Introduction to Volcanoes

(For Engineering Students)

Dr. Suman Paul

Associate Professor
Department of Petroleum Engineering
Al-Habeeb College of Engineering and Technology
Hyderabad
Content

Introduction

Magma

Igneous Rocks

Products of Volcanoes

Volcanic Cones

Eruption Types on Degree of Violence

Geographic Distribution

Volcanism – Its Good and Bad Sides

Prediction of Volcanism

Past Volcanisms in India

Assignment Questions
Introduction
The term “volcano” is derived from “Vulcan”, the Roman God of Fire.

Volcanoes are conical or dome shaped structures built by the emission of lava
and it contained gases from a restricted vent in the earth’s surface. The
volcanoes are having truncated tops representing the crater, that acts as the
avenues for the magma to rise.

People have always enjoyed living near volcanoes because they are beautiful
when active and because altered volcanic materials often make excellent soil.

But volcanism when violent in nature may have caused hundreds or

thousands of death and considerable loss of property.

Violent eruption of Mt. Pelee on the 8th May, 1920 was a mixture of hot gas
along with tons of ash particles. This heavy emulsion of gas and ash swept
down the side of the mountain, completely destroying the village Saint Pierre,
killing all, except a very few, of 28000 inhabitants. Eruption of Mt. Vesuvius on
the 24th August, 79 A.D. perished the entire Pompeii City, Italy.
Introduction
Volcanic materials may be erupted either through some long fissures or
fractures, called fissure eruption (Figure 1) or through some circular vent
called central eruption (Figure 2).

Figure 1: Fissure eruption. Figure 2: Central eruption.

Introduction
Initially, only fracture or opening exist and with successive volcanism, lavas
and other volcanic materials are found accumulated surrounding the fracture
or circular opening producing some sort of hills, mounds or even mountains
of variable size and height.

Mt. Etna in Sicily forms a mountain of more than 3000 m height. Mouna Loa of
Hawaii Islands forms a cone on the Pacific Sea which is about 10000 m high
rising about 4500 m above the sea level.

Depending on the periodicity of the volcanism, a volcano is called active

(outpouring volcanic materials at present), dormant or slumbering (eruption
recorded within historic times) and extinct (stopped activities since the
historic times).

Barren Island in Andaman furnishes an example of an active volcano erupting

in the years 1795, 1803 and also at present. Volcanoes of Narcondam and Popa
Island in the Bay of Bengal are considered extinct. Howerer, it is difficult to
predict a volcano as extinct.
Magma
The first crust was formed from the solidification of a hot and molten silicate
melts called magma.
The hot molten material occurring naturally below the surface of the Earth is
called magma. It is also called lava when erupted through volcanoes.
It is to be mentioned here that magma is actually a hypothetical melt. It has not
been possible to see it at its place of occurrence. But it is assumed to get
formed at great depths below the surface due to very high temperature related
to a number of causes such as rise in temperature with depth and also
occurrence of radioactive minerals.
Lava is, however, a thoroughly studied material that has poured out
occasionally from volcanoes in many regions of the world again and again.
It provides with ample proof of existence of the magma below the surface.
Magma or lava from which igneous rocks are formed may not be entirely a
pure melt: it may have a crystalline or solid fraction and also a gaseous
fraction thoroughly mixed with it.
Magma
The solid and gaseous fractions, however, form only a small part of the
magma or lava, which are predominantly made up of liquid material.
In most cases magma is believed to be a sufficiently mobile melt. Magma can
exist as a melt as long as physical and chemical environment surrounding it
remains unchanged.
But as and when there is a change in one or more of these conditions (e.g.: fall
in temperature and pressure due to upward movement), cooling and
crystallization of magma may start and end up with the formation of an
igneous rock.
Magma is a complex mixture of liquid, solid, and gas. The main elements in
magma are oxygen (O), silicon (Si), aluminum (Al), calcium (Ca), sodium (Na),
potassium (K), iron (Fe), and magnesium (Mg).
However, two major molecules found in magma that controls the properties of
the magma. These two molecules are silica (SiO2) and water (H2O). Silica
comprises as much as 75 percent of the magma.
Magma
When rock melts deep underground, the magma rises through the earth's
crust because the molten rock is less dense than solid rock.
In many cases, the magma is unable to reach the surface, and it will cool in
place many miles under the ground. This underground cooling produces the
largest crystal sizes, because it cools more slowly.
Sometimes the magma extrudes onto the surface, either on land or
underwater.
The heat generated by processes such as radioactive mineral disintegration.
Magma doesn’t occur everywhere below the earth because when
temperature increases with depth, pressure also increases with depth due
to overburden.
Magma is always associated with huge quantities of various volatiles, whereas
these volatiles are absent in case of lava since these volatiles escape
into the atmosphere in case of lava. Volatiles consist of dominantly water
vapour, CO2.
Magma

The rise in temperature tends to increase the volume of the material

whereas the rise in pressure tends to decrease the volume of the material.
Hence, the effects of these two mutually are different. Depending upon local
conditions where the pressure effect is more than the effect of
temperature, magma is formed.
As a rate of cooling of magma at a depth becomes much slow, from extruding
lavas mineral grain crystallized from it can grow to a considerable size and
hence plutonic rocks are in general coarse grained.
Rate of cooling of hypabyssal magma is considerably high and hence
hypabyssal rocks are mostly medium grained.
In volcanic rocks which are formed by very quick solidification of lava on the
earth surface, there is almost no chance of growth of large grains. As a result,
such rocks become almost always fine grained and sometimes even grassy.
As from magma, mineral grains crystallize simultaneously; the grains within
the rocks usually exhibit an interlocking relation among them.
Magma
Often earlier formed mineral grains become much larger (larger grains are
called phenocrysts) in size than the later formed minerals.
As plutonic and hypabyssal rocks have their origin much below the surface,
they are almost always devoid of any fossils. However, volcanic rocks
producing on the earth surface may contain organic remains.
Igneous Rocks
The word igneous is derived from the Latin word “ignis” which means “fire”
and it forms through the cooling and solidification of magma or lava.
The first crust was formed form the solidification of hot and molten silicate
melts called magma. These rocks are described as igneous rocks. As they
were the first-formed rocks on this planet, they are also called primary rocks.
So, at least, at the very initial stage of the earth, the crust was composed only
of igneous rocks.
Igneous rock may form with or without crystallization, either below the
surface as intrusive (plutonic) rocks or on the surface as extrusive (volcanic)
rocks.
This magma can be derived from partial melts of pre-existing rocks in either a
planet's mantle or crust.
Typically, the melting is caused by one or more of three processes: an
increase in temperature, a decrease in pressure, or a change in composition.
Igneous Rocks
Products of Volcanoes
A volcano commonly produces three types of materials during its eruption,
viz. solids, liquids and gases.
The solid materials include rock-fragments of variable size, blown off during
eruption, derived either from rocks composing the wall of the fracture or vent
or are produced due to consolidation of ejected highly viscous lava-drops in
the air. These solid products of a volcano are called pyroclastic materials
which according to their size are named as bombs or blocks (mostly solidified
droplets of lava or angular wall-rock fragments > 32 mm in diameter), lapilla (4
mm to 32 mm) and ash (< 4 mm).
Accumulated ash particles often produce a rock called tuff whereas a rock
composed of angular volcanic rock-fragments bounded by ash materials is
called volcanic breccia.
The liquid product of a volcano is commonly lava (lava flow) and
compositionally it may be acidic (high percentage of silica), intermediate
(moderately high silica) or basic (low silica content) in nature.
Products of Volcanoes

Accordingly, a lava flow may be rhyolitic (acidic), andesitic and trachytic

(intermediate) and basaltic (basic). It is found that viscosity of magma
increases with increase in its silica content. Thus acid lavas are more viscous
than basic types.
As lavas are boiling fluids, they contain sometimes a lot of gas bubbles which
escape from the top surface of the lavas as they are erupted on the surface
and this produces some circular openings on the upper surface of lava when
the latter is called vesicular lava. Extremely vesicular lava is called
scoriaceous which is almost like sponge. Vesicles may be filled up later by
some secondary minerals called amygdales when the lava is called
amygduloidal.
Among the gaseous products, released during volcanism, steam is by far the
most important. Steam is ejected from most of the volcanoes under high
pressure to a considerable height in the atmosphere.
Products of Volcanoes
A volcano erupting dominantly steam is called fumerole. The other gaseous
products are carbon dioxide, sulphur dioxide, hydrofluoric and hydrochloric
acid, hydrogen sulphide, hydrogen, sulphur and chlorine.
A mixture of steam and fine dust may produce a huge volume of cloud in the
atmosphere above the volcano which on consideration may result torrential
rainfall soon after volcanism. This rain water washes away the ash and
pyroclasts that descend down the slope as ashflows or mudflows which are
often distinguished as lahars.
However, all volcanoes do not produce all these types of materials. Some
volcanoes may be erupt only ashes and pyroclasts. Some erupt dominantly
lavas, others erupt dominantly gases. But there are volcanoes which erupt all
these products either simultaneously or one after another.
Volcanic Cones
Volcanic cones are produced by accumulation of volcanic products
surrounding the vent or fracture. Shape and composition of volcanic cones
vary considerably depending on its eruption.
A volcano, erupting dominantly lavas may produce two types of cones
depending on the compositions of the lava. Basic lava, as they are more fluid
spreads as thin parallel sheets one above the other forming a low height cone
compared to its diameter, giving a shield like appearance and hence is called
shield volcano (Figure 3).

Figure 3: Shield Volcano.

Volcanic Cones
In this case, a prolonged period of erosion in a fissure eruption produces low-
flat-topped plateau like landforms with terraced slopes (plateau basalts or trap
basalts). Deccan Traps of India, Mt. Etna of Sicily, Mauna Loa in Hawaii are
examples of shield volcanoes.
A crater is a depression of variable size on the top of the cones marking the
passage of erupting materials (Figure 4).

Figure 4: Crater.
Volcanic Cones
A volcanic cone, on the other hand, made up of only viscous acidic lavas
(rhyolites) with a dome like landform with considerable height compared to its
width and is called lava dome or lava cone or plug dome (Figure 5). Such a
dome is produced by the M. Pelee, West Indies.

Figure 5: Lava dome or Lava cone or Plug dome.

Volcanic Cones
A volcanic cone dominantly composed of pyroclastic materials becomes more
or less conical in shape with steep slope and is called pyroclastic cones or
cinder cone (Figure 6).

Figure 6: Pyroclastic cone or Cinder cone.

Volcanic Cones
More common are the volcanic cones made up of the both lavas and
pyroclastics that exhibit gentle slope near the base but steeper slope at the
upper part. Alternate layers of lavas and pyroclastics, composing such cones
slope down in the directions away from the vent. These are called composite
cones or strato-volcanoes, such as Fujiama of Japan (Figure 7).

Figure 7: Composite cone or Strato-volcano.

Volcanic Cones
There are few other features found associated with volcanic cones. Besides
the mother cone, there may be several other subsidiary cones on the sides of
the main body called daughter cones (Figure 8).

Figure 8: Daughter cone.

Volcanic Cones
A caldera is however a very large crater, may be a few kilometers in diameter
and several meters deep (Figure 9). A caldera may be produced either by a
violent explosion resulting removal of top part of the cone or collapse of the
top portion of the cone due to complete withdrawal of magma from the magma
chamber underneath. Caldera or crater may be subsequently occupied by rain-
water forming a lake, such as the Lonar Lake of Maharashtra.

Figure 9: Caldera.
Eruption Types on Degree of Violence
The quietest form of lava eruption is called Hawaiian type, characteristics of
the volcanoes of Mouna Loa and Kilauea, Hawaii Island. Here eruption of
burning lavas takes place in the form of fire fountains.
The next severe nature of eruption is called Vesuvian type as shown by the Mt.
Vesuvius, Mt. Etna and Mt. Vulcano, all located in the Mediterrenean. Here the
eruption is more violent type as lavas are accompanied by sufficient gases
and ash particles.
In the more violent Pelean type, exhibited by Mt. Pelee in Matrinique, eruption
of huge gas and ash particles is usually preceded by strong subterranean
tremors.
Strombolean type, shown by Mt. Stromboli, is a clear example of the most
violent type of eruption where lavas, gases and large and small pyroclastics
are ejected sporadically in the form of violent explosion.
Geographic Distribution
Study of active and ancient volcanoes on the earth surface has revealed that
volcanic activity is mainly confined to two sectors of the earth.
Most active volcanoes on the present earth are concentrated around the
Pacific Ocean, often called Circum Pacific Belt or sometimes called Pacific
Ring of Fire.
Another zone of heightened volcanism is the Mediterrenean Belt stretching E-
W direction from the Alps. There is also a belt of volcanoes along the midway
of the Atlantic in a roughly N-S direction.
Some volcanoes are also present in the East African Rift Zone.
Such a distribution of volcanoes definitely indicates that origin of most
volcanoes is related to some internal dynamic processes within the earth,
often called plate movements.
Geographic Distribution

Pacific Ring of Fire

Volcanism – Its Good and Bad Sides
Since the historic times thousands of people have died miserably as a result
of direct volcanism or volcanic induced sea-waves, ash falls, lahars, flood,
suffocation, gas poisoning and starvation after crop destruction.
However, volcanic activity has its own beneficial side also.
Our atmosphere and hydrosphere are essentially the gifts of ancient
volcanism.
Many important mineral deposits are found produced from volcanic materials
such as sulphur and cinnabar.
Thousands of square kilometers of new lands much of which will be
subsequently transformed to highly fertile soil, have been created by
volcanism.
Prediction of Volcanism
Prediction of volcanic events rests on accurate knowledge of the past history
of the volcano concerned and a more detailed knowledge about the inner
workings of the volcanoes.
Among some features observed prior to a volcanism, are changes of
temperature of the associated hot springs and crater lakes.
Doming and tilting of the ground surface near the eruption site is a common
precursor.
Change of earth’s magnetic field also occurs prior to a volcanism due to
movement of liquid magma under the surface.
Erratic behaviors of different animals are often seen prior to an eruption, as
they are far more sensitive to impending disaster than we are.
Past Volcanism of India
Evidences of past volcanisms in India are found from very old Precambrian
times although the actual igneous cum volcanic characters of these
Precambrian rocks are sometimes destroyed by their subsequent deformation
and metamorphism.
But still, there are some unique volcanic features in them that help us to
identify their original nature.

A. Precambrian Volcanisms: Earliest evidences of volcanic eruption are found

in Mysore and adjacent areas of Karnataka. The Lower Dharwar Group of
Karnataka, according to many workers, is volcanic in nature although most of
them are now metamorphosed.
Hornblende schist of Shimoga, Bellary and Lingadhalli Traps of Kolar and
Jogimardi Traps of Chitradurga are frequently found showing relics of pillow
structure.
Past Volcanism of India
The rocks were originally spilitic in nature and the lavas indicate submarine
volcanism at the initial phase of geosynclinal sedimentation in the Karnataka
Precambrian Basin.
Kandra Volcanics of Nellore Schist Belt, now represented by epidiorite and
chlorite schist are also representing initial volcanism in this area. Radiogenic
are of these volcanics is nearly 2500 Ma to 3000 Ma.
In Singhbhum, Jharkhand, manifestations of early volcanisms are documented
by Dhanjori - Dalma – Jagannathpur lavas. At present, most of them are
represented by epidioritic rocks but they mostly stood as high plateau-like
hills, thousands of feet above the surrounding country. The volcanism is
considered to be mainly fissure-type associated with a few local central type
eruptions. Volcanic breccia and tuff are found in all horizons.
The pink colored rocks of south of Noamundi are thought to be original
rhyolitic tuffs.
Past Volcanism of India
Extensive exposures of epidiorite known as Khasia Greenstone, found within
Precambrian Shillong Group of Assam may be correlated with Dalma
Volcanics. The radiometric age of these volcanic rocks is 2000 Ma to 2500 Ma.

The Aravalli Group of Rajasthan begins with thick series of greenish hornfels
and phyllites, probably representing original bedded tuffs. There are also thick
volcanic agglomeraticn rocks at the upper part called Khairamalia
Amygduloids. These volcanics are probably more than 2500 Ma old.

Towards the end of the deposition of Lower Vindhyan Group in Rajasthan

there are evidences of acid-volcanic activity. In and around Manali, occur a
series of acid volcanics including rhyolites. These are dated as 700 Ma. A thick
series of rhyolitic flows, interbedded with tuff, have been reported to overlie
the Sakoli Group of Rocks in Madhya Pradesh. These are, of course, much
older than Manali Volcanics.
Past Volcanism of India
B. Phanerozoic Volcanisms: In Upper Carboniferous – Lower Triassic period,
western part of Kashmir basin became a centre of eruption. The lava was
mainly central type with the Pir Panjal peak acting as the centre of eruption.
The lavas, disintegrated as Panjal Traps are mainly andesitic in composition.
The activity took place in sub-terrestrial condition (submarine shelf).
In the Upper Jurassic – Lower Cretaceous times volcanic activity broke out in
and around Rajmahal, Jharkhand. The eruption was continental and fissure
type, but intermittent in nature. The lavas are basaltic with frequent
intertrappean sediments bearing plant fossils (deposited during silent
periods). The rocks are named as Rajmahal Traps from the presence of
terraced slopes of the plateau-like hills produced by the accumulation of lavas
around fissures.
Similar lava flows of same age are reported from Assam known Sylhet Traps.
Past Volcanism of India
The most violent outbreak of volcanic eruption took place towards the end of
Cretaceous. Widespread continental volcanism broke out in Upper Cretaceous
– Lower Tertiary times at several parts of western, central and southern India
covering more than 0.2 million km2 areas. The lavas were mainly basaltic type
forming plateaus with terraced slopes (hence called Deccan Traps). The
eruption was fissure type but a few central eruptions are also known from
western India (Girnar Mountain). The eruption was intermittent with
fossiliferous intertrappean sediments. Although, basalt is the dominant rock
type, there are acidic, intermediate and ultrabasic varieties of igneous rocks
produced by magnetic differentiation of original basic lavas. The Deccan
volcanism is radiometrically dated as 65 ± 5 ma (Upper Cretaceous).

Cretaceous – Tertiary volcanism was widespread in the Himalaya, Burma and

Beluchistan (related to Himalayan orogeny). Ophiolitic rocks are reported from
various parts of the Extrapeninsula.
Assignment Questions
1. Write short note on Magma.
2. Define Volcano and briefly discuss the types of volcanoes.
3. Classify the volcanoes depending on their lava eruption type.
4. Is it possible to predict volcanic eruption?
5. Write short note on Volcanic Cones.
Thank You !!!