NUERONAL SUMMATION

Temporal summation

 is the summation in the nervous system in which a single presynaptic neuron involves in the production of
multiple subthresholds over a period of time.
 At a certain point, the sum of these subthreshold become sufficient for the generation or firing of an action
potential on the postsynaptic neuron.

Here, each subthreshold is generated by the released neurotransmitters to the synaptic gap by the presynaptic neuron.
Also, each of the subthreshold can be considered as an excitatory postsynaptic potential (EPSPs). However, an action
potential is generated only if the sum of the subthresholds becomes equal to the suprathreshold.

Spatial summation

 Here, the subthresholds produced by multiple presynaptic neurons are responsible for the generation of an
action potential on the postsynaptic neuron.
 Therefore, this is a type of simultaneous summation in which multiple ESPSs are responsible for the generation
of an action potential.
NEURONAL CIRCUITS
 The CNS contains billions of neurons organized into complicated networks called neural circuits
 Functional groups of neurons that process specific types of information.
 In a simple series circuit, a presynaptic neuron stimulates a single postsynaptic neuron. The second neuron then
stimulates another, and so on.

a. Divergence

 Permits one presynaptic neuron to influence several postsynaptic neurons (or several muscle fibers or gland
cells) at the same time.
  In a diverging circuit, the nerve impulse from a single presynaptic neuron causes the stimulation of increasing
numbers of cells along the circuit (Figure A.)

For example, a small number of neurons in the brain that govern a particular body movement stimulate a much larger
number of neurons in the spinal cord.

Sensory signals are also arranged in diverging circuits, allowing a sensory impulse to be relayed to several regions of the
brain.

b. Convergence

 In another arrangement, called convergence, several presynaptic neurons synapse with a single postsynaptic
neuron.
 This arrangement permits more effective stimulation or inhibition of the postsynaptic neuron.
 In a converging circuit, the postsynaptic neuron receives nerve impulses from several different sources. (Figure
B)

For example, a single motor neuron that synapses with skeletal muscle fibers at neuromuscular junctions receives input
from several pathways that originate in different brain regions.

c. Reverberating

 Circuits are organized so that stimulation of the presynaptic cell causes the postsynaptic cell to transmit a series
of nerve impulses. (Figure C)
 In this pattern, the incoming impulse stimulates the first neuron, which stimulates the second, which stimulates
the third, and so on.
 This arrangement sends impulses back through the circuit again and again.

The output signal may last from a few seconds to hours, depending on the number of synapses and the arrangement of
neurons in the circuit.

Inhibitory neurons may turn off a reverberating circuit after a period of time. Among the body responses thought to be
the result of output signals from reverberating circuits are breathing, coordinated muscular activities, waking up, and
short-term memory.

d. Parallel after-discharge

 In this circuit, a single presynaptic cell stimulates a group of neurons, each of which synapses with a common
postsynaptic cell. (Figure D)
 A differing number of synapses between the first and last neurons imposes varying synaptic delays, so that the
last neuron exhibits multiple EPSPs or IPSPs.
 If the input is excitatory, the postsynaptic neuron then can send out a stream of impulses in quick succession.

Parallel after discharge circuits may be involved in precise activities such as mathematical calculations.
NUERONAL INTEGRATION

Temporal summation

 is the summation in the nervous system in which a single presynaptic neuron involves in the production of
multiple subthresholds over a period of time.
 At a certain point, the sum of these subthreshold become sufficient for the generation or firing of an action
potential on the postsynaptic neuron.

Here, each subthreshold is generated by the released neurotransmitters to the synaptic gap by the presynaptic neuron.
Also, each of the subthreshold can be considered as an excitatory postsynaptic potential (EPSPs). However, an action
potential is generated only if the sum of the subthresholds becomes equal to the suprathreshold.

Spatial summation
 Here, the subthresholds produced by multiple presynaptic neurons are responsible for the generation of an
action potential on the postsynaptic neuron.
 Therefore, this is a type of simultaneous summation in which multiple ESPSs are responsible for the generation
of an action potential.