomisation.
Rapid solidification minimises the time available for
collisions, as observed in He atomised powders (Figs. 2f,
3d, 4e and g, 5d, and 6b). This results in spherical powders
with low satellite concentration.
The absence of satellites in Mg powder, which are in
general formed by cold welding of small particles on to
large ones as a result of differential acceleration in flight,
tended to suggest that the surfaces of the particles were not
very favourable for the operation of this mechanism.
However, the observation of very few satellites (Fig. 4e–h)
using He gas and a few more satellites (Fig. 4a–d) using Ar
gas suggests that the surfaces of coarse, irregular particles,
especially those observed in Ar runs, were favourable for
satellite formation, perhaps because of the roughness of the
particle surface resulting from the irregular thickness of

Powder Metallurgy 1999 Vol. 42 No. 1


a irregular in shape and rougher on the surface when
b Oxidation resistance of Cu and Sn powders is higher
c breakup leads to the formation of abundant fine particles.
a atomising gas Ar, run 408, particles >32 mm with smooth
surfaces and some satellites; b He, run 410, particles >32 mm,
smooth large particles without satellites; c He, run 410, as
atomised powder showing bimodal size distribution, coarse
particles free from satellite formation
6 Scanning electron micrographs of Sn powder produced
under varying conditions
the magnesium oxide film formed on the surface during
atomisation.12,22 A close examination of Fig. 4a, b, e, and g
clearly shows that the rough surfaces of coarse, irregular
particles enable smaller particles to attach themselves firmly
to larger ones, supporting the suggestions made above
regarding the formation of satellites. The increase in
atomising gas pressure as studied in Refs. 15, 17, and 18
for Al and Mg powders leads to much faster and more
efficient secondary breakup resulting from the higher values
of linear gas velocities with respect to atomising runs
carried out with lower atomising gas pressures. This leads
to the production of more particles smaller than 10 mm.
These, together with more turbulent23 conditions of atomis-
ation resulting from higher atomising gas pressures, lead
to more collisions of abundant fine particles with coarse
ones that are irregularly shaped with rough surfaces. These
rough surfaces must be semisolid because of slow rates of
solidification during Ar gas atomisation in order to ease
the attachment of fine ones on to these large ones by
collision. The end result is more satellite formation, as
observed in Fig. 4. When atomisation is carried out under
Özbilen Satellite formation mechanism in gas atomised powders 77
He, faster solidification rates prevent the abovementioned
collisions, resulting in less chance of satellite formation, as
observed in the present work.
Particle morphology depends not only on oxygen levels
but also on the water vapour in the atomisation environ-
ment and on atomising gas pressure.9,18 It is expected that
higher oxygen, water vapour, and atomising gas pressure
levels would cause increased deviation from sphericity,
as is well known in the case of Al powders9,18 and Mg
powders.11,18,22 The Al powders (Fig. 2e) produced with a
N –11·7O gas mixture ( high oxygen level ) do have more
2 2
satellites than those (Fig. 2c and d) produced under pure
N (low oxygen level ). The coarse powder becomes more
2
atomisation is carried out under oxidising conditions, as
was done in run 318 (Ref. 9). This condition is more
suitable for fine powder particles attaching themselves to
coarse ones during in flight collisions by welding, thereby
forming more satellites, as observed in the present (Figs. 1
and 2) and previous studies.9,10,12,13,15,17,18,22 The oxidation
resistance of the material being atomised is also import-
ant to the final shape of the solidified powders. More
specifically, oxidation characteristics of liquid metals being
atomised are especially important in determining the shape
and surface roughness of powder particles forming the
coarse size range of the powder with bimodal size
distribution, as reported in previous studies.9,10,11,15,18,22
than that of Al, Al–Li, and Mg powders.9,11,22,24 During
atomisation, this leads to spherical particle formation in
Cu (under He) and Sn (under He) powders (Figs. 5c and d
and 6b and c) with smooth surface texture. In materials
that are difficult to oxidise during atomisation, such as Cu
and Sn powders, spherically shaped and smooth surfaced
coarse particles are not ideal sites for fine particles to
attach firmly onto, although they are present in large
amounts. This leads to less interaction of coarse and fine
particles, and hence less satellite formation. This is the
situation observed in Cu and Sn powders regardless of
atomisation gas type or pressure levels during atomisation.
In Sn powders produced under He, efficient secondary
These fine particles can not stick on to the surface of coarse
spherical particles with smooth surfaces. However in Mg
powders produced under Ar, having coarse, irregular
particles with rough surfaces, there are very few satellites
(Fig. 4a–d). This is due to the absence of fine particles in
Mg powder produced under Ar gas, as secondary breakup
is less efficient during Ar gas atomisation as compared to
He gas atomisation.
During atomisation, large particles need more time to
solidify than finer ones. Solidified finer powder particles
having a solid, hard surface and moving faster than large
particles stick to the surface of large particles that are still
liquid or in a mushy state during solidification following
primary and secondary breakup during atomisation.25
Large particles also move more slowly in the gas jet
than fine ones during breakup stages of atomisation. This
relative velocity difference causes collisions between fine
and large particles, leading to sintering, welding, or local
melting. The sticking power of small particles on to large
ones mainly depends on the shape and surface condition
of the large particles, hence affecting satellite formation.
The fine powder particles in the present study are
generally spherical with smooth surfaces (Figs. 2–6), while
the coarse Al–1Li alloy powder particles (Fig. 3a and c),
Mg powders (Fig. 4b and e–i), and Al powders of run 318
(Fig. 2e) had rough surfaces. The Al and Cu powders
produced under He (Figs. 2 and 5c and d) and the Sn
powder (Fig. 6) particles had smooth surfaces over the
entire particle size range. The coarse Al powder from
run 318 (Fig. 2e), Mg powder (Fig. 4b, e, and g), Cu powder
Powder Metallurgy 1999 Vol. 42 No. 1
78 Özbilen Satellite formation mechanism in gas atomised powders
(Fig. 5a and c), and Sn powder from run 408 (Fig. 6a and b)
were irregular in shape. The Al powders produced under
Ar and He (Fig. 2a and g), Al–1Li alloy powders (Fig. 3b
and d), Mg powders from run 390 under low pressure Ar
gas (Fig. 4c and d), and Sn powders from run 410 (under
He, Fig. 6b and c) had spherical particles over the entire
particle size range. Gas atomised powder particle shape
depends on the material being atomised, the type of
atomising gas, and the operating pressure as shown in
recent studies.18,26,27 These previous observations were
in accordance with the findings of Nichiporenko28 and
Nichiporenko and Naida,29 who proved analytically and
experimentally for Al, Cu, and Pb that larger particles were
less likely to spheroidise than smaller particles.
These observations confirm the overriding importance of
formation of both coarse and fine particles in the powder.
Only after this is attained does the nature of coarse particles
(their shape irregularity, the mushy state of their surface,
and surface roughness level, which depends on the material
being atomised and the type and pressure of the atomising
gas used) and their interaction with smaller ones in flight
become important with regard to satellite formation. The
oxidation resistance of the material being atomised also
becomes important at this stage.
CONCLUSION
For satellite formation in gas atomised powders to occur,
there is a need for both larger particles and finer ones to
be formed and for their interactions during atomisation to
occur, leading to welding in flight. Under turbulent
conditions such as those produced in gas atomisation, fine
particles move faster and solidify more quickly than coarse
ones and fine solidified particles collide with coarse particles
and stick to molten or semimolten surfaces during atomis-
ation. The end result is physical joining of fine particles to
coarse ones either by sintering or by a welding or melting
process of satellite formation. When a large amount of fine
particles (firmly attached to larger particles) are present as
a result of efficient secondary breakup, which depends on
the type and pressure of atomising gas used, on the shape
and surface texture of the coarse powder, on the oxidation
resistance of the material being atomised, and on the level
of oxygen and water vapour in the atomisation environ-
ment, the powder particles are irregular and rough ( because
of inhomogeneous surface oxide film thickness). This leads
to further interaction of these two particle size groups,
resulting in more fine particles firmly attached to larger
ones after welding in flight, and hence to a large amount
of satellites or satellite agglomerates, regardless of the
material being atomised.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The author wishes to thank Professor P. W. Pashley and
Professor T. Sheppard for provision of powder metallurgy
and extrusion research laboratory facilities at ICSTM,
Powder Metallurgy 1999 Vol. 42 No. 1
University of London. The author also wishes to thank
Dr Ünal for suggesting detailed SEM studies on gas
atomised powders, the Turkish Cement Association and
TPAO for providing facilities for electron microscopy
studies, and the referee for constructive criticism and helpful
comments.
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