Nift Book

IFTIKHAR HUSSAIN
STATION FIRE OFFICER COURSE

COURSE NUMBER 105
CLASS NUMBER 04
STARTED FROM 02nd JAN TO 22th MARCH 2017
COURSE INCHARGE MR MUHAMMAD ABUZAR
NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF FIRE TECHNOLOGY

ISLAMABAD (NIFTECH).
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ACKNOWLEGMENT
Start with the name of Almighty ALLAH who is Beneficent and most
Merciful
“Whoever follows a path in the pursuit of knowledge, Allah will

make easy way for him a path to paradise.”
(Prophet Muhammad PBUH)
After I submitted my bundle of thanks to my parents who pray for

my success and always been a source encouragement for me..
Secondly I am really grateful to Mr. Tariq Javed Qazi (Director Of
National Institute of Fire Technology) who gave me opportunity and
encouragement to be more skillful and boost up my confidence to
be a part of such an informative training Course , and also I would
like to thanks my honorable Instructors who transferred their
precious knowledge….
Mr. Muhammad Abuzar,
Mr. Amanullah
Mr. Abdul Haadi
Miss Riffat Ejaz
Miss Shazia Chaudhry,
Mr. Asad Shah,
Mr Hafeez-Ur-Rehman
Mr Abdul Rehman.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS:
CHAPTER# TOPICS PAGE#
1 CIVIL DEFENCE PAKISTAN 4-9
2 FIRE HOSE 10-14
3 FIRE 15-21
4 CAUSES OF FIRE 22-34
5 FIRE EXTINGUISHERS 35-40
6 LADDER 41-46
7 EMERGENCY METHOD OF RESCUE 47-49
8 BURNS AND SCOLD 50-53
9 FIRST AID 54-58
10 BONE FRACTURE 59-60
11 MEANS OF ESCAPE 61-63
12 INCENDIARY AGENTS/DEVICES/WEAPONS 64-66
13 DISASTER MANAGEMENT 67-68
14 FIRE ALARM SYSTEM 69-71
15 BREATHING APPARATUS 72-77
16 FIRE HYDRANT 78-81
17 PUMP & PRIMING 82-85
18 BUILDING CONSTRUCTION 86-87
19 FIRE DRILL 88
20 FIRE IN HIGH RISE BUILDINGS 89-90
21 DUST EXPLOSION 91-93
22 FIRE IN METALS 94-101
23 HUMAN BODY SYSTEM 102-103
24 BANDAGE 104-106
25 SHOCK 107-108
26 LINE & ROPE 109-110
27 KNOTS & THEIR APPLICATIONS 111-115
28 PERMIT TO WORK 116-122
29 SNAKE BITE 123-126
30 OIL INSTALLATION 127-130
31 LPG (LIQUEFIED PETROLEUM GAS) 131-133
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CHAPTER NO 1
CIVIL DEFENCE PAKISTAN:
INTRODUCTION
Mr. George Saint Paul is known as the father of civil Defense. He was a French
Surgeon and was very much influenced by the First World War (1914 AD-1919 AD),
where he served many injured and also saw thousands of deaths in front of him.
HISTORY:
UK HISTORY.
During First World War the first air attack was done by Germany in the city of Grate
Yarmouth on 19th of January 1915 and 6 people were died in this air attack. In 1919 when
First World War finished than the higher authorities thought that they should take to avoid
such type of attack or to aware the people before attack. 120,000 People started to leave
London City. Military soldiers were sent to motivate or to stop the people may not quit
London.
US HISTORY.
ARP (Air Raid Precaution Service) was established in 1924. Civil Defense Service
established in USA in 1935. Civil Air Patrol was first time established in 1st December 1941.
From 1931-1966 there were many attempts done to make the legislation, at last an
Organization Came into being and enrolment started in 1966. It needed at least 10 members
to take this organization at international level. 1st March 1972 an organization came into
being an International level which is known as an International Civil Defense Organization.
In Pakistan, Civil Defense work was started under Air Raid Precaution service, act 31 was
rendered in 1951and it was approved in 1952. Civil Defense Pakistan came into being by
such way.
Pakistan Became the Member of an international Civil Defense Organization in 1st January
1970.
DEFINITION OF CIVIL DEFENCE
Civil Defense includes any measures not amounting to actual combat for affording Defence
against any hostile attack by a foreign power or enemy or for depriving any hostile attack by
foreign power enemy and of it effect whether such messages are taken before or during the
time of attack. It includes remedial measures against natural and man-made disasters.
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TYPES OF DEFENCE
Active Defense
Armed forces which fight by orders like as Army, Navy, Airforce.
Passive Defense
This not an armed force but works at huge level in any kind of emergency.
OBJECTIVES OF CIVIL DEFENCE
1. Save the lives of people as can be.

2. Injured which are to death should be given first aid on priority bases and try to
reduce the causalities.
3. Industry.
4. To take the people towards shelter in any kind of emergency floods or earth quakes.
5. Make an arrangement of shelter in any case of emergency
6. Give the trainings to the citizens of fireman/ first aid to make them civilized.
7. To protect the citizens and National Assets.
8. To change the result of War in a positive way (by helping the armed forces when
they need).
9. To motivate the dis-hearted people.
10. To give the maximum relief to the people during man made or natural disasters or
peace times.
11. Rehabilitation.
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ORGANIZATIONAL SETUP OF CIVIL DEFENCE PAKISTAN.
FEDERAL MINISTER
Interior Minister
Secretary Interior
Director General CDP
▼ ▼ ▼
Director NIFTECH Director Administration/ Director Civil Defence

Coordination Academy Lahore
▼
▼ ▼ ▼
FCDTS Schools Unit Commander BDU Women Mobile Teams

Federal Civil Defence
training Schools (Karachi,
Quetta, Faisalabad,
Peshawar, Muzaffarabad,
Abbottabad,Lahore).
RESPONSIBILITES AT FEDEARL LEVEL
1. To make planning and suggestions of Civil Defense.

2. To give instructions to the provincial government and implement their instructions.
3. To make the services and equipments according to standard.
4. To give technical support to the provinces.
5. To arrange special trainings in Federal Defense Training Schools.
6. To arrange the higher Civil Defense foreign trainings of officials.
7. To give trainings in the Defense institutions.
8. To make the legislations of Civil Defense and to make amendments in the law when
need.
9. To implement the Civil Defense instructions at provincial level.
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ORGANIZATIONAL SETUP OF CIVIL DEFENCE PAKISTAN
Home Secretary
Director Civil Defence
Deputy Director Admin Deputy Director Technical
Assistant Director Assistant Director Assistant Director
Admin Transport B&A
ESS Employee Assistant Director District
Self Service Civil Defense Officer
RESPONSIBILITIES AT PROVINCIAL LEVEL
1. To make strategy, planning and suggestions and to implement those according to

federal Civil Defense instructions.
2. To give instructions to district local Civil Authority.
3. To depute the duties of governmental and non-governmental institutions.
4. To arrange the trainings at district level.
5. To send report to federal CDO regularly.
6. To create mutual understandings among different institutions and agencies with
CDO.
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ORGANIZATIONAL / HIERARCHY SETUP AT DISTRICT LEVEL
DCO
▼▬▬▬▬▬▬▬▬▬▬▬▬▬▬▬▬▬▬▬▬▬▬▬▬▼
Admin Wing Technical Wing
▼▬▬▬▬▬▬▬▬▬▼▬▬▬▬▬▬▬▬▼▬▬▬▬▬▬▬▼▬▬▬▬▬▬▬▼
Rescue Service Fire Fighting Casualty Service Warden Service Control&

Service Command Service
RESPONSIBILITIES AT DISTRICT LEVEL
1. To prepare the responsibilities of Civil Defense at local level.

2. Selection of volunteers their enrollment and trainings.
3. To complete the operational and relief works.
4. To arrange the general and basic area wise trainings.
5. To arrange the different types of drills and exercises at small and huge level.
6. To visit the residential and industrial areas and to make an assessment in case of fire.
FIRE SERVICE ORGANIZATION IN PAKISTAN
In 17th century one service was started whose responsibility was to deal with the
patients of accidents and fires. In 1947 at the time of partition there were only seven fire
stations in Pakistan (Dhaka, Chittagong, Rajshahi, Karachi, Lahore, Peshawar and
Rawalpindi). Fire Service organization in Pakistan was started under act 31, 1952. In
1984 the act was revised and again revised in 1987. National Institute of Fire Technology
was established in 1980.
RESPONSIBLITIES AT FEDERAL LEVEL
1. To make an arrangement of free trainings.

2. To provide free consultancy to the people.
3. Make an arrangement for international trainings of officials and professionals.
4. Audit inspection about evacuation etc.
5. Demonstration (In Markets educate people how to extinguish the fire and how to
use the fire extinguishers?).
6. To submit reports in the ministry.
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RESPONSIBLITIES AT FEDERAL LEVEL
1. Provincial civil defense organization takes instructions from federal level.

2. Mobile fire-fighting services are provided.
3. Staff is sent to federal level for further trainings.
RESPONSIBLITIES AT LOCAL LEVEL
1. Free of cost federal level trainings for the people. Instructors will freely give
trainings.
2. Locally incident report is sent to federal level.
3. Inspection of different institutions and industries,
RESPONSIBLITIES AT INDUSTRY
1. Industry will spend 1% of whole income on fire prevention.

2. Industry will send their workers for further trainings.
3. Industry will provide proper instruments.
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CHAPTER NO 2
“FIRE HOSE”
1. HISTORY:
Hose pipe was Ist invented by “Jan Vander Heiden” (he was a
Dutch and suprindentend of Holland fire brigade department) in 1673 AD (Amsterdam).
He made hose from Linen 50 feet length. Soon Linen was replaced by Hand stitched
leather.
He was also credited to manufacturer of “Suction Hose”.
In 1890 AD, Ist fabricative hose introduced made of circular woven Linen yarn.
In 1960 AD, rubber hose pipes were also introduced.
2. DEFINITION:
“The term fire hose identifies a type of fitting/flexible tube used
by fire fighters to carry water with pressure from the source of supply to a point
where it is discharged (Place of fire)”.
In order to be reliable, fire hose should be constructed of the best
materials, and it should not be used for purposes other than fire fighting.
Fire hose is the most used item in the fire service. It must be flexible, be
water tight, have a smooth lining, and have a durable covering (also called a hose
jacket).Depending on its intended use, fire hose is manufactured in different
configurations such as single-jacket, double-jacket, rubber single-jacket, and
hard-rubber non collapsing types.
3. TYPES OF HOSES:
(a)Delivery Hose (b) Suction Hose (c) Hose Reel.
(a) Delivery Hose.
“It is a fabric covered flexible hose which can deliver water from one
point to another desired point.(It can be from water hydrant to fire tender or
from fire tender to the place of fire).
•Standard Diameter 2.5 Inch. •Standard length 100 Feet.
(b) Suction Hose.

Suction hoses are used for sucking water out of unpressured source such as
pond, river, stream or static water tank by means of vacuum (Priming).
(a) Soft Suction hose (b) Hard Suction hose.
Hard suction hose are made of multiple layers of rubber and
woven fabric encapsulating an internal helix of steel wire.
• Standard Diameter= 3.5 to 6 Inch.
• Standard Length = 10 to 20 Feet
(c) Hose Reels.

Hose reels are normally made up of rubber covered thick
walled flexible hose which s used to fight small level fire. It is
usually fixed on wall of a building or fire tender.
•Standard Diameter 0.75 to 1 Inch
•Standard Length 100 to 120 feet.
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3. TYPES OF DELIVERY HOSE:
(a) Unlined or Percolating Delivery Hose.
Woven from vegetable fibers only.
(Eg.Ft#910997)
→ Advantage of usage: Remains cool during fire fighting.
Don’t burn easily in fire.
→ Disadvantage of usage: Remains leak during fire fighting.
Have to dry it in Sun before rolling.
(b) Lined or Non-Percolating Hose.

Consisting of a jacket woven from vegetable fibers
and having rubber or plastic lining.(Eg. Ft#928452).
→ Advantage of usage: Don’t leak during fire fighting.
Don’t need to dry in Sun for some time.
→ Disadvantage of usage: Hose rubber coating can be burnt during fire
fighting.
4. CHARACTERISTICS OF A HOSE.
→Flexibility.
→Durability.
→Resistance to rot.
→Friction should be minimum.
→Weight should be minimum.
→Change in length and diameter.
Note: {Joint Committee on Design and Development of Appliances and Equipments (JCDD)
5. MATERIAL USED IN HOSE CONSTRUCTION.

→FLAX
Flax has great strength and durability, with high absorbent qualities.
→ NYLON
It is a synthetic & rot resisting fiber, light in weight and of great strength, with a
low degree of absorbency. Also it stretches considerably under pressure and its use for fire
hose is normally confined to the weft because if it is used for warp (twisting) then the
stretch might result in undue SNAKING (twisting) of the hose.
→COTTON.
Cotton has strength and high resistance to abrasion (scratch). But it also needs rot
proofing treatment like flax.
→COTTON JACKETED HOSE.
This type of hose comes in a variety of sizes, and in
single and double-jacket.
Single-jacketed 1" and 11’-2" is primarily used in wild
land firefighting due to its light weight. Unlined linen hose is sometimes found in
private fire protection installations. With both types of cotton jacketed hose a
rubber inner lining is utilized as a waterway. In single-jacketed hose, this inner
liner is bonded to the jacket by a process called vulcanization. This process utilizes
heat and steam to bond the rubber liner to the cotton jacket. Vulcanization is also
used to bond the rubber inner lining to the cotton jacket of double-jacketed hose.
• Service test pressure for single-jacketed Cotton hose is 200 psi.
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• Service test pressure for double-jacketed cotton hose is 250 psi.
• Working pressure for double-jacketed cotton hose is 100 psi.
→SYNTHETIC HOSE
All synthetic hoses are double jacketed, and are used in structural fire fighting.
The construction of synthetic fire hose is similar to that of cotton jacketed hose;
the inner lining is vulcanized to the inner jacket. The inner lining, however, can be
either rubber or plastic. The inner jacket is protected by a second jacket to allow
for greater pressure and durability. Both jackets are made of a synthetic,
polyester, or nylon thread. The outside jacket is treated with a compound that
completely encapsulates the jacket fiber to provide water repellency, heat
resistance, abrasion resistance, and oil and chemical resistance.
• All synthetic hoses are considered high pressure.
• Yellow or red synthetic double-jacketed hose is tested to 300 psi.
• Blue synthetic double-jacketed hose is tested to 600 psi.
Hoses are also manufactured from Rame, Hemp, and Jute etc.
7. MANUFACTURING METHOD OF HOSE:
•Plain Weave •Twill
Plain method.
In Plain weave (also called tabby weave, linen weave or taffeta weave) the warp
and weft are aligned so they form a simple cross-cross pattern. Each weft thread
crosses the warp threads by going over one, then under the next, and so on. The
next weft thread goes under the warp threads that its neighbor went over,
and vice versa. 75% pressure exerted on warp wise strands and 25% weft wise
strands during working condition.
Twill method.
Twill is done by passing the weft thread over one or more warp threads and then
under two or more warp threads and so on, with a "step" or offset between rows
to create the characteristic diagonal pattern. Because of this structure, twills
generally weave well.
8. DEPENDABILITY OF HOSE:
The life of fire hose can be as long as twelve to fifteen years; under average use
and conditions, it should be serviceable for a minimum of seven years. In general,
dependability and length of fire hose life rest on four factors. Three of the four factors are
under the direct control of the firefighter:
1. The quality of the hose purchased.
2. The pressure to which it is subjected in fire service.
3. The care and handling it receives at a fire scene.
4. The care and maintenance it receives at the fire station.
9. CAUSES OF DAMAGE:
Hose damage can occur from mechanical, heat, and chemical actions. The following
list details some of the types of damage that can occur to hoses:
Mechanical - Tear, abrasions, excessive pressure or water hammer, and driving
over hose or couplings.
Heat - Prolonged exposure to Sun, improper storage near heat source, and burns
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resulting from exposure to embers (coke/ash) or fire.
Chemical - Improper drying (mildew), petroleum products, solvents, exposure to
acids, and vehicle exhaust.
10. HOSE MAINTENANCE:

→Care Of Hose At A Fire Scene:
Although hose can be subjected to rough treatment during firefighting, there are
precautionary measures which can reduce the amount of damage. All hoses should be
covered when stored in the apparatus hose bed in order to prevent prolonged exposure
to sunlight. Lines should be laid on the same side of the street as the hydrant,
approximately six to eight feet from the curb. If the hose must cross the street, it should
be done in front of the fire scene where traffic is at a minimum.
→Road Safety: Driving vehicles over the hose subjects the nozzle to severe fluctuations
in pressure, and may cause serious damage to the hose by water hammer.
→Water hammer: Water hammering is another source of hose damage. Water hammer
is the surge (pressure) of pressure caused when a high velocity flow of water is abruptly
shut off. The pressure exerted by the flowing water against the closed system can be as
much as seven times the static pressure. To avoid water hammer, abrupt changes in
water pressure must be avoided. For example, shut-off butts and pump and hydrant
outlets should be opened and closed slowly.
→Kinks (twist): Kinks should be removed from hose lines. Sharp kinks will restrict the
flow of water and reduce the effectiveness of the nozzle stream. Furthermore, the
pressure at the point of the kink will transfer from the filler strands, which are designed
to handle pressure, to the weaker warp strands, which can result in ruptures. Kinks can also
cause air burns in the rubber lining.
11. CARE OF HOSE AT FIRE STATION:

→Drying: All cotton hose, whether single-or double jacketed, should be removed
when wet and allowed to dry completely before being stored or reloaded onto the
apparatus/fire tender. Loading damp cotton hose will result in the formation of mildew
(green fungus) on the cotton fibers of the jacket. Any quantity of water, when left in contact
with the rubber lining for prolonged periods of time, will cause sulfuric acid to form. Even
though this sulfuric acid will not affect the rubber inner lining, it will damage the cotton
jacket if it contacts it. Mold or mildew can weaken the jacket of woven jacket.
→Washing A Hose.
The method used to wash fire hose depends on the type of hose. Hard-rubber
hose, hard suction hose, and rubber-jacket collapsible hose require little more
than rinsing with clear water, although a mild soap may be used if appearance is
desirable. Hose can be cleaned by rinsing it with water. Most woven-jacket fire
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hose requires a little more care than the previously mentioned ones. After woven-jacket
hose is used, the usual accumulation of dust and dirt should be thoroughly brushed from it.
If the dirt cannot be removed by brushing, the hose should be washed and scrubbed with
clear water. When fire hose has been exposed to oil, it should be washed with a mild soap
or detergent, making sure that the oil is completely removed. The hose should then be
rinsed thoroughly.
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CHAPTER # 3
“FIRE”
HISTORY.
Modern humans are the only human species alive today, originating about 200,000
years ago; other human species once roamed the Earth, such as Homo erectus, which arose about
1.9 million years ago
Harvard anthropologist “Richard Wrangham” has speculated that controlled fires and cooked meat
even influenced human brain evolution. He suggests that humans were cooking their prey as
far back as the first appearance of Homo erectus 1.9 million years ago, just when humans were
experiencing major brain expansion.
DEFINTION.
Fire is defined as “the rapid oxidation of a material with the evolution of
heat and light at specific temperature”.
TRIANGLE OF FIRE.
Oxygen (as oxidizing agent)

Fuel
Heat
1. OXYGEN (AS AN OXIDIZING AGENT)
Oxidizing agents are those materials that yield (give up) oxygen
or other oxidizing gases during the course of a chemical reaction. Oxidizers
are not themselves combustible, but they support combustion when combined
with a fuel. While oxygen is the most common oxidizer, other substances also
fall into the category. Following lists other common oxidizers.
For example: All Nitrates compounds, Sulphates compounds, Permanganates
compounds etc
Note: Air composition,

78.09% Nitrogen gas, 20.95% Oxygen gas, 0.93% Argon gas, 0.03% CO2 gas
2. FUEL
Fuel is the material or substance being oxidized or burned in the combustion process. In
scientific terms, the fuel in a combustion reaction is known as the reducing agent. Most common
fuels contain carbon along with combinations of hydrogen and oxygen.
TYPES OF FUEL
• Carbon (carbon, coke etc.)
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• Hydrocarbon (Petroleum etc.)
• Combustible Metals (Uranium)
• Non Metals (Sulphur, Phosphorus)
•Ordinary Combustible (Grass,Paper, Cloth etc.)
STATES OF FUEL
A fuel may be found in any of three states of matter:
•SOLID, •LIQUID •GAS.

COMBUSTIBLE SOLID FUEL.
Fuel gases are evolved from solid fuels by “pyrolysis”. Pyrolysis(Pyro-fire &
Lysis-separating) is the chemical decomposition of a substance through the action of heat. Simply
stated, as solid fuels are heated, combustible materials are driven from the substance. If there is
sufficient fuel and heat, the process of pyrolysis generates sufficient quantities of burnable gases to
ignite if the other elements of the fire tetrahedron are present.
COMBUSTIBLE LIQUIDS FUEL.

For liquids, fuel gases are generated by a process called vapourization (the
transformation of a liquid to its vapor or gaseous state).The transformation from liquid to vapor or
gas occurs as molecules of the substance escape from the liquid’s surface into the surrounding
atmosphere. In order for the molecules to break free of the liquid’s surface, there must be some
energy input. In most cases, this energy is provided in the form of heat. Liquids that easily give off
quantities of flammable or combustible vapors can be dangerous. A liquid assumes the shape of its
container.
COMBUSTIBLE GASES FUEL.

Gaseous fuels can be the most dangerous of all fuel types because they are
already in the natural state required for ignition. No pyrolysis or vaporization is needed to ready the
fuel and less energy is required for ignition.
3. HEAT
Heat is the energy component of the fire tetrahedron. When heat comes into
contact with a fuel, the energy supports the combustion reaction in the following ways:
•Causes the pyrolysis or vaporization of solid and liquid fuels and the production
of ignitable vapors or gases.
• Provides the energy necessary for ignition.
•Causes the continuous production and ignition of fuel vapors or gases
so that the combustion reaction can continue. Chemical, electrical,
mechanical and nuclear energy are the most common sources of heat
that result in the ignition of a fuel.
TYPES OF HEAT:
Chemical Heat Energy
Chemical heat energy is the most common source of heat in combustion reactions.
When any combustible is in contact with oxygen, oxidation occurs. This process almost
always results in the production of heat. The heat generated when a common match burns
is an example of chemical heat energy.
Electrical Heat Energy
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Electrical heat energy can generate temperatures high enough to ignite any combustible
materials near the heated area. Electrical heating can occur in several ways, including the
following:
 Current flows through a resistance
 Over current or overload
 Arcing
 Sparking
 Static charge
 Lightening
Mechanical Heat Energy
Mechanical heat energy is generated by friction and compression. Heat of friction
is created by the movement of two surfaces against each other. This movement results in
heat and/or sparks being generated. Heat of compression is generated when a gas is
compressed.
Nuclear Heat Energy
Nuclear heat energy is generated when atoms either split apart (fission) or combine (fusion).
In a controlled setting, fission heats water to drive steam turbines and produce electricity.
Fusion reactions cannot be contained at this time and have no commercial use. The sun’s
heat (solar energy) is a product of a fusion reaction and thus is a form of nuclear energy.
TYPES OF FIRE
There are four classes / types of fire, which are described below, although in Pakistan we
have five classes of fires but internationally these are only four:
Ref: [NFPA 1001: 3-3.15(a)] & Essentials of Firefighting, ed. IV, p 58.
Class "A Fires"
“Class A fires” Fire involve ordinary combustible materials
such as wood, cloth, paper, rubber, and many plastics. Water is
used to cool or quench the burning material below its ignition
temperature. Class A fires are difficult to extinguish using oxygen
exclusion methods like CO2 flooding or coating with foam
because those methods do not provide the cooling effect needed
for total extinguishment.
Class "B Fires"
“Class B fires”-Fires involve flammable and combustible liquids
such as oil, liquor, paint, mineral spirits, and alcohol.
The smothering or blanketing effect of oxygen exclusion is most
effective for extinguishment and also helps reduce the
production of additional vapors. Other extinguishing
methods include removal of fuel, temperature reduction
when possible, and the interruption of the chain reaction
with dry chemical agents such as Purple K.
“Class C fires”- Fire involved gas (methane, propane, butane)

fire and extinguisher used for this fire is DCP and also another
extinguishing method is smothering.
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“Class D fires”-
Fires involve combustible metals such as Aluminum, Magnesium,
Titanium, Zirconium, Sodium, and Potassium. These materials are
particularly hazardous in their powdered form. Proper airborne
concentrations of metal dusts can cause powerful explosions, given
a suitable ignition source. The extremely high temperature of some
burning metals makes water and other common extinguishing agents
ineffective. Firefighters may find these materials in a variety of
industrial
or storage facilities. It is essential to use caution in a Class D material
fire.
“E Class Fire”.
Fires involving energized electrical equipment are Class C fires.
Household appliances, computers, transformers, and
overhead transmission lines are examples. These fires can
sometimes be controlled by a non-conducting extinguishing
agent such as dry chemical powder, or Carbon Dioxide. The
fastest extinguishment procedure is to first de-energize
high-voltage circuits and then fight the fire appropriately
depending upon the fuel involved.
BACKDRAFT
Late in the smoldering phase of a fire, oxygen levels can be
reduced to below the 15% required to sustain flaming combustion
if the fire is in a confined area. In this stage the fire will produce even
greater volumes of highly flammable gases, especially carbon monoxide.
These expanding gases will create a pressure within the structure, with
temperatures exceeding 1300 F (704 0C). Once oxygen is introduced in
to this pressurized fuel/extreme temperature situation an explosion can
occur.
COLOR OF SMOKE PRODUCED BY VARIOUS

COMBUSTIBLES:
•Phosphorous White
•Benzene White gray
•Sulfur, Gunpowder Yellow to brownish-yellow
•Chlorine gas Greenish-yellow
•Wood, Paper, Cloth Gray to brown
•Iodine Violet
•Cooking oil Brown
•Acetone, Kerosene,Gasoline,Lubricating Oil, Tar, Coal, Rubber Black
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SPREAD OF FIRE or MODE OF TRANSFER or
TRANSMISSION OF HEAT.
The transfer of heat from one point or object to another is a basic concept in the
study of fire. Heat can be transferred from one body to another by three mechanisms:
conduction, convection, and radiation,
1. CONDUCTION
Conduction is the point-to-point transmission of heat energy. Conduction occurs
when a body is heated as a result of direct contact with a heat source. Heat
cannot be conducted through a vacuum because there is no medium for
point-topoint contact.
For example:The temperature along the rod rises because of the increased
movement of molecules from the heat of the flame.
2. CONVECTION
Convection is the transfer of heat energy by the movement of heated liquids or
gases. When heat is transferred by convection, there is movement or circulation
of a fluid (any substance —liquid or gas— that will flow) from one place to
another. As with all heat transfer, the flow of heat is from the warmer area to
the cooler area.33
3. RADIATION
Radiation is the transmission of energy as an electromagnetic wave
(such as light waves, radio waves, or X rays) without an intervening medium.
Because it is an electromagnetic wave, the energy travels in a straight line at
the speed of light. All warm objects will radiate heat. The best example of
heat transfer by radiation is the sun’s heat. The energy travels at the speed of
light from the sun through space (a vacuum) and warms the earth’s surface.
When radiations falls on a body then there are three possibilities:
1. Transmission of rays 2. Absorption of rays 3. Reflection of rays
TERMS OF TEMPERATURE
a. Flash point
b. Fire point
c. Auto-Ignition
FLASH POINT
It is the lowest temperature at which a substance produces sufficient vapors of
a fuel are available in which a momentary flame is produced if some external
flame is given.
FIRE POINT
It is the lowest temperature at which sufficient vapors of fuel are
formed in which sustain (continuous) burning process is started when
some external flame is given.
AUTO IGNITION
It is the lowest temperature at which sufficient vapors of a fuel are formed so
that its internal molecular kinetic energy is raised and fire take place
automatically without introduction of flame.
PRODUCTS OF FIRE
Most materials contain carbon atoms, which are
the basis of all organic matter, and as these materials burn, the carbon
elements combine with oxygen to form carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide.
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Materials may be composed of many other elements as well, including hydrogen, sulfur,
nitrogen, etc., each of which has the capability of forming compounds with oxygen. The
resulting product of combustion is smoke or gas which is a combination of these compounds
created by the oxidation process. The following list briefly describes those products most
commonly associated with combustion and fire.
THERMAL PRODUCTS
•Flame •Heat
NON-THERMAL PRODUCTS
• Toxic Gases • Smoke • Fire Gases.
FLAME
This is a luminous (glowing) body of highly active (burning) gaseous chemicals.
HEAT
A form of energy created by the amount of movement an element engages in as it
separates from a material. This product is most responsible for fire spread.
SMOKE
This is the gas product of combustion which is visible by the suspension of soot (dust)
particles and carbon within it. When there is a lack of oxygen there will be a greater amount
of smoke. This is due to incomplete combustion of the carbon released by the fire. Many
gases will be present as a product of combustion and sometimes the color of the smoke will
indicate their composition like,
•Gray or blue white smoke indicates of ordinary by carbon-based materials.
•Heavy, black smoke indicates the fuel is a flammable liquid or petroleum product.
•Brown smoke indicates highly toxic nitrous fumes are present.
•Often a yellow-gray smoke indicates of a possible back draft condition.
It is important to note that while the color and sometimes the odor of smoke can be
of some value in identifying what is burning, it is not always reliable.
TOXIC GASES
The chemical composition and amount of fuel involved will indicate the amounts and
kinds of fire gases which will be created.
•For example, it is estimated that burning plastic has the capability of releasing over 53
toxic products, 43 of which are known Carcinogens (a substance or agent that can cause
cancer).
•CO gas - The most common product to evolve during combustion is carbon monoxide. A
colorless, odorless, tasteless gas, carbon monoxide is approximately the same weight as air
and is flammable and very life-threatening. This gas is deadly because it has the ability to
combine with hemoglobin in the blood more readily than oxygen. Thus, it displaces the
oxygen, is not metabolized, remains attached to the red blood cells, and eventually the
victim suffocates. As few as two deep breaths of two percent carbon monoxide can be fatal.
FIRE EFFECTS ON LIFE SAFETY

• SMOKE
i. Suffocation
ii. Visibility effected (blurring)
iii. Difficult to reach out to egress (escape route)
iv. Irritant to respiratory track
v. Coughing & Sneezing
vi. Headache
•TOXIC GASES
i. Suffocation
ii. Incitation in eyes
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iii. Can cause Paralysis (if H2S is present)
iv. Choking (bitter)
v. Fatigue
vi. Death (if inhaled in large quantity)
• HEAT & FLAME

i. Burn & Scolding
ii. Declined Blood Pressure
iii. Hypothermia (body temperature becomes less than surroundings)
iv. Flames propagate fire.
v. Flames emit light.
vi. Sweating.
vii. Nausea
viii.Vomiting.
PRINCIPLES OF FIRE EXTINGUISHMENT /EXTINCTION

A fire may be extinguished by reducing its temperature, eliminating available fuel or
oxygen, or stopping the self-sustained chemical chain reaction.
a) TEMPERATURE REDUCTION (COOLING)
One of the most common methods of extinguishment is cooling with water.
This process depends on reducing the temperature of a fuel to a point where it
does not produce sufficient vapor to burn. Solid fuels and liquid fuels with
high flash points can be extinguished by cooling. However, cooling with water cannot
sufficiently reduce vapor production rate to extinguish fires involving low
flash point liquids and flammable gases. The use of water for cooling is also the most
effective method available for the extinguishment of smoldering (blazing) fires.
To extinguish a fire by reducing its temperature, enough water must be applied to
the burning fuel to absorb the heat being generated by combustion.
b) FUEL REMOVAL (STARVATION)

Removing the fuel source effectively extinguishes some fires.
The fuel source may be removed by stopping the flow of liquid or
gaseous fuel or by removing solid fuel in the path of a fire.
c) OXYGEN EXCLUSION (SMOTHERING)

Reducing the oxygen availability to the combustion process reduces
a fire’s growth and may totally extinguish it over time. In its simplest form,
this method is used to extinguish cooking stove fires when a cover is placed over
a pan of burning food.The oxygen content can be reduced by flooding an area
with an inert gas such as carbon dioxide, which displaces the oxygen and
disrupts the combustion process. Oxygen can also be separated from fuel by
blanketing the fuel with foam or simple wetted .
21
CHAPTER # 4
CAUSES OF FIRE
Fire becomes out of control than it creates the problem for human being
even deaths of many people and is an important part of survival of life on the earth until it
remains under control. But when it also the loss of property. There are two major types of
causes of fire which are given below.
1. Common causes of fire

2. Special causes of fire
1. Common causes of fire

Common causes are those causes which we usually face in our daily
life.
These causes are given as under.
Burning of Charcoal Friction Fire Works Faulty Wiring
Bursting of Stove General Negligence
Bone fire Sky Lightening
Candle Fire Common Causes of Home Heating
Short Circuit Dryers
Over Heating of Home

Appliances Fire Drying Clothes near
Heater
Lightning Strikes Smoking in Bed
Poor House Keeping Human Error
Children Playing with

Gas Leakage
Fire
Flammable Material
Uncleaned
Forest Fire Flammable liquid
Electrical Blankets Chimneys
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1.1.Burning of Charcoal.
Charcoal is usually produced by the heating of wood or other substances in the absence of oxygen.
1.2 Poor House Keeping.
Good House-keeping means” A place for everything and everything for its place.” Poor
house-keeping means keeping all necessary items not in their proper places.
Poor house-keeping can be a cause of fire. For example, chemical, clothes and oil etc. are placed
together in a store room than they can be a cause of fire.
1.3. Bursting of Oven/Kitchen Stoves.
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Never leave the stove unattended.
Check that electric cords, curtains, tea towels and oven cloths are at a safe distance from
the stove top.
Be careful of long flowing sleeves contacting gas flames.
1.4. Electric Blankets:

A blanket which is heated by electricity is called electric blanket.
Do not sleep with electric blankets on or leave the house without switching them off.
Never leave weighty objects on the bed when the electric blanket is on.
Have your blanket checked by an authorized repairer if you suspect overheating.
Always follow manufacturer´s instructions for care and storage.
Inspect each blanket for wear and tear at the beginning of the cooler months.
1.5. Faulty Wiring:
Always use a qualified electrician.

Double adaptors and power-boards can overload power points.
Install safety switches and correct fuses.
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1.6. Smoking in Bed:
Smoking in bed can be fatal - tiny embers can smolders unnoticed and burst into
flame much later.
1.7. Lighting:
Check light fittings for heat buildup.

Discard lampshades that are close to light
globes & lamp bases that can be knocked over
easily. Ensure recessed down lights are properly
insulated from wood paneling or ceiling
timbers.
1.8. Flammable Liquids:
Store all flammable liquids such as petrol,

kerosene, and Methylated spirits away from
heat. Always check the label before use and
storage. Use extreme care when pouring.
1.9. Clothes Dryers:
Avoid drying bras in your dryer as the underwire can get caught and start a fire.
1.10. Candles:
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Never leave burning candles unattended. Do not sleep with a burning candle.
Make sure curtains and other flammable items are well away from burning candles.
1.11. Home Heating:
 Make sure all appliances are professionally installed. Formatted: No Spacing, Space Before: 0 pt, After: 0 pt,
Bulleted + Level: 1 + Aligned at: 0.25" + Indent at: 0.5",
 Check that walls and floors are insulated from heat sources. Pattern: Clear
 Be careful where you place portable appliances.
 Never leave an open fire alight when you leave the house or go to bed.
 Place a mesh guard in front of open fires.
 Have your chimney and flue cleaned annually.
 Never leave children unattended near fires and heaters.
 Clothing should not be dried close to heaters or fires.
1.12. Children playing with Fire:
 Warn all children about playing with fire.

 Keep all matches, lighters and candles out of reach of small children.
 Teach young children to bring matches or lighters they find to an adult immediately.
 Teach older children that matches are a tool to be used in the presence of adults.
 Brief your babysitter on your fire plan - make sure they know all exits and emergency
 telephone numbers. Make sure the babysitter understands fire survival techniques.
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1.13. Friction.
Friction is the force resisting the relative motion of solid surfaces, fluid layers, and material
elements sliding against each other. There are several types of friction: Dry friction resists
relative lateral motion of two solid surfaces in contact and sometimes cause fire.
1.14. Forest Fire

Forest fire has become common now a day. We read in the newspapers and also see
in television that in some parts of the world forests catches fire. Usually it occurs
unintentionally by the mistake of people who go for picnics and sometimes when the
temperature increases forest catches fire automatically. The forest fire incidents can be
reduced by the giving awareness to the people but cannot be finished because of Natural
Checks.
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1.15. Fire Works
When the modern era started, it gave many new dimensions to the human life. By
the inventions of technology and the advancement of Science people became able to reach
at the surface of moon and also astronauts are now trying to reach at many planets. In spite
of all this many bad things it also gave to us the fire work is one of them because many
houses and even shops are burnt unintentionally because of firework in New Year
Celebrations and marriage parties.
Examples:- Peshawar was on fire once again. Only this time it was not exploding bombs or
rockets but fireworks at the culmination of Hunar Mela in Peshawar .PUBLISHED Jan
19, 2016 06:23am Daily Dawn News
1.16. Bon fire

1. A large fire built in the open air, for warmth, entertainment, or
celebration, to burn leaves, garbage, etc., or as a signal.
2. Any fire built in the open.
3. A bonfire is a large but controlled outdoor fire, used either for
informal disposal of burnable waste material or as part of a
celebration.
1.17. Gas Leakage

In common usage, a gas leak refers to a leak of natural gas or other gaseous product from
a pipeline or other containment into a living area or any other area where the gas should
not be present. Because flammable gases may explode when exposed to flame or sparks,
this situation is very dangerous to the general public.
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1.18. Sky Lightening
A brilliant electric spark discharge in the atmosphere, occurring within a thunder
cloud, between clouds, or between a cloud and the ground.When sky lightening falls on the
houses it burns the houses into ashes and can be a cause of human and property loss. In
1194 A.D the sky lightening fell on the thousands of Churches and caused a great human
loss and property loss.
1.19. Drying Clothes near Heater

It has been generally observed that in winter season people sometimes dry their
clothes in front of heaters and forget to collect back therefore the clothes catch fire.
1.20. Lightning Strikes.

In subcontinent, it has been observed that when people strike they burn tyres for the
blockage of roads and sometimes the people become aggressive, they burn public and private
properties.
1.21. Unclean Chimneys.
Chimney Fires occur at an alarming rate in USA, over 25,000 chimney fires account
for over 120 million dollars in damage to property every year. Thousands of injuries and
even many deaths result every year from chimney fires that spread to the structure of the
home. Chimney liners or structural problems can allow high temperatures, sparks and
embers to escape to combustible areas in walls, roofs or attics. A common cause of chimney
fires is creosote inside the chimney catching fire and burning inside the chimney. Creosote is
a by-product of burning that coats the inside of your chimney that needs to be removed
during regular annual chimney cleaning by chimney sweeps.
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2. SPECIAL CAUSES OF FIRE
NUCLEAR CHEMICAL
SPECIAL
BIOLOGICAL RADIALOGICAL
CAUSES OF
SABOTAGE ARSON
FIRE
1ST DEGREE ARSON
2nd DEGREE ARSON
3rd DEGREE ARSON
4th DEGREE ARSON

2.1 Nuclear.
 Fire of nuclear bomb or atom bomb.

 Fire will be at high level.
 After effects, will be very dangerous.
 Diseases will break out after the nuclear attack.
 If it is forecast that the city is going to be hit
than there is only one solution that migrate
from the city before attack.
2.2 Biological.
Few organisms like as bacteria which eat or torn the leaves of the trees into
very small pieces. When in summer season sunlight directly touches these
pieces of leaves than they caught fire and can become the major cause of
forest fire.
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2.3 Chemical.
A fire which is caused by any type of chemical is called chemical fire. Do not
store chemical material which catches fire easily in that store where easily
fire picking material is stored. e.g. If magnesium peroxide and glycerin are
stored together and they are mixed unfortunately than fire can be created
easily.
2.4 Radiological.
Fire can be caused because of radiations.
2.5.
Arson.
Arson is the crime of intentionally, deliberately and maliciously
setting fire to buildings, wild land areas, dumpsters, vehicles or other
property with the intent to cause damage. There are four types of arson
which are given below.
2.5.1. 1ST DEGREE ARSON.
Burning of (residence). To burn the specific area of building.
2.5.2. 2nd DEGREE ARSON
Burn the whole building or property only.
2.5.3. 3rd DEGREE ARSON
To burn not only a building but also the surrounding area.
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2.5.4. 4th DEGREE ARSON
Attempted arson.
2.5.5. MAIN REASONS FOR ARSON.
1. Vandalism (the mischievous or malicious act of fire setting that causes

damage to property.)
2. Excitement
3. Revenge
4. Crime concealment
5. Profit (insurance money, other financial and economic benefits)
6. Extremism.
2.5.6. SABOTAGE:
Deliberately destroy, damage, or obstruct (something), especially for political
or military advantage.
What is a Hazard?
When we refer to hazards in relation to occupational safety and health the
most commonly used definition is ‘A Hazard is a potential source of harm or
adverse health effect on a person or persons’.
The terms Hazard and Risk are often used interchangeably but this simple
example explains the difference between the two.
If there was a spill of water in a room then that water would present a
slipping hazard to persons passing through it. If access to that area was
prevented by a physical barrier then the hazard would remain though the risk
would be minimized.
What is Risk?
When we refer to risk in relation to occupational safety and health the most
commonly used definition is ‘risk is the likelihood that a person may be
harmed or suffers adverse health effects if exposed to a hazard.’
Categorizing Risk
The level of risk is often categorized upon the potential harm or adverse
health effect that the hazard may cause, the number of times persons are
exposed and the number of persons exposed. For example exposure to
airborne asbestos fibers will always be classified as high because a single
exposure may cause potentially fatal lung disease, whereas the risk
associated with using a display screen for a short period could be considered
to be very low as the potential harm or adverse health effects are minimal.
32
What are Control Measures?
Control measures include actions that can be taken to reduce the potential of exposure
to the hazard, or the control measure could be to remove the hazard or to reduce the likelihood
of the risk of the exposure to that hazard being realised. A simple control measure would be the
secure guarding of moving parts of machinery eliminating the potential for contact. When we look
at control measures we often refer to the hierarchy of control measures.
1. Eliminate the Elimination of the hazard is not always achievable though it does totally remove the hazard and thereby eliminates
hazard the risk of exposure. An example of this would be that petrol station attendants in Ireland are no longer exposed to
the risk of chronic lead poisoning following the removal of lead from petrol products sold at forecourts.
2. Substitute the Substituting the hazard may not remove all of the hazards associated with the process or activity and may
hazard with a lesser introduce different hazards but the overall harm or health effects will be lessened. In laboratory research, toluene
risk is now often used as a substitute for benzene. The solvent-properties of the two are similar but toluene is less toxic
and is not categorised as a carcinogen although toluene can cause severe neurological harm.
3. Isolate the Isolating the hazard is achieved by restricting access to plant and equipment or in the case of substances locking
hazard them away under strict controls. When using certain chemicals then a fume cupboard can isolate the hazard from
the person, similarly placing noisy equipment in a non-accessible enclosure or room isolates the hazard from the
person(s).
4. Use engineering Engineering Controls involve redesigning a process to place a barrier between the person and the hazard or
controls remove the hazard from the person, such as machinery guarding, proximity guarding, extraction systems or
removing the operator to a remote location away from the hazard.
5. Use Administrative controls include adopting standard operating procedures or safe work practices or providing
administrative appropriate training, instruction or information to reduce the potential for harm and/or adverse health effects to
controls person(s). Isolation and permit to work procedures are examples of administrative controls.
6. Use personal Personal protective equipment (PPE) include gloves, glasses, earmuffs, aprons, safety footwear, dust masks which
protective are designed to reduce exposure to the hazard. PPE is usually seen as the last line of defence and is usually used in
equipment conjunction with one or more of the other control measures. An example of the weakness of this control measure
is that it is widely recognised that single-use dust masks cannot consistently achieve and maintain an effective
facepiece-to-face seal, and cannot be adequately fit-tested and do not offer much, if any real protection against
small particulates and may lead to a false sense of security and increase risk. In such instances an extraction
system with fitted respirators may be preferable where the hazard may have significant health effects from low
levels of exposure such as using isocyante containing chemicals.
33
THREE STEPS TO REMOVE RISKS:
1. Identify the risks

The first step in any risk management strategy is to identify the potential
threats and risks to a project. It is only by developing an awareness of what
could happen that you stand any chance of doing something about it. There
are two main areas to look at when identifying risks and these are the
internal and external factors that may have an effect on the project. Internal
factors include the project management team, company culture,
management of change and budget, allocation of resources etc. External
factors include anything outside the organisation that could impact on the
project, such as the economy, clients, sub-contractors and service providers.
2. Assess the risks

Once you know what the potential threats are, the next stage is to assess the
likelihood of these risks occurring. This requires a degree of analytical and
numerical skill as you weigh up the size of the potential risk and the extent
that it could affect the project and its timeline. Some risks are negligible and
can be virtually ignored but others are significant and need to scrutinised
closely. The consequences of any hazard, threat or risk need to be considered
fully before you can move on the final stage of risk management.
3. Manage the risks

Identifying and assessing the risks are obviously important, but effectively
managing threats is vital. Good project risk management is all about having
tight contingency plans in place for when risks actually occur. Without a solid
plan your project can easily be pulled off course and not meet its deadlines or
may go over budget. In the worst case scenario, lack of planning can bring a
halt to the whole project, causing far reaching knock-on effects for the whole
organization and causing embarrassment for all concerned. To avoid these
situations it is imperative that you use outstanding IT project management
tools to support your risk management efforts.
Author: Mike Savage is the Project Management Practice Manager at
leading training consultants, Thales Training & Consultancy. Mike manages
the PM training business, including PRINCE2® and APM accreditations. He is a
Registered PRINCE2® practitioner and a full member of the APM and PMI. He
has been training and mentoring project managers and team members of all
levels for the last 15 years.
34
CHAPTER NO 5
FIRE EXTINGUISHERS
INTRODUCTION:
Fire extinguishers provide fire fighters with an effective means of controlling small
fires, protecting themselves while investigating high-rise fires, and are always available to be
placed into quick action by engine or truck crews. Fire extinguishers are widely used by
citizens as a means of extinguishing for small fire, or to hold a larger fire in check until the
arrival of fire crews.
According to the NFPA 80 % of all fires could be extinguished by a portable fire extinguisher
in homes and remaining 20% by fire brigade dpts. In fire service two type of extinguishers
are used w.r.t usage,
Portable type fire extinguisher=1 up to 24 kg.
Trolley mounted type fire extinguisher=Above 24 kg .
TYPES:
 Soda Acid fire extinguisher.
 Water type fire extinguisher.
 Chemical form type fire extinguisher.
 Aqueous Film Forming Foam (AFFF) extinguisher.
 Carbon Dioxide Extinguishers.
 Dry Chemical Extinguishers.
 Wet Chemical form type fire extinguisher.
Soda Acid Type Fire Extinguisher:
1. Introduction:
This extinguisher contains baking soda, water and sulphuric acid
that’s why called soda form fire extinguisher.
2. Operation mechanism:
Based on the chemical reaction) between sulphuric acid and a
Sodium bicarbonate solution to expel the water.
3. Types:
Reversible (turnover) type extinguisher— an extinguisher in which the acid bottle is
fitted with a loose stopper so that when the extinguisher is inverted the stopper falls
clear and releases the acid. 1.2.4 Break-bottle (plunger) type extinguisher —an
extinguisher in which the acid bottle is sealed and must be broken to operate the
extinguisher.
4. Contents:
 Water=2 gallons
 Sulphuric acid=140 Ml
 NaHCO3=500 Grams.
5. Body Parts:
 Metal body (18 gauge)
 Discharge nozzle.
 Plastic cage.
 Carrying handle.
 Siphon tube nozzle=1/16’’.
 Rubber seal.
 Strainer.
35
Types:
 Plunger type/ upright type. (straight use fire extinguisher).
 Turn over type.(First straight then upside down for usage).
Fire Class “A” class.
Range 25-30 ft. Actual 10 feet (C02 gas expel solution at pressure 100 to 150 lbs.
Discharge Time 60 - 120 Sec.
Care & Maintenance:
 Visual check after 2 months (check all body parts).
 After 2 years body tested at pressure 300 lbs.
 After 1 year expire the contents.
Advantages:
 Portable.
 Reliable.
 Rapid control.
 Cheap.
 Easy refill.
 Readily available.
 Useful for small fire.
 Easy handling.
Disadvantages:
 Non controllable.
 Only for “A” class fire.
 Na2S04 effect stuff like clothes etc
 Can’t use on large fire.
 Can’t use on cooking oil.
 Can’t use on electrical fire.
Note: The above mentioned extinguisher is banned 30 years ago.
 WATER TYPE FIRE EXTINGUISHER.

Intoduction:
Water type extinguishers, also called air-pressurized water (APW)
extinguishers, are useful for all types of small Class A fires and are often
used for extinguishing confined hot spots during overhaul operations,
as well as for extinguishing chimney fuel fires.
Contents:
Water=9.46 L (cooling agent) is stored in a tank along with
Nitrogen gas (expelling agent + cooling effect).
Parts:
 Metal body (18 gauge)
 Discharge tube
 Control value.
 Pressure gauge.
 Operating lever.
 Safety pin.
 Siphon tube nozzle=1/16’’.
 Plastic base.
Note: Operatable temperature is between 4°C to 49°C.Freeze protection may be
provided
36
by adding antifreeze to the water or by storage in warm areas.
Operating Procedure: (PASS)
 Pull the safety pin.
 Aim towards fire.
 Squeeze the operating lever.
 Sweep on fire.
Characteristics:
 Range:
According to manufacturer =25-39 feet.
Actual =10 feet.
 Discharge Time duration:
55 seconds at 150 PSI
 Standard weight:
14 kg
 Colour:
Red.
Recharge Procedure: Recharged by concerned manufacturer.
Maintenance:
 Check visually after 2 months.
 Check the hose, weight, nozzle etc periodically.
 Keep unit clean.
 After 1 year expire it and refill it.
 After 5 years check cylinder at 300 PSI for 2 mins through hydraulic test.
Advantages:
 Rapid control on “A” class fire.
 Portable.
 Easy operatable.
 Reliable.
 Controllable.
Disadvantages:
 Only use on “A” class fire.
 Dangerous to use on electrical fire.
3. CARBON DIOXIDE FIRE EXTINGUISHERS
Carbon dioxide (CO2) extinguishers are found as both hand held
units and wheeled units. CO2 extinguishers can be used on all Class fires.
Carbon dioxide is stored under its own pressure as a
liquefied compressed gas ready for release at anytime. The
agent is discharged through a plastic or rubber horn on the
end of either a short hose or tube. The gaseous discharge is
usually accompanied by little dry ice crystals or carbon dioxide
“snow”. This snow sublimes (changes into a gaseous form),
shortly after discharge. When released, the carbon dioxide gas
displaces available oxygen and smothers the fire. CO2
produces no vapor-suppressing film on the surface of the fuel;
therefore, reignition of the fuel is always a danger.
CO2 found in three states dry ice (-79 ⁰c), liquid and gas.
BP of CO2 is -57⁰c.
Characteristics:
37
 TYPE Hand Carried, wheel / trolley mounted.
 AGENT CO2 (liquid state)
 FIRE CLASS On all except metal fire (best for electrical fire)
 CAPACITY 0.5 kg to 100 kg (also 150 kg in fixed installation)
 RANGE DISTANCE 10 feet then get closer.
 DISCHARGE TIME 0.5 kg=20 sec (continuous).5
 RECHARGED at 744 PSI by manufacturer plant.5
 USABLE TEMPERATURE 44999 volts (CO2 decomposes on 45000 volts)
 EXTINGUISHING COVERAGE AREA 250 square feet.(ordinary fuel).
 OPERATION METHOD use “PASS” method.
Characteristics of CO2 gas:

 Colorless, Odorless, tasteless
 Heavier 1.5 times than air.
 Can change its state from one to other by applying 744 PSI pressure.
 Expansion rate is 450 times more when released from liquid state to gaseous state.
 Can be used at lower temperature.
 Large use creates suffocation.
 Created smothering effect.
Body parts:
 Main body=6 gauge (hydrostatic test 3360 PSI) with body color black.
 Operating lever.
 Safety pin.
 Control value.
 Discharge tube.
 Discharge horn.(convert liquid CO2 in to gaseous form +Horn produces
specific sound)
 Note: no pressure gauge, because pressure gauge can’t handle high
pressure CO2 gas.
USING PORTABLE FIRE EXTINGUISHERS

The actual operating procedure of a fire
extinguisher can be generalized by use of
the PASS method.
 P - PULL THE PIN
 A - AIM AT BASE OF FIRE
 S - SQUEEZE THE HANDLE
 S - SWEEP BACK AND FORTH.
Content of CO2 cylinder:

 CO2 gas in liquid form filled at 744 PSI. Body filled 2/3 of total body.
Physical indication of CO2 gas:
 1% eye watering.
 3% suffocation.
 5% nausea and vomiting.
 10% death.
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Carbon dioxide wheeled units are similar to the handheld units except that they are
considerably larger. Wheeled units are most commonly used in airports and industrial
facilities. After being wheeled to the fire, the hose (usually less than 15 feet [5 m]
long) must be deployed or unwound from the unit before use. The principle of operation is
the same as in the smaller handheld units.
Care and maintenance:

 Visual inspection after 2 months and check all parts.
 If 10% weight loss then refill it.
 Leakage can be check with the help of blue litmus paper.
Advantages:
 Controllable.
 Rapid extinguishing the fire.
 Reliable.
 Portable.
 Non conductor but in gaseous form.
Disadvantages:
 No visible check on content.
 They must be sent away to refilling company for refilling.
 Must not be used against such fuel like oxidizing agent fire.
 Can be efficient while using in open air.
 Can’t be used on high explosive material fire.
 Expensive.
4. AQUEOUS FILM FORMING FOAM (AFFF) EXTINGUISHERS

Aqueous film forming foam (AFFF) extinguishers are suitable for use on Class
A and Class B fires. They are mostly used on “B” class fire and particularly useful in
combating fires or suppressing vapors on small liquid fuel spills.
CONTENTS: The AFFF extinguisher tank contains a specified amount of AFFF
concentrate mixed with the water, and it has an air aspirating nozzle that
aerates the foam solution, producing better quality foam.
Water 97 % & 3% Compound (AlS04,Protien,FluroHydro carbon Butyl etc) + Nitrogen Gas
(stored at 100 to 150 PSI).
Compound solution as “Extinguishing agent” and Nitrogen gas act as” Expelling agent”.
TYPES:
•Chemical foam •Mechanical foam.
Chemical foam: In which foam is formed after chemical changes in cylinder.
Mechanical form: In which foam is already made then filled in cylinder with pressure. So
it is pressure stored type extinguisher and ready for usage on fire. It is mostly used type
extinguisher.
Principle of Extinguishing: Smothering +less cooling effect.
Usage Method: Aim on fire and continuously use on fire.(but don’t use on cooking
material).
Classification:
 Store pressure type. 100 liters &150 liters.
 Trolley mounted.
Parts:
Main body (steel 18 gauge and tested at 350 PSI), Operating lever, Carrying handle,
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Safety pin, Pressure gauge, Control value, Discharge tube.
Fire Class “A” & “B” class.
Range 25-30 ft.
Discharge Time 60 - 120 Sec.
Using method:( PASS).
 P→Pull the safety pin.
 A→Aim the nozzle towards fire.
 S→Squeeze the operating lever.
 S→Stop at a point.
Care & Maintenance:
 Visual check after 2 months (check pressure gauge & other body parts).
 After 1 month check it through operation.
 After 5 years check the body at 300 PSI for 2 mins.)
Advantages:
 Portable.
 Reliable.
 Controllable.
 Useful for small liquid fire.
 Easy operation.
Disadvantages:
 Can’t use on large fire.
 Can’t use on cooking oil.
 Can’t use on electrical fire.
5. DRY CHEMICAL EXTINGUISHERS:

The terms dry chemical and dry powder are often incorrectly used interchangeably.
Dry chemical agents are for use on Class A-B-C fires and or Class B-C fires
Whereas Dry powder agents are for Class
D fires only. Dry chemical extinguishers
are among the most common portable fire
extinguishers in use today. There are two
basic types of dry chemical extinguishers:
 Regular B:C-rated and
 Multipurpose and A:B:C-rated
40
CHAPTER NO 6
LADDER:
Historical:
Ladders are ancient tools and technology. It is believed that the idea of a
ladder was used over 10,000 years ago. We know this because the pictures of them were
discovered in a cave in Spain. The painting depicts two humans using a ladder to reach a
wild honeybee nest to harvest honey. There are different types of ladders. There are rope
ladders that can be used for gym activities or they are thrown out of helicopters to rescue
people from mountains. Fire engines have extendable ladders to rescue people from tall
buildings or blocks of flats. There are also fixed ladders that are used on the sides of boats
or on some trucks. Some old ladders were made of rope and are still used in some countries.
There are also ladders made out of wood which are quite strong they were used in World
War II. Step Ladder is made out of metal so they are very strong.
Definition of Ladder:
“A ladder is a set of steps with a pole on each side”.
It is an important equipment of a fire man.
“An equipment which is used to climb upward or down ward is called
ladder”.
A structure of wood, metal, or rope, commonly consisting of two side
pieces between which a series of bars or rungs are set at suitable
distances, forming a means of climbing up or down.
Types of ladders:
1. First floor ladder
1.1 Emergency Ladder
2. Extension ladder
2.1 35 feet extension ladder
2.2 45 feet extension ladder
2.3 30 feet Extension ladder
2.4 Short Extension ladder
3. Hook Ladder
4. Scaling Ladder
5. Non-Service Ladder
6. Wheel Escape Ladder
1. First floor ladder:
As its name shows that a ladder which is used to climb up

the first floor is called first floor ladder. Usually it is made
of a timber. Limited to Ist floor only.
Weight------------------------------------------------------45lbs
Length--------------------- ---------------------------------15.6 feet
Distance between rounds----------------------------- 12 inches
Distance between strings------------ minimum 9 inches
maximum 12 inches.
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1.1. EMERGENCY LADDER:
When no extension ladder is available and the rescuer has to climb up at a

more height which 1st floor ladder does not cover than two first floor.
Ladders are tied together with a rope and make one ladder which is called
Emergency Ladder.
Length of one first floor ladder is----------------------------------- 15.6 feet
Length of two first floor ladder is----------------------------------- 31 feet
Working Height-------------------------------------------------------- 25.6 feet
Overlap------------------------------------------------------------------ 5.6 feet
Rope will be used and tied with rounds by lashing. Clove hitch will be used.
The diameter of rope will be ½ inch. Rounds will be tied with rounds and
strings will be tied with strings.
Note.Do not use it for heavy purpose. Especially do not carry any casualty on
emergency ladder.
CARE AND MAINTINANCE:

► Ladder should not be dragged out.
► Ladder should be placed in the shady area.
► Ladder should be checked out before and after use.
► Save it from direct sunlight and rain.
2. EXTENSION LADDER
A ladder consisting of usually two or more than sections arranged so that
they fit together or extend on a sliding mechanism almost to the full length of
the two sections.
The types of extension ladders are given below.
35 feet extension ladder
45 feet extension ladder
30 feet Extension ladder
Short Extension ladder
2.1. 35 FEET EXTENSION LADDER:
It has two parts. Rope is used to pull the top section of

the ladder. It has two sections Main section and Top
section. It has one pawl which grips the top section with
main section.
The length of each part is ------------------------------21 feet
The length of both part is------------------------------ 42 feet
Working height--------------------------------------------35 feet
Overlap---------------------------------------------------------------------------7 feet
Weight----------------------------------------------------------------------------130 lbs
Distance between two rounds--------------------------------------------------10\7/8
Pulley blocks-----------------------------------------------------------------------4
The length of rope is------------------------------------------------------------ 45-50 feet
Thickness / diameter of rope is-------------------------------------------------1\3/4
Distance b/w strings inside the top section----------------------------------12 inches
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Distance b/w strings outside the top section--------------------------------15 inches
Distance b/w strings outside the main section------------------------------18 inches
USAGE
● It can be used for three floors.
● For fighting with fire.
● Storey work.
● For rescue purpose.
● For Fireman lift.
CARE AND MAINTINANCE

► Save the string from water, if string becomes wet than it lost 33% its
durability.
► If string is wet by oil than it reduces 66% durability.
► Pully Blocks should be oiled and greased.
► Pawl should be mobilized and greased.
► Ladder (rope, strings and rounds) should be checked before and after use.
2.1. 45 FEET EXTENSION LADDER

It has steel drum at the main section of the ladder.
Handling winch poles are attached to support the ladder.
It also has screw down jack at the bottom which ladder is
stood.
►►Only wire is used rope is not used.
►►Wire can lift 1\1/4 ton weight easily.
It has three parts which are known as,
Main section
Middle section
Top section
The length of each part is ------------------------------20 feet
Total length is---------------------------------------------60 feet
Working height-------------------------------------------45 feet
Overlap---------------------------------------------------7/1\2 feet
Weight------------------------------------------------------300 lbs.
Distance b/w strings inside the top section---11\1/2
inches
Distance b/w strings outside the top section----------------14\1/2 inches
Distance b/w strings at middle section------------------------17\1/2 inches
Distance b/w strings at main section---------------------------21 inches
Pulley Blocks----------------------------------------------------------12
USAGE
► It can be used till 4th floor.
► It is the strongest ladder.
► There is not any work of fire and rescue which could not be taken from
it.
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► It is for all type of storey works, ascending and descending work, fire
and rescue work.

► Do not drag the ladder.
► Ladder should be checked out before and after use. Pawl, pulley
blocks, handling winch, screw down jack, wire should be checked
properly.
► Pulley Blocks should be oiled and greased.
► Always keep ladder on dry place.
2.2. 30 FEET EXTENSION LADDER:
This ladder has two parts which are given below

● Main Section
● Extended Section
The length of each part -------------15feet and 9inches
The length of both parts is---------31 feet and 6inches
Overlap is-------------------------------1 feet and 6 inches
BUT
This overlap is extended 2 feet more and it
becomes-----------3 feet and six inches.
The working height of the ladder is------------28 feet
Pawl----------------------------------------------------1
Pulley blocks------------------------------------------5
Weight-------------------------------------------------112 lbs.
Rope-----------------------------------------------------1
Distance b/w strings inside the top section--------------------------11\1/2 inches
Distance b/w strings outside the top section------------------------14\1/2 inches
Distance b/w strings outside the main section----------------------17\1/2 inches
USAGE
► As a stretcher
► Ladder as a Derrick
► Ladder luff Method
► Ladder Hench Method
► It is used for rescue and fighting with fire purpose.

► Save the string from water, if string becomes wet than it lost 33% its
durability.
► If string is wet by oil than it reduces 66% durability.
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► Pulley Blocks should be oiled and greased.
► Ladder (rope, strings and rounds) should be checked before and after
use.
2.3. SHORT EXTENSION LADDER
It is helping ladder for fire fighters. It has two parts,

► Main Section
► Top Section
The length of every part is--------------------------7feet 6 inches
The length of both parts is--------------------------15 feet
Working height----------------------------------------13 feet
Overlap---------------------------------------------------2feet
Weight----------------------------------------------------30lbs.
Distance b/w strings inside the top section-----11\1/2 inches
Distance b/w strings outside the top section---13\1/2 inches
Distance b/w strings outside the main section-- 15\1/2 inch
No pulley blocks and no rope is used.
Note. This ladder can be divided in to two parts.
USAGE
► As a stretcher.
► Used in rescue purpose.

► Ladder should be checked out before and after
use.
3. HOOK LADDER:
This ladder that can be attached to a window sill or similar ledge by the
use of a hooked extending bill with serrations on the underside.
The hooked ladder then hangs suspended vertically down the face of the
building. It will hang only and there will be no part on the land. Hook can
bear 65kg to 75kg weight easily.
The length of the ladder is-----------------13feet 4 inches
Length of steel teeth-------------------------5 to 8 inches
Weight-------------------------------------------29lbs.
Length of hook---------------------------------2 feet 2 inches
Bill length----------------------------------------6 inches
The length of the belt is----------------------42 inches
The length of the belt can be increased-------3 feet and 6
inches
Weight-----------------------------------------------------------------------------9lbs
Distance between rounds is-----------------------------------------------------12 inches
Distance between strings is------------------------------------------------------9 inches
45
REQUIREMENTS &USAGE
► It is used for climbing purpose, Rescue purpose.
► Practice before use.
► Fireman axe is necessary.
► Always use Personal Protective Equipment (Helmet, Safety Gloves and
Safety Shoes) while using the ladder.
► Hook should be proper in good working order.
► Oiling and greasing where it is needed.
► Use it on a safe place.
4. SCALING LADDER
Head side is narrower than heel side. For making a bridge ,5 scaling ladders
are joined and 4 ladders are tied under these 5 ladders to make it strong.
The total length of the ladder is-----------------------6 feet 6 inches
Difference between head and heel side is------------3\1/2 inches
The length of 5 ladders becomes---------------32 feet and 6 inches
Working height------------------------------------------29 feet
The distance should not be more than---------25 or 26 feet where
the bridge is being used.
Weight------------------------------------------------------21 lbs.
USAGE:
► As it is small in size therefore it can be used as a stretcher.
► It is used for bridging between two buildings and as a bridge on a
canal.
Note. Untie it after finishing the work.

5. WHEELED ESCAPE LADDER:

Any type of rescue and fire ladder can be fixed on wheel escape. Ladder is
fixed on two l wheels which are stopped by wedges. Usually it is used in the
narrow streets where vehicles cannot go.
Note. Emergency ladder cannot be used on wheel escape because it cannot
bear heavy weight.
6. NON-SERVICE LADDER:
A ladder which has not any specification of rounds and strings and cannot be
used for fire and rescue purpose is called non-service ladder.
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CHAPTER # 7
“EMERGENCY METHOD OF RESCUE”
Emergency:
An event, actual or imminent, which endangers or threatens to endanger
life, property or the environment, and which requires a significant and coordinated
response.
Rescue:
To save (someone) from a dangerous or difficult situation.
The aim of rescue:
To save the greatest number of lives in the shortest possible time
and to minimise further injury to people and damage to property.
Functions:
Common rescue functions include:
• Access to, and the support and removal of, trapped people in the course of rescue
operations.
• Assistance with the recovery of the dead (managed and conducted by NZ Police).
• Provision of support on request to other services, authorities or specialist
teams.
Situations:
a) Non Risky. Package casualties wherever possible, evacuate casualty with stretcher,
ensure comfort and to minimize the suffering of casualty.
b) Risky. No stretcher or time to improvise stretcher for rescue, casualty must be
remove quickly due to potential danger, don’t attempt to rescue if your own life is in
danger.
Factors influencing the methods of recue.
a) Type & severity of injuries.
b) Casualty status (conscious/un conscious)
c) Weight of casualty.
d) Availability of rescuers.
e) Distance and route.
General rules.
 Search should be started from at the point high survival rate.
 In multi storey buildings search should be start from top as you work down.
 Common places where casualties found.
a) Near doors.
b) Near windows.
c) At stair cases.
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d) In the rest rooms.
Safety Precautions.
 Always work in pair.
 Ensure proper placement of your feet for the selected technique to prevent falling.
 Follow correct lifting and gripping.
 Put on PPE’s.
 Bring along a torch.
 Ensure the technique used doesn’t suffocate or cause further injury to casualty.
 Don’t drop casualty.
 Sit on your heels to lift casualty instead of bending down.
Emergency method of rescue.
1. One rescuers 2. Two rescuers
1. One rescuer
i) Fireman Lift ii) Fore method iii) The Cradle iv) The Pick a Back
v) Backward drag vi) Human Crutch vii) Shoulder pull.
Explaination:
i) Fireman Lift.
This method is used to lift a person on rescuer shoulder and apply this
method when injured person having no back or spinal injuries.
ii) Fore method.

This method is used to lift a person with similar weight or slghtly
heavier than rescuer by slight dragging along.
iii) The Cradle.

This method is used to lift a person on rescuer arms .
iv) The Pick a Back.

This method is used to lift and hang on the casualty on rescuer
shoulder.
v) Backward drag.
This method is used to lift heavy weight casualty.
vi) Human Crutch.

This method is used to rescue the casualty who can walk and need
little assistance.
vii) Shoulder pull.

The shoulder pull is preferred to the ankle pull. It supports
the head of the victim. The negative is that it requires the rescuer to bend
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over at the waist while pulling.
2. Two rescuers
i) Double Human crutch ii) The Fore & Aft iii) Two-handed seat
iii) Three-handed seat iv) Four-handed seat
Explaination:
I) Double Human Crutch
This method is similar to the one rescuer human crutch, except that the casualty is
supported on both sides with the arms of the rescuers’crossed over on the casualty’s
back and grasping the clothing on the opposite sides of the body.
ii) The Fore & Aft.
This is perhaps the most suitable way in which two rescuers can handle an
unconscious casualty.
• The casualty is put into a sitting position.
• The first rescuer stoops at the rear of the casualty. Reaching under the
casualty’s arms, the first rescuer grips the casualty’s wrists.
• The second rescuer stoops between the
casualty’s legs grasping them underneath the knees.
• The standard lift orders are given and the casualty is lifted into the carrying
position.
• Should the casualty have a leg injury, the effects of this can be minimized by the
front rescuer crossing the casualty’s legs over, then carrying them to one side. The
advantage of this method is that the rescuer supporting the casualty’s feet has a
free hand with which to open doors, clear debris, etc.
iii) Two-handed seat.

Rescuers kneel on either side of the casualty, get them into a sitting
position, lace one arm under the knees and link up with the hand to wrist
grip.
• Their forearms are then crossed over the casualty’s back, where they get a
firm grip of the clothing or link arms across casualty’s back.
• The leader should give the normal orders for lifting and lowering.
iii) Three-handed seat.

Rescuers kneel on either side of the casualty, get them into a sitting
position, lace one arm under the knees and link up with the hand to wrist grip.
Here both hands of ist rescuer is grib together with 1 wrist of 2nd rescuer.
One hand of 2nd rescuer will be free and helpfull to grib the broken or
injured leg of victim.
iv) Four-handed seat.
This is a method where each rescuer grasps their left wrist and the hands are
joined up.
• This provides a comfortable seat for the casualty and places a minimum
strain on the rescuers. However, the casualty must be sufficiently conscious
to hold on.
49
CHAPTER # 8
BURNS AND SCOLD.
BURN:
Injury to body due to flame, heat, chemical or radiations is called burn.
SCOLD:
Injury due to wet heat, steam or hot liquid is called scold.
SEVERITY DEPENDS UPON FOLLOWING FACTORS:

 Age of victim.
 History of disease.
 Body part involved.
More than 25% body area burns means severe burn.
TYPES OF BURN:
1. Thermal burn.
2. Scold.
3. Chemical burn.
4. Cold burn/Frost bite.
5. Electrical burn.
6. Radiation burn.
OUTPUT OF SEVERITY: Physical shock.

Risk of infection--------Danger of shock-------Electrical shock.
Psychological shock.
Note: Effects of shocks remains 20 mins in brain.
IST DEGREE OF BURN:

A first-degree burn is also called a superficial burn or wound. It’s an
injury that affects the first layer of your skin. First-degree burns are one
of the mildest forms of skin injuries, and they usually don’t require
medical treatment. However, some superficial burns can be quite large
or painful and may require a trip to your doctor.
SYMPTONS:
 The symptoms of first-degree burns are often minor and tend to
heal after several days. The most common things you may notice
at first are skin redness, pain, and swelling.
 The pain and swelling may be mild and your skin may start to
peel after a day or so.
 BP low.
 Low cardiac flicker.
 Destruction of R.B.C.
 Distress.
 Cilia damage.
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 Coughing.
 Respiratory disorder.
 Increase pulse rate.
Causes of First-Degree Burn:
Common causes of superficial burns include the following:
Sunburns:
Sunburn develops when you stay out in the sun too long and don’t apply enough
sunscreen. The sun produces intense ultraviolet (UV) rays that can penetrate the outer
layer of your skin and cause it to redden, blister, and peel.
Electricity:
Electrical sockets, electrical cords, and appliances can appear intriguing to a young child,
but they pose considerable dangers. If your child sticks a finger or any object into the
openings of a socket, bites on an electrical cord, or plays with an appliance, they can get
burned or electrocuted from exposure to electricity.
SECOND-DEGREE BURN:
Second-degree burns are more serious because the damage extends
beyond the top layer of skin. This type burn causes the skin to blister
and become extremely red and sore. Some blisters pop open, giving the
burn a wet or weeping appearance. Over time, thick, soft, scab-like
tissue called fibrinous exudates may develop over the wound. Due to
the delicate nature of these wounds, keeping the area clean and
bandaging it properly is required to prevent infection. This also helps
the burn heal quicker. Some second-degree burns take longer than
three weeks to heal, but most heal within two to three weeks without
scarring, but often with pigment changes to the skin. The worse the
blisters are, the longer the burn will take to heal. In some severe cases,
skin grafting is required to fix the damage. Skin grafting takes healthy
skin from another area of the body and moves it to the site of the
burned skin.
As with first-degree burns, avoid cotton balls and questionable home remedies.
Treatments for a mild second-degree burn generally include:
running the skin under cool water for 15 minutes or longer taking over-the-counter pain
medication (acetaminophen or ibuprofen) applying antibiotic cream to blisters
However, seek emergency medical treatment if the burn affects a widespread area, such
as any of the following:
 Face
 Hands
 Buttocks
 Groin
 Feet.
THIRD-DEGREE BURN:
Excluding fourth-degree burns, third-degree burns are the most severe.
They cause the most damage, extending through every layer of skin.
There is a misconception that third-degree burns are the most painful.
However, with this type of burn the damage is so extensive that there
may not be any pain because of nerve damage.
51
Depending on the cause, the symptoms third-degree burns can exhibit include:
 waxy and white color
 char
 dark brown color
 raised and leathery texture
 blisters that do not develop
Without surgery, these wounds heal with severe scarring and contracture. There is no set
timeline for complete spontaneous healing for third-degree burns.
Never attempt to self-treat a third-degree burn. Call Rescue 1122 immediately. While
you’re waiting for medical treatment, raise the injury
above your heart. Don’t get undressed, but make sure no clothing is stuck to the burn.
COMPLICATIONS:
Compared with first- and second-degree burns, third-degree burns carry the most risk for
complications, such as infections, blood loss, and shock, which is often what could lead to
death. At the same time, all burns carry the risk of infections because bacteria can enter
broken skin.
Tetanus is another possible complication with burns of all levels. Like sepsis, tetanus is a
bacterial infection. It affects the nervous system, eventually leading to problems with
muscle contractions. As a rule of thumb, every member of your household should receive
updated tetanus shots every 10 years to prevent this type of infection.
Severe burns also carry the risk of “Hypothermia” and “Hypovolaemia”. Dangerously low
body temperatures characterize hypothermia. While this may seem like an unexpected
complication of a burn, the condition is actually prompted by excessive loss of body heat
from an injury. Hypovolaemia, or low blood volume, occurs when your body loses too
much blood from a burn.
PREVENTING ALL DEGREES OF BURNS:

The obvious best way to fight burns is to prevent them from happening. Certain jobs put
you at a greater risk for burns, but the fact is that most burns happen at home. Infants and
young children are the most vulnerable to burns. Preventive measures you can take at home
include:
Keep children out of the kitchen while cooking.
 Turn pot handles toward the back of the stove.
 Place a fire extinguisher in or near the kitchen.
 Test smoke detectors once a month.
 Replace smoke detectors every 10 years.
 Keep water heater temperature under 120 degrees Fahrenheit.
 Measure bath water temperature before use.
 Lock up matches and lighters.
 Install electrical outlet covers.
 Check and discard electrical cords with exposed wires.
 Keep chemicals out of reach, and wear gloves during chemical use.
 Wear sunscreen every day, and avoid peak sunlight.
 Ensure all smoking products are stubbed out completely.
 Clean out dryer lint traps regularly.
52
It’s also important to have a fire escape plan and to practice it with your family once a
month. In the event of a fire, make sure to crawl underneath smoke. This will minimize the
risk of passing out and becoming trapped in a fire.
OUTLOOK FOR BURNS:

When properly and quickly treated, the outlook for first- and second-degree burns is good.
These burns rarely scar but can result in a change in pigment of the skin that was burned.
The key is to minimize further damage and infection. Extensive damage from severe second-
degree and third-degree burns can lead to problems in deep skin tissues, bones, and organs.
Patients may require:
 Surgery
 Physical therapy.
 Rehabilitation.
 Lifelong assisted care
FIRST AID OF BURN:
1. Ensure rescuer safety Ist.
2. Stop, drop & roll.
3. Check for injuries.
4. Check for injuries
5. Check for A.B.C.
6. Cool water is effective until 1 hour.
7. Elevate legs of victim.
8. Blood C.P test.
9. Extra nutrition.
10. 1st degree need simple dressing.
11. 2nd and 3rd degree need full medical attention and treatment.
Note: Suldiazine best cream for burn.
53
CHAPTER # 9
“FIRST AID”
DIFINITION:
First aid is defined as “the immediate care given to an acutely
injured/Victim or ill person before arrival of ambulance”.
It can literally be life-saving so it behaves all of us to know some basic
principles. What follows are some rules that cover common conditions and general
practices:
AIM OF FIRST AID:
The key aims of first aid can be summarized in three key points, sometimes
known as 'the three P's'
1. Preserve life: The overriding aim of all medical care which includes first aid,
is to save lives and minimize the threat of death.
2. Prevent further harm: Prevent further harm also sometimes called prevent
the condition from worsening, or danger of further injury, this covers both
external factors, such as moving a patient away from any cause of harm,
and applying first aid techniques to prevent worsening of the condition, such as
applying pressure to stop a bleed becoming dangerous.
3. Promote recovery: First aid also involves trying to start the recovery process from
the illness or injury, and in some cases might involve completing a treatment, such as
in the case of applying a plaster to a small wound.
Qualities of First Aider.

1. Quick thinker
First aid requires quick thinking. Regardless of the type of emergency,
you have to think quickly and be ready to respond right away. In first aid, you cannot
afford to lose even a few seconds. This is where the cliché: “every second counts”
really does matter. It is easy to get baffled by all the confusion and high emotions
during the situation. Hesitation, doubts, and uncertainty can be costly in first aid.
2. Composure
When you approach an accident, it is important that you remain calm and
never show panic. The victims and the people around, look at you for guidance.
When you act in a calm manner, people will feel more reassured. A first aid training
course gives you the skills, so that when you face the situation, you are ready to deal
without any hesitation.
3. Decision-maker
You should be ready to make your decisions within seconds. After you
assess the entire situation and the victims, you should take an immediate decision.
This is especially true if there are several victims, where you need to prioritize the
victims depending on who needs treatment the most.
4. Resourceful
Ideally, you need to have first aid supplies and equipment when
rendering emergency care. However, there are times when you do not have the
required materials. In these cases, you have to be resourceful by using whatever
54
materials are available in the surroundings. You should not wait for the ambulance
to arrive before providing first aid.
5. Leadership skills
Emergency situations are frequently marked by chaos and confusion.
As a first aider, you need to step up to lead and manage the crowd. Keeping the
situation well organized and coordinated can greatly improve the outcome of the
emergency care. Asking bystanders to help and delegating tasks to people around
you can also help in the immediate emergency care of the victims.
6. Sympathetic and reassuring

Victims of an accident need reassurance. In order to be
reassuring, you must show sympathetic and caring attitude towards the victim, aside
from frequently offering reassurance. Tell the victim that help is on the way and that
you are there to take care while waiting for help. This is a crucial quality when
dealing with victims of emergency, especially among young children.
7. Skilled
A first aider is expected to have the basic medical skills in order to care for
emergencies. During first aid training, participants are equipped with the necessary
skills to respond in various emergencies. Lecture, skills demonstration, and practice
ensure that the participants gain the right skills.
8. Efficient
The victim is definitely facing a difficult time. You do not want to add burden
by causing too much pain. By being efficient, you should be able to treat the victim
without causing added pain and at the quickest time possible.
General principles of/rules for “First Aider”

1. You must stay calm, and do not panic and take charge.
2. Use your common sense. Rules may be broken depending on the prevailing
situations especially where first aider and the victim may be exposed to further
danger as in fire accident.
3. You should not attempt to do too much if you are unsure of what to do. Note that it
may better not to do anything at all than to do something that will endanger the life
of the victim.
4. You have to reassure the victim all the time. However this can be demonstrated by
the words of mouth or by action.
5. Do not move victim unless absolutely necessary, that is when the victim is exposed
to further danger as in the case of fire, drowning etc.
6. Do not allow people to crowd around you, you should use others to keep the crowd
away.
7. Do not have the victim unattended until the doctor takes charge.
8. Loosen any tight or restrictive clothing around the neck and waist to allow easy
breathing and blood circulation.
COMMON CONDITIONS AND GENERAL PRACTICES:

1. Don't panic. Panic clouds thinking and causes mistakes. When I was an intern and
learning what to do when confronted with an unresponsive patient, a wise resident
advised me when entering a "code blue" situation to always "take my own pulse
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first." In other words, I needed to calm myself before attempting to intervene. It's far
easier to do this when you know what you're doing, but even if you encounter a
situation for which you're unprepared, there's usually some good you can do. Focus
on that rather than on allowing yourself an unhelpful emotional response. You can
let yourself feel whatever you need to feel later when you're no longer needed.
2. First, do no harm. This doesn't mean do nothing. It means make sure that if you're
going to do something you're confident it won't make matters worse. If you're not
sure about the risk of harm of a particular intervention, don't do it. So don't move a
trauma victim, especially an unconscious one, unless not moving them puts them at
great risk (and by the way, cars rarely explode). Don't remove an embedded object
(like a knife or nail) as you may precipitate more harm (e.g., increased bleeding). And
if there's nothing you can think to do yourself, you can always call for help. In fact, if
you're alone and your only means to do that is to leave the victim, then leave the
victim.
3. CPR can be life-sustaining. But most people do it wrong. First, studies suggest no
survival advantage when bystanders deliver breaths to victims compared to when
they only do chest compressions. Second, most people don't compress deeply
enough or perform compressions quickly enough. You really need to indent the chest
and should aim for 100 compressions per minute. That's more than 1 compression
per second. If you're doing it right, CPR should wear you out. Also, know that CPR
doesn't reverse ventricular fibrillation, the most common cause of unconsciousness
in a patient suffering from a heart attack. Either electricity (meaning defibrillation) or
medication is required for that. But CPR is a bridge that keeps vital organs
oxygenated until paramedics arrive. Which is why...
4. Time counts. The technology we now have to treat two of the most common and
devastating medical problems in America, heart attacks and strokes, has evolved to
an amazing degree, but patients often do poorly because they don't gain access to
that technology in time. The risk of dying from a heart attack, for example, is
greatest in the first 30 minutes after symptoms begin. By the time most people even
admit to themselves the chest pain they're feeling could be related to their heart,
they've usually passed that critical juncture. If you or someone you know has risk
factors for heart disease and starts experiencing chest pain, resist the urge to write it
off. Get to the nearest emergency room as quickly as you can. If someone develops
focal weakness of their face, legs, or arms, or difficulty with speech or smiling, they
may be having a stroke, which represents a true emergency. Current protocols for
treatment depend on the length of time symptoms have been present. The shorter
that time, the more likely the best therapies can be applied.
5. Don't use hydrogen peroxide on cuts or open wounds. It's more irritating to tissue
than it is helpful. Soap and water and some kind of bandage are best.
6. When someone passes out but continues breathing and has a good pulse, the two
most useful pieces of information to help doctors figure out what happened are: 1)
the pulse rate, and 2) the length of time it takes for consciousness to return.
7. High blood pressure is rarely acutely dangerous. First, high blood pressure is a
normal and appropriate response to exercise, stress, fear, and pain. Many patients I
follow for high blood pressure begin panicking when their readings start to come in
higher. But the damage high blood pressure does to the human body takes place
over years to decades. There is such a thing as a hypertensive emergency, when the
blood pressure is higher than around 200/120, but it's quite rare to see readings that
high, and even then, in the absence of symptoms (headache, visual disturbances,
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nausea, confusion) it's considered a hypertensive urgency, meaning you have 24
hours to get the pressure down before you get into trouble.
8. If a person can talk or cough, their airway is open. Meaning they're not choking.
Don't Heimlich someone who says to you, "I'm choking."
9. Most seizures are not emergencies. The greatest danger posed to someone having a
seizure is injury from unrestrained forceful muscular contractions. Don't attempt to
move a seizing person's tongue. Don't worry—they won't swallow it. Move any
objects on which they may hurt themselves away from the area (including glasses
from their head) and time the seizure. A true seizure is often followed by a period of
confusion called "postictal confusion (Neuro disorder)." Your reassurance during this
period that they're okay is the appropriate therapy.
10. Drowning doesn't look like what you think it does. For one thing, drowning people
are physiologically incapable of crying out for help. In fact, someone actually
drowning is usually barely moving at all (I strongly encourage everyone to click on
this link to learn more about how to recognize what drowning does look like).
MAKING OF THE FIRST AID BOX:
Though professional first aid boxes are readily available one can make a simple box
easily at home. Still readymade First Aid boxes/pouches are recommended as they
have well organized compartments. To make a First Aid Box, a strong, durable,
transparent plastic box should be taken and a red cross placed on the sides and on
the top. The Red Cross is necessary for easy identification of the box. The box should
be kept such that it is within reach in case of an emergency.
CONTENTS:
A First Aid Box should have the following contents:
 First-aid manual
 Sterile gauze pads of different sizes
 Adhesive tape
 Adhesive bandages in several sizes
 Elastic bandage
 A splint
 Antiseptic wipes
 Soap
 Antibiotic ointment
 Antiseptic solution (like hydrogen peroxide)
 Hydrocortisone cream (1%)
 Acetaminophen and ibuprofen
 Extra prescription medications (if the family is going on vacation)
 Tweezers
 Sharp scissors
 Safety pins
 Disposable instant cold packs
 Calamine lotion
 Alcohol wipes or ethyl alcohol
 Thermometer
 Tooth preservation kit
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 Plastic non-latex gloves (at least 2 pairs)
 Flashlight and extra batteries
 A blanket
 Mouthpiece for administering “CPR” (can be obtained from your local red cross)
 Blanket (stored nearby)
 First aid card containing emergency personal information, phone numbers, medication
manual.
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CHAPTER # 10
“BONE FRACTURE”
DEFINITION:
“A bone fracture (sometimes abbreviated FRX or Fx, Fx, or #) is a medical
condition in which there is damage in the continuity of the bone”.
CAUSES:
1. Direct force fracture.
The fracture due to direct force applied is called direct force fracture.
2. Indirect force fracture.
The fracture due to indirect force applied (means force applied somewhere else on body
and bone fracture somewhere else.
3. Fall from height.
The fracture cause when a body fall from a height.
4. Accidents.
The fracture causes due to an accident happen.
5. Repetitive force.
The fracture due to force applied again and again.
6. Pathology fracture.
The fracture due to pathological problems like Osteoporosis, Arthritis etc.
TYPES:
1. Simple or close fracture.
Non bleeding fracture and fracture which can’t be visible with a naked eye.
2. Compound fracture.
Bleeding fracture which can be visible with a naked eye. In such case fractured
bone come out and become visible. This type has risk to infection.
3. Complicated fracture.
A complicated fracture is any fracture in which the bone or bones which have been
broken causes damage to other organs or structures, such as the lungs, kidneys,
major blood vessels, spleen or liver.
4. Comminuted fracture.
A comminuted fracture is a break or splinter of the bone into more than two
fragments. Since considerable force and energy is required to fragment bone,
fractures of this degree occur after high-impact trauma such as in vehicular
accidents.
5. Green stick fracture.
A greenstick fracture is a fracture in a young, soft bone in which the bone bends and
breaks. Greenstick fractures usually occur most often during infancy and childhood
when bones are soft. The name is by analogy with green (i.e., fresh) wood which
similarly breaks on the outside when bent.
Pathological fracture.
A pathologic fracture is a bone fracture caused by disease that led to weakness of
the bone structure. This process is most commonly due to osteoporosis, but may
also be due to other pathologies such as: cancer, infection, inherited bone disorders,
or a bone cyst.
 Oblique fracture.
An oblique fracture is a relatively common fracture in which the bone
breaks diagonally. Oblique fractures can vary in severity, depending on
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what bone is affected and how large the break is. Oblique fractures tend to
occur on longer bones like the femur or tibia.
 Spiral fracture.
A spiral fracture (a.k.a. torsion fracture) is a
bone fracture occurring when torque (a rotating force) is applied
along the axis of a bone. Spiral fractures often occur when the
body is in motion while one extremity is planted.
 Longitudinal fracture.
Longitudinal fractures are fractures that occur along (or nearly along) the axis
of the bone. This is most often used in the context of a long-
bone fracture although traditional classification of temporal
bone fractures also used this term.
Sign & Symptoms:

Sign-------------------------- Visible
Symptoms----------------- Feelings.
( like pain, swelling, redness, un natural movement, shock, bleeding)
First Aid:
1. Recovery position.
2. Encouragement and removal of crowed.
3. Stop bleeding.
4. Apply splints with bandages.
5. Elevate the injured parts ( in case of bleeding).
6. Use sling incase of arm fracture.
7. Use blanket to maintain body temperature.
8. Arrange ambulance.
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CHAPTER # 11
“MEANS OF ESCAPE”
History:
One of the first fire escapes of any type was invented in 1784 in England. Daniel Maseres,
invented a machine called a fire escape, when fastened to a window, would enable anyone
to descend to the street without injury.
In 1887, an American inventor named Anna Connelly registered a patent for the exterior
steel staircase that would serve as the prototype for the modern metal fire escape.
Connelly’s invention introduced a cost-effective way to add safety to both existing buildings
and new construction in the 1900s. It became mandatory under the building codes that
cities began to adopt at the turn of the century.
Definitions:
"Means of escape.
“A path available for a person to leave the building (in case of fire
emergency) without any kind of obstacles/hurdles to the point of safe place (outside
building)”.
" A means of escape is a continuous and unobstructed way of exit
travel from any point in a building or structure to a public way and consists of three
separate and distinct parts: the way of exit access, the exit, and the way of exit
discharge”.
A means of egress comprises the vertical and horizontal ways of travel and shall
include intervening room spaces, doorways, hallways, corridors, passageways, balconies,
ramps, stairs, enclosures, lobbies, escalators, horizontal exits, courts, and yards.
"Emergency action plan" means a plan for a workplace, or parts thereof, describing
what procedures the employer and employees must take to ensure employee safety
from fire or other emergencies.
“Emergency escape route" means the route that employees are

directed to follow in the event they are required to evacuate the
workplace or seek a designated refuge area
Factors effecting means of escape. (COTTE)
 Construction.
 Occupancy.
 Time of evacuation.
 Traveling distance.
 Exit.
Construction.
 Primary construction. •Secondary construction.
 Primary construction.
Everything without which the building won't stand up(building body
frame). Typically this means columns, braces and beams in steel
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construction. In concrete add shear walls and slabs. In some super tall or
non standards geometry buildings floor slabs are also "activated"
meaning they provide diaphragm action, whereas in much other
construction they merely rest on primary elements.
 Secondary construction.
Everything that holds something up (provides "structure") but isn't crucial
to the buildings structural integrity. Example of this is various structural
elements that hold up secondary elements like canopies, ceilings and
decorative screens etc
Classification of buildings:
 “A class”:
These building content non combustible materials like cement, bricks,
gravel, steel rods and internal walls portioned are done from Aluminum
metal. Normally fire retarded material are mostly used.
 “B class”:
These buildings content less combustible materials like wood ceiling etc.
 “C class”:
These building content all combustible materials like building having
wooden furniture, interior wooden decoration.
Occupancy:
Different types people living in different types of building and using these building at
different interval of time. Due to this every building has different types of emergency
exit routes.
Time of evacuation:
Different buildings have different type of time evacuation.
 “A class”: 3 mins
 “B class”: 2.5 mins
 “C class”: 2 mins
Traveling distance:
 Horizontal
 Vertical.
Traveling distance should be 100-200 feet outside the
building in single storey. Workers shouldn’t use electrical
escalators during fire.
Exit:
 Exit doors should be double leaf with door closer.
 Exit door must not be round moving or sliding.
 Exit doors should be free to open in both outward and inward
direction.
 Exit routes should have emergency light arrangements.
 Each exit must have a distinctive sign of exit marked with
letters six inches high and size of letters should be 0.75 inches.
 Exit routes must be clean all time.
 Exit routes must pass through dead end or locked room.
 Exit routes must lead to street refugee area or open safe area.
 Width of corridor must be 5 feet wide. (Space for 1 person to run is
21 inch).
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 For stair size of depth of tread=10 inches and size of height of riser=7.5 inches.
Requirements for signs and marking:
 Exit sign must be place on top of exit doors.
 Mark doors and passages along end exit.
 Color of exit must be red and green.
Fire Emergency Evacuation Plan and the Fire Procedure:
A fire emergency evacuation plan (FEEP) is a written document which includes the action to
be taken by all staff in the event of fire and the arrangements for calling the fire brigade. It
can include any relevant information in relation to the FEEP.
 General Fire Notice For small premises this could take the form of a simple
fire action sign posted in positions where staff and relevant persons can
read it and become familiar with its contents.
 Staff Fire Notice High fire risks or large premises will need more detailed emergency
evacuation plan which takes account of the findings of the risk assessment, e.g. the
staff significantly at risk and their location. In addition notices giving clear and
concise instructions of the routine to be followed in case of fire should be
prominently displayed.
In certain cases you should nominate persons to implement the fire action
plan and give them adequate training in fire fighting and evacuation procedures. The
following items should be considered where appropriate:
 Fire evacuation strategy
 Action on discovering a fire
 Action on hearing the fire alarm
 Calling the fire brigade
 Power cut off.
 Identification of key escape routes
 Fire wardens/marshals
 Places of assembly and roll call
 Firefighting equipment provided
 Training required
 Personal Emergence Evacuation Plan
 Liaison with emergency services
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CHAPTER # 12
INCENDIARY AGENTS/DEVICES/WEAPONS.
HISTORY INCENDIARY AGENTS:

The first incendiary devices to be dropped during World War I fell on
coastal towns in the south west of England on the night of 18–19
January 1915. The small numbers of German bombs, also known as fire
bombs, were finned containers filled with kerosene and oil and
wrapped with tar-covered rope. They were dropped from
Zeppelin airships.
DEFINITION OF INCENDIARY AGENTS:
Incendiary weapons, incendiary devices or incendiary bombs are
weapons designed to start fires or destroy sensitive equipment using fire (and sometimes
used as anti-personnel weaponry), that use materials such as napalm, thermite, magnesium
powder, chlorine trifluoride, or white phosphorus.
CLASSIFICATION OF INCENDIARY AGENTS:
1. Spontaneous combustible.
2. Adding Oxygen to combustible.
3. Oxygen from air as a combustible material.
4. Quick fires detect material.
TYPES OF INCENDIARY AGENTS:
1. Phosphorous.
2. Magnesium.
3. Thermite
4. Na & K.
5. Petrol.
6. Napalm powder.
1. Phosphorous.
 White soft wax like material kept in water because it burns at 30⁰C.If kept
in other liquids, it burns.
 Its shouldn’t be touched physically.
 Burning temp rises to 3000⁰C.
 Used water/sand to extinguish.
2. Magnesium.
 It is an element in solid form and can damage eye if burn.
 It burns continuous for long time and used to stop the attack of enemy.
 It is used in bomb and its temp rises to 1300⁰C.
3. Thermite.
 Ist made by Germany and used by Germans.
 Made from three types of substances that is S,Al,FeO.
 Temp rises to 2500-3000⁰C.
 Used to destroy strong bunkers of enemy.
4. Na & K.
 Silver color alkali metals and 70 times lighter than water.
 When drop in water gives immediate fire.
 Used in bombs and its temperature rises to 2300⁰C.
5. Petrol.
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
Ist time manufactured by USA.

It is a liquid material and used as bomb itself because it catches fire
immediately and temp rises to2600⁰C.
 Lighter than water.
6. Napalm powder.
 Used in bomb and temperature rises to 2000⁰C to 3000⁰C.
INCENDIARY BOMBS:
These bombs to cause fire .Incendiary bombs are more dangerous than blasting
bombs comparatively.
1.
Spread uncontrollable fire in enemy area.
2.
To make fire in ammunition depot of enemy for weakening enemy.
3.
To make fire in oil depot of enemy.
4.
To destroy the important installation of enemy.
5.
To show terror to civil population.
6.
To destroy infrastructure and developments like road, telephone and
electricity.
7. To eliminate blackout of enemy and to pin point them.
TYPES INCENDIARY BOMBS:
1. German kilo magnesium bomb.
2. German oil bomb.
3. Napalm bomb.
4. Phosphorous.
Detail:
1. German kilo magnesium bomb:
 Weight 1 kg/2 pound.
 Body made of Magnesium metal.
 Length of bomb 14”.
 Filled with thermite powder.
 Transported in a container.
 Bombarded from 2000 to 3000 in number from fighter plane.
 Fire covered 12 sq feet.
 Impact fuse installed for bomb activation.
2. German oil bomb:
 Gross Weight 110 kg.
 Body weight 50 kg.
 Tare weight 60 kg.
 Length 5’-3”.
 Filled with raw oil, charcoal, kerosene oil, magnesium and gun powder.
3. Napalm bomb:
 Weight 750 pounds.
 Body made from Aluminum.
 Length 11.5” up to 137”.
 Filled with petrol, Jelly and Napalm powder.
 After manufacture it has be bombarded within 72 hours.
 Temperature of fire between 2000°c and 3000°c.
 Impact fuse & pressure fuse installed for bomb activation.
4. Phosphorous bomb:
 Weight 50 kg.
 Length 3’-4”.
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 Filled with Red phosphorous, rubber and metal scrapes.
 Temperature of fire 3000°c.
 Impact fuse & pressure fuse installed for bomb activation.
High explosive bombs:
1. History:
High explosive bombs were invented by Swedish scientist Youngi in 1903 AD.
Later on 1918 AD British Royal Force dropped for bomber aircraft.
Nowadays up to 44000 pounds weight bombs are used.
2. Definition: It is an iron shell which is filled with chemical to blastible material,
manufactured according to certain mechanism.
3. Body parts:
 Fuse.
 Main body.
 Tail unit/fins assembly.
 Piston has no chemical and non combustible.
 Electric detonator-27 number wire.
 Non electric detonator-33 number wire.
4. Types of tail unit:
 Drum (used in large bomb).
 Retarder (used in small bomb).
 Conical (used in large bomb).
 Box (used in large bomb).
5. Parts of high explosive bomb:
 Carrying band.
 Suspension lugs.
 Tail piston.
 Pistol.
 Detonator.
6. Types H.E.Bombs:
 General purpose bomb (100 lbs-500lbs).
 Medium capacity (5000lbs-10000lbs).
 High capacity (10000lbs-15000lbs).
 Fragmentation bomb (15000lbs-30000lbs).
7. Safety precautions:
 Close all roads on which bomb implanted.
 Don’t let any crowd near bomb.
 Make diversion for traffic.
 Call for police station/bomb disposal squad.
 Don’t let non expert person to touch bomb.
 Evacuate the nearby area.
8. Other types of bombs:
 Chemical bomb.
 Biological bomb.
 Rotech bomb.
 Atom bomb.
 Hydrogen bomb.
 Incendiary bomb.
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CHAPTER # 13
“DISASTER MANAGEMENT”
1. Introduction.
The United Nations defines a disaster as a serious disruption of
the functioning of a community or a society. Disasters involve
widespread human, material, economic or environmental
impacts, which exceed the ability of the affected community or
society to cope using its own resources.
2. Definition of disaster:
“A serious disruption of the functioning of
community or a society involving wide spread human,
material or economic environmental losses and impact,
which exceed the ability of a effected community or society
to cope using its own resource”.
Eg: 10 people killed 100 people affected.
3. Disaster management (or emergency management) is the creation of plans through
which communities reduce vulnerability to hazards and cope with disasters. Disaster
management does not avert or eliminate the threats, instead it focuses on creating plans to
decrease the impact of disasters. Failure to create a plan could lead to damage to assets,
human mortality, and lost revenue. Currently in the United States 60% businesses do not
have emergency management plans. Events covered by disaster management include acts
of terrorism, industrial sabotage, fire, natural disasters (such as earthquakes, hurricanes,
etc.), public disorder, industrial accidents, and communication failures.
4. Types of disasters:
There is no country that is immune from disaster, though vulnerability to disaster varies.
There are two main types of disaster.
 Natural disasters:
 Floods,
 Hurricanes,
 Earthquakes
 Volcano eruptions that have immediate impacts on human health.
 landslides,
 Forest fires.
 Tsunamis.
 River erosion.
 Avalanches.
 Cyclones/storms.
 Droughts.
 Earthquakes.
 Floods.
 Glacial lake outbursts.
 Manmade disasters:
•Different epidemic diseases: involving a sudden onset of contagious
disease that effects health, disrupts services and businesses, and brings
economic and social costs.
•Bombs.
5. Aftermath effects of disaster: Any disaster can interrupt essential
services, such as health care, electricity, water, sewage/garbage removal,
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transportation and communications. The interruption can seriously affect the health, social
and economic networks of local communities and countries. Disasters have a major and
long-lasting impact on people long after the immediate effect has been mitigated. Poorly
planned relief activities can have a significant negative impact not only on the disaster
victims but also on donors and relief agencies. So it is important that physical therapists
join established programmes rather than attempting individual efforts.
Risk = Hazard + Exposure + Vulnerability(anything come under).
6. Opportunity for people during disaster:
Often during disaster basic needs of life became short then for procurement different
businessmen sell their commodities on high prices.
7. Phases of Disaster management.
 Preparation: Activities prior to disaster like emergency plans, emergency
exercise and warning system.
 Response: Activities after disaster like quick approach to affected people, further
warning and warning, search and rescue provide emergency relief.
 Rehabilitation: include make functional the disturbed system like clear roads,
make functional telecommunication system and electricity etc.
 Construction: include new making new roads and houses etc.
 Development: include new schools buildings, schools, water supply system etc.
 Mitigation: measures are those that eliminate or reduce the impacts and risks of
hazards through proactive measures taken before
an emergency or disaster occurs like extra side wall for land sliding, cemented
walls on bank of river for flood.
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CHAPTER # 14
“Fire Alarm System”
DEFINITION:
“A fire alarm system is intended to enable a fire to be detected at a sufficiently
early stage so that people who are at risk can be made safe either by escaping from the
fire”.
EFFECTIVENESS DEPENDENCY:
The effectiveness of the fire detection and alarm system depends on the stage of the fire at
which it is operated. In order for all the occupants to escape without too much difficulty, an
early alarm should operate before the escape routes becomes smoke-logged to such an
extent as will cause occupants to have difficulty finding their way out of the building.
MAIN PURPOSE:
Fire Alarm Systems are used to protect life and property.
a. Detecting a fire at an early stage
b. Alerting and evacuating occupants
c. Notifying the relevant personnel
d. Activating auxiliary functions e.g. smoke controls, lift homing etc
e. Identifying and guiding fire fighters
SEVERAL MAIN FUNCTIONS:
. Provide a means to identify a developing fire through automatic methods.
. They alert building occupants to a fire condition and the need to evacuate.
. Another common function is the transmission of an alarm notification signal to the
fire department or other emergency response organization.
. Fire alarm systems may also shut down electrical, air handling equipment or special
process operations, and they may be used to initiate automatic suppression systems.
MAIN COMPONENTS:
1. Smoke / Heat Smoke Heat Detectors (Fire Detectors)
2. Alarm Panels (Control and Indicating Equipment)
3. Alarm Bells (Fire Alarm Devices)
4. Manual fire Call Points.
5. DECAM Panel (Fire services signaling transmitter)
6. DECAM Station (Alarm Monitoring Station Alarm Station)
7. Extinguishing Panels (Control for automatic fire
protection).
8. Gas/Sprinkler (Automatic fire protection).
9. Charger/Battery (Power Supply Equipment)
REQUIREMENT ALARM SYSTEM:

 Two call points distance should not be more than 100
feet.
 Suitable height for call point is 4.5 feet which is easy accessible.
 Call points should be installed at exit routes and visible places.
 Lights should be installed near call point for visibility at nights.
 Operational instruction should be printed in both “Urdu” & “English” languages.
ACCESSORIES OF FIRE ALARM SYSTEM:
- Main control panel.
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- Fire detectors/ sensors.
- Fire alarm system.
TYPES:
1. Non--Addressable System.
 Also commonly known as “conventional”.
 Fire detectors are wired to the panel in groups known as zone fire zone.
 Identification of alarm status by zone.
 Identification zone--fire detectors indicates either ““Fire Fire””or “Normal”
status only.
 System only indicate events but without event recording feature
2. Addressable System.
1. Each fire detector is provided with an address.
2. Identification of alarm status by zone and by address identification address.
3. Fire detectors indicate various conditions such as smoke level.
4. Indicates and records system events.
Hybrid System (conventional + addressable):

- A combination of features from both addressable and a combination of
features from both addressable and non non-addressable.
- Either built from a basic conventional system with add either built from a
basic conventional system with add-on on hardwire addressable features.
- Or built from an addressable system with conventional module.
- Event recording and alarm management feature.
MAINTENANCE:
•Regular Testing and Inspection
•False Alarm Management
•Common Maintenance Problems And Troubleshooting.
OBJECTIVES.
• to ensure continuous reliability of the fire alarm system
RESPONSIBILITY.
• Building owner or owner representatives
• to engage manufacturer’s representative or
• competent contractor
• owner representative with suitable experience and special training.
REGULAR TESTING AND INSPECTION.
•Daily Check
•Weekly Test
•Monthly Test
•Annual Test
FALSE ALARM MANAGEMENT.
1.false alarm causes disruption to the normal operation of business and
create a drain to the fire services
2.responsibility for reducing false alarms rest with every party involved in
-specification
-design
-installation
-commissioning
-management at the operation level
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-maintenance of the fire alarm system.
COMMON CAUSES OF FALSE ALARMS.
•fumes from cooking process
•steam from bathrooms, showers etc
•tobacco smoke
•dust (whether built up over time or not)
•insects
•incense, candle
•high humidity
•accidental damage (manual call point)
•aerosol spray
•high air velocities
•water egress
•testing or maintenance of the system without proper disablement.
•arises from fault in equipment
RECOMMENDATIONS.
the user should arrange for suitable investigation and if appropriate, action
to be taken on every occasion that a false alarm occurs and record the details
which should include the following details :
-date & time
-identity and location of device
-category of false alarm
-reason for false alarm (if known)
-activity in the area ( if the reason of false alarm is unknown)
-action taken
-the person responsible for recording the information.
CHAPTER # 15
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BREATHING APPARATUS
DEFINITION:
“A self-contained breathing apparatus, or SCBA, sometimes referred to as a compressed
air breathing apparatus(CABA), or simply breathing apparatus (BA), is a device worn by rescue
workers, firefighters, and others to provide breathable air in an immediately dangerous to life or
health atmosphere (IDLH)”.
SELF CONTENT BREATHING APPARATUS:
Protective breathing apparatus is extremely crucial to the well-being of the
firefighter. Failure to use this equipment could lead to failed rescue attempts, firefighter
injuries, or firefighter fatalities. The well-trained firefighter should be knowledgeable of
respiratory hazards, the requirements for wearing protective breathing apparatus, the
procedures for donning and doffing the apparatus, and the proper care and maintenance of
the equipment.
The lungs and respiratory tract are more vulnerable to injury than any other body
areas, and the gases encountered in fires are, for the most part, dangerous in one way or
another. It should be a fundamental rule in fire fighting that no one be permitted to enter
any potentially toxic atmosphere, such as an interior or exterior fire attack, below-grade
rescue, or hazardous materials emergency, unless equipped with protective breathing
apparatus. All situations should be monitored for firefighter safety. There are four common
hazardous atmospheres associated with fires or other emergencies.
Usage condition:
These atmospheres include the following:
1 Oxygen deficiency
2 Elevated temperatures
3 Smoke
4 Toxic atmospheres fumes and gases (with and without fire)
Fire fighters should always wear their SCBA while performing a fire attack.
Oxygen Deficiency
The combustion process consumes oxygen while producing toxic gases that either
physically displace oxygen or dilute its concentration. When oxygen concentrations
are below 18 percent, the human body responds by increasing its respiratory rate.
Symptoms of oxygen deficiency by percentage of available oxygen are shown in
table on right side.
NOTE: “When oxygen concentrations are below 16 percent, fire doesn’t cause.
Average rate breathing of people utilize 2.5 litres of Oxygen per hour. Normal
human breathes 12 times per min.”
Elevated Temperatures
Exposure to heated air can damage the respiratory tract, and if the air is moist, the
damage can be much worse. Excessive heat taken quickly into the lungs can cause a serious
decrease in blood pressure and failure of the circulatory system. Inhaling heated gases can
cause pulmonary edema (accumulation of fluids in the lungs and associated swelling), which
can cause death from asphyxiation. The tissue damage from inhaling hot air is not
immediately reversible by introducing fresh, cool air.
SMOKE
The smoke at a fire is a suspension of small particles of carbon, tar, and dust
floating in a combination of heated gases. The particles provide a means for the
condensation of some of the gaseous products of combustion, especially
aldehydes and organic acids formed from carbon. Some of the suspended particles in
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smoke are merely irritating, but others may be lethal. The size of the particle
determines how deeply into the unprotected lungs it will be inhaled.
Toxic atmospheres associated with fire
The firefighter should remember that a fire means exposure to combinations of
irritants and toxicants whose toxicity cannot be predicted accurately. In fact, the
combination can have a synergistic effect in which the combined effect of two or
more substances is more toxic or more irritating than the total effect would be if
each were inhaled separately. Inhaled toxic gases may have several
harmful effects on the human body. Some of the gases directly cause disease of the
lung tissue and impair its function. Other gases have no directly harmful effect on
the lungs but pass into the bloodstream and to other parts of the body and impair the
oxygen-carrying capacity of the red blood cells. The particular toxic gases given off
at a fire vary according to four factors:
1. Nature of the combustible
2. Rate of heating
3. Temperature of the evolved gases
4. Oxygen concentration.
WHERE NEED TO & USED BY:
1. Fire brigade.
2. Coal mines.
3. Industries.
4. At height.
5. At hospitals.
6. Oil wells.
7. Under water.
AIR COMPOSITION:
a. NITROGEN GAS: ----------------------------- 78.94 %
b. OXYGEN GAS:-------------------------------- 20.96 %
c. CO2 GAS:--------------------------------------- 0.04 %
d. ARGON + OTHER GASES:------------------ 0.06 %
NOTE: average rate breathing person consume 2.5 Litres of Oxygen/hour.
MANUFACTURE TYPES:
There are two types of self-contained breathing apparatus used in the fire service: open
circuit and closed-circuit. Open-circuit SCBA is used much more frequently than closed-
circuit SCBA. In fact, closed-circuit breathing apparatus is rarely used in today’s fire service.
 Open-circuit SCBA:
Open circuit SCBA uses compressed air. The exhaled air in open-circuit SCBA is
vented to the outside atmosphere.
Open-circuit industrial breathing sets are filled with filtered, compressed air, rather
than pure oxygen. Typical open-circuit systems have two regulators; a first stage to
reduce the pressure of air to allow it to be carried to the mask, and a second stage
regulator to reduce it even further to a level just above standard atmospheric
pressure. This air is then fed to the mask via either a demand valve (activating only
on inhalation) or a continuous positive pressure valve (providing constant airflow to
the mask).
 Closed-circuit SCBA:
closed circuit uses compressed or liquid oxygen. Closed-circuit SCBA is also known as
“rebreather apparatus” because the user’s exhaled air stays within the system for re
use.
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he closed-circuit type filters, supplements, and recirculates exhaled gas: see
rebreather for more information. It is used when a longer-duration supply of
breathing gas is needed, such as in mine rescue and in long tunnels, and going
through passages too narrow for a big open-circuit air cylinder. Before open-circuit
SCBA's were developed, most industrial breathing sets were rebreathers, such as the
Siebe Gorman Proto, Siebe Gorman Savox, or Siebe Gorman Salvus. An example of
modern rebreather SCBAs would be the SEFA. Rebreathers used underwater have
the advantage of not releasing tell-tale bubbles, making it more difficult to detect
divers involved in covert operations.
Closed circuit SCBA and open circuit air line equipment are only used in some
extended hazardous materials and rescue operations. Regardless of the type of SCBA
used, training in its use is essential.
SADCSDCSCUS
DIFFERENT TYPES:
EARLY TYPE:
In 1824, a miner named John Roberts came up with a smoke respirator or hood, that would
allow a person to enter a dense smoke condition without any danger. Various types of filter
masks were developed and used by firemen in Europe and the United States.
Toward the end of World War II, Scott Aviation was manufacturing breathing
equipment that allowed air crews to operate at extreme altitudes. One story goes that a
number of Scott engineers watched a smoky fire being fought in a neighbouring building.
They were amazed that the firefighters had to operate in such a severe smoke condition so
they decided to see if they could adapt their equipment to suit firefighting. Working with
the Boston and New York City fire departments, Scott introduced the AirPac in late 1945
after a year of field testing.
Different sub types of early breathing apparatus.
1. Smoke jacket breathing apparatus:
Invented in 21st century. Different parts included face mask, inhalation hose
tube/hose, exhalation tube/hose, and hose coupling.
2. Short distance apparatus/ equalizer breathing apparatus:
This was an apparatus by which the wearer drew a supply of air from the
atmosphere by his own effort. It was designed to work at a short distance from
fresh air only. It comprised (fig 2.2 .1 pic below..a face-piece, with non-return outlet
valve for the passage of the exhaled air and a flexible corrugated tube of rubber
connected to the base of the face-piece to which was fitted a non-return inlet valve.
Disadvantages:
a) The air tubing had to be trailed behind the wearer, thus restricting his
movements to a certain extent and limiting the distance to which he could travel.
b) The air tube could be cut or damaged by falling debris or other causes.
c) The supply of air was dependent on the respiratory efforts of the wearer and
involved considerable exertion.
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3. Bellows smoke helmets:
A popular type of this apparatus consisted of a simple headgear blocked out
of hide which fitted over the head of the wearer, hood fashion. A piece of soft
leather attached to the base of the helmet, tucked in under the wearer's tunic or
coat, sealed the lower part of the helmet from surrounding air. Small clear mica
windows in hinged frames giving a wide field of vision could be instantly opened and
closed with a special locking device (Fig. 2.2. Air entered the helmet by means of
breathing tubes at each side of the helmet. An exhaling valve fitted on top of the
helmet allowed the escape of excess and vitiated air. The air pipeline was non-
collapsible, with embedded wire or armouring, and metal couplings. It was
connected to a set of bellows which could be of pedal, hand, or sometimes power-
operated type; this was situated in fresh air and with the efforts of a second
person supplied a continuous flow of air to the wearer of the apparatus.
The disadvantages of this type of apparatus were:
a) A constant supply of air was always dependent upon a second person.
b) The air tubing had to he trailed behind the wearer, thus restricting his
movements and limiting the distance he could travel.
c) The air tubing could be cut or damaged by falling debris or other causes.
d) The apparatus as a whole was bulky to stow.
4. Self-contained self-generating breathing apparatus:
This type of apparatus consisted of a respirator type of face-piece, breathing tube
and canister. The canister was filled with chemicals (the peroxides of sodium and potassium)
which both generated oxygen and absorbed carbon dioxide exhaled by the wearer. The
warmth and moisture of the exhaled breath started the reaction, but this process took a
little time. Other disadvantages were that the apparatus could not respond to a sudden
demand for oxygen and, owing to the fact that the reaction of the peroxides was exothermic
considerable heat was generated, which added to the discomfort of the wearer.
This type of apparatus was never widely used in this country, but it was developed
and improved in the United States of America.
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5 Self-contained oxygen breathing apparatus:
The forerunner of the self-contained oxygen breathing apparatus now widely used
in this country was introduced into fire brigades in about 1912. This apparatus was a
development of that used in the mines and was of self-contained closed circuit type (Fig.
2.3). A cylinder of oxygen was carried sufficient for a duration of up to 1 hour. The exhaled
breath was returned to a breathing bag containing an absorbent which removed the carbon
dioxide; it was then mixed with a fresh supply of oxygen and used again. The wearer inhaled
and exhaled through breathing tubes fitted with non-return valves and connected to a
mouthpiece. Goggles were worn for protection of the eyes.
The carbon dioxide absorbent used in the early apparatus consisted of sticks of
caustic soda, which assumed a brown sticky state in use. Later the caustic sticks were
replaced by coke soda, a form of coke impregnated with caustic soda. Both these
absorbents were difficult to remove from the bag, and it was essential to wash out the
breathing bag with warm water after each time of use. Carbon dioxide absorbents of this
type are no longer used in the United Kingdom, and have been replaced in modern
breathing apparatus by a substance known as soda lime.
6. Self-contained air breathing apparatus:

Various attempts were made to produce a breathing apparatus which carried its own supply
of air as an alternative to the atmospheric types. One of the earliest made its appearance in
about 1870. In this type, air was stored at atmospheric pressure in a bag carried on the
back; the wearer inhaled from the bag and exhaled into it through a mouthpiece and
breathing tubes.
Extract - Manual of Firemanship - Book 6-Breathing Apparatus and Resuscitation
The intake was from the bottom of the bag where the air was cooler, and the exhaled
breath was returned to the top. The air in the container quickly became deficient in oxygen,
and the duration of the apparatus was only about 2-3 minutes. Fig. 2.4 is an illustration
typical of this type of apparatus.
In about the middle 1920s the Mandet apparatus of French design came into use. The
apparatus was self-contained, having air at high pressure stored in two cylinders carried on
the wearer's back. The apparatus was marketed in this country by Messrs. Roberts, McLean
and Co. Ltd. Later this firm developed their own set, on similar lines, which was known as
the 'Roberts Compressed-Air Breathing Apparatus, Mark 41.
The Mandet breathing set was of the open-circuit type in which the exhaled air is discharged
into the atmosphere, and provision for a carbon dioxide absorbent is therefore unnecessary.
It consisted of a respirator type of face mask with a breathing tube, and the two cylinders
which discharged through a lung-governed demand valve. This valve operated according to
the rate and depth of breathing and so provided the quantity of air demanded by the
wearer.
The quantity of air carried in the two cylinders when fully charged was about 950 litres. A
man walking at 6.4 km/h breathes about 37 litres per minute. At this rate of work the
apparatus had a nominal duration of about 25 minutes.
PARTS.
There are four basic SCBA component assemblies:
1. Backpack and harness assembly:
Holds the air cylinder on the firefighter’s back.
2. Air cylinder assembly:
Includes cylinder, valve, and pressure gauge.
3. Regulator assembly:
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Includes high-pressure hose and low pressure alarm
4. Face-piece assembly:
Includes face-piece lens, an exhalation valve, and a low-pressure hose (breathing tube) if the
regulator is separate; also includes head harness or helmet mounting bracket. Other body
parts mentioned below:
 Main body-----iron.
 Main tube------steel.
 Pressure gauge—alloy.
 Whistle--------aluminum.
 Control value---metal.
CALCULATION OF WORKING SELF CONTENT BREATHING

APPARATUS:
Firefighter BA has a full face mask, regulator, air cylinder, cylinder pressure gauge,
and a harness with adjustable shoulder straps and waist belt which lets it be worn on
the back. The air cylinder usually comes in one of three standard sizes: 4 liter, 6 liter,
or 6.8 liter. The duration of the cylinder can be calculated to Size of cylinder X
Pressure / by 40 and then less 10 minutes because of a safety margin. so a 6 liter
cylinder, of 300bar, is 6 X 300 / 40 - 10 = 35minutes working duration The relative
fitness, and especially the level of exertion of the wearer, often results in variations
of the actual usable time that the SCBA can provide air, often reducing the working
time by 25% to 50%. Air cylinders must be hydrostatically tested every 5 years for
composite cylinders, and every 5 years for metal cylinders.
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CHAPTER # 16
HISTORY & INTRODUCTION:

In early time it was hard to control and overcome the fire hazard during fire
emergency with in minimum time because there was no water source nearby for fire
fighting. Later on fire fighters used to get water from near ponds covered with Red painted
wooden plank.
In 17th century the concept of fire hydrant or fire plug was introduced after 1666
London fire which started from bakery and fire spread to other houses nearby house which
were made of wood then it was decided to install underground water pipe line for any fire
emergency in future.
DIFINITION:
Fire hydrant (also called fire plug) is a fixed installation system which is used to
extract water from pressurized network for fire fighting and they are designed to enhance
the fire fighting capacity.
TYPES OF PIPELINE.
1. Trunk line-----------------Diameter 48 Inches.
2. Intermediate-------------Diameter 12 to 36 Inches.
3. Service line-------------- Diameter 3 to 8 Inches. (Fire hydrant installed on service
line).
CATEGORIES OF FIRE HYDRANT:

1. Dry barrel.
Dry barrel operating system is below the earth surface and the suction
system is above the surface. These are installed on those areas where temperature
goes -4°C in winter season and it is not containing water all time and remains dry.
The barrel does not have water in it till the valve is opened. The compression valve is
located below the frost line (approx. 18”).The barrel has drain holes in it. There are
very few left in the city.
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2. Wet barrel.
Wet barrel operating system is above earth surface. Entire hydrant is
charged with water. Water available all time for fire fighting. Have a compression
type valve at each discharge outlet. Almost all our hydrants in the city are wet barrel
hydrants.
Barrel Markings:
 If the arrow ( ) is in Orange color it indicates the dead end of
water flow.
 If the arrow ( I ) it means last hydrant.
 If there is means hydrant and it is regulated zone.
R
 I I
If there is a sign 4/9 means it is single nozzle hydrant.
 I D means it is a double nozzle hydrant.

If there is sign 4/9
 RWD = Inventory number (opposite street side, 4 digits)
 HP = High pressure. Greater than 100 PSI
 BO or Blue Top = Blow off, indicates end of distribution or sand trap hydrant
 Circle with line through it= Fire Department use only
 | | = No Gate Valve, must use main valve for water shut off
 Burlap Sack over hydrant = Out of Service
 BOT Dot = placed in the street
 Green hydrant- part of green belt (blends in)
 Purple hydrant- non potable water (can’t drink)
IFSTA Hydrants color-coding
 Class AA – Light Blue – 1,500 gpm or greater---------Very Good.
 Class A – Green – 1000 –1499 gpm----------------------Good for residential area.
 Class B – Orange – 500-999 gpm-------------------------Good.
 Class C – Red – less than 500 gpm-----------------------Poor quality.
Reference --- NFPA 291
Hydrants Styles/ Versions
 1. Jones Head (1 or 2) 2 1/2” discharges
 2. Standard (1) 2 1/2” discharge and (1) 4” discharge
 3. Super (2) 2 1/2” discharges and (1) 4” discharge
 4. Yard Hydrant – private hydrant, 500 GPM or less
CLASSIFICATION OF HYDRANT:
1. Flash hydrant:
Operating system of flash is below the earth surface, only its lid is
visible. Usually it doesn’t use for working purpose.
2. Pillar hydrant:
Pillar hydrant is normally 24 inches above earth surface and they are
visible from far.
TYPES:
1. Ball type hydrant:
It is fixed on pipe line where it is installed. It has a ball made by wood with
leather cover. Stand pipe is on pipe line. A rod in stand pipe which press the ball
down due to this water start to flow.
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2. Screw down type hydrant:
It is fixed on top of line. It has a key and bar. After connection of stand with
hydrant with the help of key and bar opens the valve.
3. Sluice value type hydrant:

This hydrant is not installed on main line rather than it is fixed away from main
line to branch line, due to which pressure of water flows very fast and quickly in
hydrant. That’s why it is considered a best one and consists of three parts;
 Inlet valve.
 Sluice valve.
 Duck foot bend.
4. Plug type hydrant:

It is fixed on pipe line and it doesn’t have key and bar. It has plug which can
easily turn “ON” and turn “OFF”. But the disadvantage of this hydrant is the
leakage of water.
5. Pillar type hydrant:

This is visible and fixed 3 to 4 feet above the earth surface. These are installed in
industries. We can get water by direct coupling of hose pipe with this hydrant.
HYDRANT REQUIREMENTS:
 If the outlet nozzle is one----------------------------Dia 4 inches.
 If the outlet nozzle are two--------------------------Dia 2.5 inches.
 If the outlet nozzle are three------------------------Dia 2.5 Inches.
 Distances between hydrant to the building should be 100 feet.
 Hydrant must be fixed at ¼ part of height of the building.
OPERATION OF HYDRANT:
 Open the hydrant slowly and carefully especially when hose connected with branch.
 Close the valve slowly to avoid water hammering and pipe bursting.
 Properly close the hydrant after work.
 Check the cross valve of hydrant whether it is closed or not.
 If there is water in pit don’t operate hydrant.
 Firstly connect hose and stand pipe otherwise stagnant water can damage hose.
 If hydrant is dry and water is not running then close the hydrant valve and
disconnect hose.
CARE & MAINTENANCE:

 Inspect the hydrant 2 or 4 times in a year.
 It should be accessible and visible in any emergency.
 Parking area should be away 5 to 10 meter from fire hydrant.
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 Distance between should be 300 feet at least.
 There should be two nozzles in a fire hydrant at least.
 Water between valve and nozzle should be drained after use (to avoid frost valve)
because in winter it is freezes and hard to operate.
 Keep clean the hydrant pit.
 Hydrant pit should be 12 inches in depth.
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CHAPTER # 17
“Pump & priming”
History of pump:
Ist manufactured by Greek. Later on Romans manufactured double
cylinder pump.
In 16th century Ist manual pump introduced then used in1666 London fire.
In 1724 a fireman Richard New Shaw manufactured advance and modern pump.
Similarly in 1785 AD Rotary pump introduced, in 1829 AD fire engine pump and
1851 centrifugal pump introduced.
Definition:
“It’s a machine driven by some external power, its purpose to
pressurize/empower liquid water. This power is given by hand or rotating shaft
connecting/coupling”.
Classification of pump:
Three classes discussed as below:
1. Positive displacement pump.
2. Centrifugal pump.
3. Ejector or jet pump.
1. Positive displacement:
A positive displacement pump makes a fluid move by trapping a fixed amount
and forcing (displacing) that trapped volume into the discharge pipe. Some
positive displacement pumps use an expanding cavity on the suction side and a
decreasing cavity on the discharge side.
Types:
a. Force pump:
In a force pump, the upstroke of the piston (solid plunger) draws water, through
an inlet valve, into the cylinder. On the down stroke, the water is discharged,
through an outlet valve, into the outlet pipe
b. Lift pump:
In a lift pump, the upstroke of the piston draws water, through a valve, into the
lower part of the cylinder. On the down stroke, water passes through valves set
in the piston into the upper part of the cylinder. On the next upstroke, water is
discharged from the upper part of the cylinder via a spout.
c. Bucket & Plunger pump:
A plunger pump is a type of positive displacement pump where the high-pressure
seal is stationary and a smooth cylindrical plunger slides through the seal. This
makes them different from piston pumps and allows them to be used at higher
pressures. This type of pump is often used to transfer municipal and industrial
sewage.
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d. Rotary pump:
A rotary pump is a type of positive displacement pump where the water
continuously flowing with the help of two super gears.(example raahat in village.)
e. Water seal pump:
Water seal pump is a type of positive displacement pump, it is like simple tap
water and used after dipping in water or other fluids.(water boring machines at
home used and also in bazaar oil distributors filled the empty cans with oil from
large containers with the help of water seal).
2. Centrifugal pump.
Simple structure pumps with no value, no plunger and no piston. Whole function
depends upon centre operation. Its pumps water in huge quantity for delivery
and generate smooth pressure everywhere and its operation is easy with less
mechanical defect because only one part of whole pump is rotating. Its
maintenance is also easy.
A centrifugal pump is not positive acting. As the depth to water increases, it
pumps less and less water. Also, when it pumps against increasing pressure it
pumps less water. For these reasons it is important to select a centrifugal pump
that is designed to do a particular pumping job. For higher pressures or greater
lifts, two or more impellers are commonly used; or, a jet ejector is added to
assist the impellers in raising the pressure.
There are two main parts of centrifugal pump:

1. Impeller: the rotating part of a centrifugal pump, compressor, or other
machine designed to move a fluid by rotation. Whole pump water pressure
depends upon impeller. There are three types of impeller.
 Open impeller. It has no cover. Clear visible. Used for viscous liquid. It has
a “Head Low”.
 Semi open impeller. It has a cover one side of impeller. Used for less
viscous liquids.
 Closed impeller. It has two covers on both sides of impeller. Waves not
visible. Used for transparent liquids.
2. Casing: it is body cover which turns water pressure of impeller in to energy.
Different types of gauges in centrifugal pump:

 Vacuum gauge.
 Pressure gauge.
 Compound gauge.
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Primer:
Definition:
“An air pump that creates vacuum suction in a centrifugal pump priming
line and pulls water up into the pump to prime it. (Centrifugal pump doesn’t
have self priming system”.
Types of primers:
1. Reciprocating priming system:
Just like syringe it has a piston it sucks water by creating vacuum by
pulling back the piston installed in it.
2. Exhaust gas ejector priming system:
In this an air pump that creates vacuum suction in centrifugal pump priming line
and pulls water up into the pump. In this hot and waste gas of fire tender is
utilized. A valve is attached with silencer and a pipe is coupled with valve and
gas is passed through pipe in jet form. On other end of pipe suction pipe
attached to pump which creates vacuum on which whole pumps operate.
3. Rotary priming system:
In this pipe is attached with Carburetor at one end and other end with
suction hose. On pressing lever Carburetor stop sucking air from
environment and result vacuum. To fill this vacuum water comes up in to
pump.
4. Water seal priming system:
5. Inline induction priming system:
Care & maintenance:

 Keep clean suction pipes with clean and sweet water(incase fire
extinguish with sea water).
 Keep the fire tender water tank full all time.
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 Keep the pump lubricated all time to avoid rusting.
 Keep shut the primer valve.
 Remove the defects of casing.
 Drain off water from pump after use.
3. Ejector /jet pump:
This type of pump also has the potential to deliver water along with air gas.
It functions on vacuum creation principle. In fire service it is used in foam
making equipments. It has no moving part. It has one discharge nozzle and
inlet nozzle.
Flow rate & Range:
20 5000gpm.
Total head (pressure) Range.
100 1200gpm.
85
CHAPTER # 18
“Building Construction”
Definition:
“Any structure having four walls and roof and usable for living or other
purpose is called Building Construction.”
Classification of building:
1. Class “A”: Physical structure or building or structure having negligible or
very less amount of combustible materials.
2. Class “B”: Physical structure or building or structure having minimum
amount of combustible materials.
3. Class “C” : Physical structure or building or structure having maximum
amount of combustible materials.
Types of building construction:

 Frame types/column-beam based:
Rigid frame structures can be defined as the structures in which
beams & columns are made monolithically and act collectively to
resist the moments which are generating due to applied load.
Advantages of Frame Structures:
 One of the best advantages of frame structures is their
ease in construction. it is very east to teach the labor at
the construction site.
 Frame structures can be constructed rapidly.
 Economy is also very important factor in the design of building
systems.
 Frame structures have economical designs.
Disadvantages of Frames:
 In frames structures, span lengths are usually restricted to 40
ft when normal reinforced concrete. Otherwise spans greater
than that, can cause lateral deflections.
Un frame types building:
 The term unframed means that there is no skeleton of steel or
reinforced concrete taking the load.
Elements of building:
 Windows.
 Ventilators.
 Corridors.
 Terrace.
 Stairs etc
4 things construction include:
1. Development.
2. Maintenance.
3. Alteration.
4. Demolish.
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Building construction material:
Bricks, hollow blocks, Solid blocks, steel, soil, wood, crush, stones, tar
coal, aluminum frames, quick lime, paints, plastic materials, glass,
reinforced concrete (RCC), insulating materials.
87
CHAPTER # 19
Fire drill:
Defintion:
“A practice of emergency procedure to be used in case of

fire.”
Drill teaches the discipline.

Practice makes the man perfect.
Sequence during the drill:
1. Raising the alarm.
2. Calling the fire brigade.
3. Shut Off the power supply.
4. Escape of fire using emergency routes.
5. Assembly point.
6. Roll call.
7. Attacking on fire.
Responsibilities of “Officer in charge of building” on duty.
1. Take quick action to extinguish fire.
2. Call the fire brigade immediately.
3. He should know the place of installed fire extinguisher in his
building and he should know the usage.
4. Emergency routes should be clean and clear of building.
5. He should stop operations of all machines and shut OFF power
supply in case of fire.
6. He should remove all workers from building immediately in case
of fire.
7. He should tell/inform the staff of fire brigade about total situation,
type of fire, his missing workers.
Extra responsibilities of building in charge:
o If possible arrange fire emergency drill four times a year or at least
twice a year.
o At the end of drill call the meeting.
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CHAPTER # 20
FIRE IN HIGH RISE BUILDINGS
DEFINITION
“Such type of building whose height is more than 75 feet is called high
rise building”.
TYPES
1. Official Buildings
2. Residential Buildings
3. Institutional Buildings
4. Assembly Buildings
5. Hospital Buildings
6. Hotel Buildings
FIRE INCIDENTS IN HIGH RISE BUILDINGS
When we see fire incidents in high rise buildings than two types of effects which strikes in
our mind which are given below,
1. Human Effects
2. Natural Effects
HUMAN EFFECTS
1. Suicide attacks
2. Vandalism
3. Bombing
4. Protest
5. Theft
6. Work violence
7. Arson
8. Sabotage etc.
NATURAL EFFECTS
1. Disaster
2. Floods
3. Earthquakes
4. Cyclones
5. Typhoons
6. Tsunami
CAUSES OF FIRE SPREAD IN HIGH RISE BUILDINGS
1. Failure in handling the fire at initial stage.

2. Improper installation of fire alarm/detector system.
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3. Use of low quality material.
4. Non availability of fire suppression system.
5. Appliances & equipment Cooking; heating; washing machines & dryers; air
conditioners and fans; and more.
6. Arson and juvenile fire setting Children playing with fire and intentional fires.
7. Candles Causes and trends in home fires involving candles, candle fire frequency in
other occupancies, and selected published incident descriptions.
8. Chemical and gases Natural gas and LP-gas home and non-home fires; spontaneous
combustion.
9. Electrical and consumer electronics.
10. Fireworks Includes injury patterns and trends, including shares by type of fireworks,
based on reports to hospital emergency rooms
11. Holiday Christmas trees, holiday lights and decorations.
12. House hold products Mattresses, bedding and upholstered furniture
13. Lightning Fires and Lightning Strikes Information on incident type, and when and
where the incidents occurred.
14. Smoking materials Fires involving smoking materials (i.e., tobacco products),
including data from other countries, and what materials are most often ignited
FIRE PREVENTIONS IN HIGH RISE BUILDINGS
1. Design and construction of the building.

2. Proper storage of combustible material.
3. Availability and display of map at a suitable place which should be seen and read
clearly.
4. Evacuation plan should be displayed.
5. Insurance of the building.
6. Automatic fire alarm systems should be installed.
7. There should not be poor supply of lighting.
8. Practice, review and addition of emergency action plan.
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CHAPTER # 21
DUST EXPLOSION
INTRODUCTION
When the destruction of solid material starts, the solid material starts to divide in
small particles. All those small particles changes into powder form and spread in the
air at a confined place. Dust explosion always occurs at confined place/container.
Any combustible solid material is finally divided to produce a dust explosion if throw
into the suspension in the air ignited.
Heat is generated at a higher rate pressure develops and causes a great destruction
of plant machinery and equipment.
Examples.
In Coal mines, underground dust explosion.
It happens at enclosed location.
DEFINITION OF DUST EXPLOSION
“Dust Explosion is the fast combustion of dust particles which are

suspended in the air in an enclosed location”.
Mixture in the air under atmospheric conditions of flammable substances in

the form of dust or finer in which after ignition combustion spreads throughout the
consumed mixture.
Dust. The particles having less than one micron can be termed as dust which is also
considered as powder for the purpose of dust explosion.
Frit. The term Frit is used for coarser powder i.e. coarser than 100 microns.
Dust particles. The particles having diameter more than one micron are called dust
particles.
ELEMENTS/ NECESSASTIES/ IDEAL ENVIRONMENT FOR DUST

EXPLOSION.
1. A combustible dust particle.

2. The suspended in the air at high concentration.
3. There is and oxidant.
4. Confined place.
5. There is an ignition source.
TYPES OF SOURCE OF DUST
1. Wood products.
2. Food products.
3. Metal products.
4. Chemical industries.
5. Rubber/plastic products.
6. Primary metals.
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7. Furniture.
8. Electrical and sanitary work.
9. Transport equipment.
10. Paper products.
11. Textile mills.
SOURCES OF IGNITION
Only naked flame is not a reason but there are also many
reasons of dust explosion. However, it is often difficult to determine the exact source of
ignition. When it cannot be found than often be cited the static charge. Following are the
main reasons of ignition.
1. Electro static charge. (potential energy of material is called static charge).

2. Friction
3. Arcing (Welding work).
4. Hot Surface.
5. Fire.
6. Improper ventilation.
ONE SPARK CAN SET OFF A CHAIN REACTION.
1. Primary Explosion.
Blast wave.
Dust cloud are formed.
2. Secondary Explosion.
Heat from primary explosion ignites
clouds.
MITIGATION AGAINST DUST EXPLOSION
1. Minimize the escape of dust from process equipment or ventilation system.

2. Use dust collection system and filter.
3. Utilize surfaces that minimize dust accumulation and facilitate cleaning.
4. Provide access to all hidden areas to permit inspection.
IGNITION CONTROL
1. Use appropriate electrical equipment and wiring methods.

2. Control electricity including bonding of equipment to ground.
3. Control smoking, open flames and spark.
4. Control Mechanical Spark And Friction.
5. Use separator devices to remove foreign material.
6. Separate heated surface from dust.
7. Proper use and type of industrial control.
8. Proper usage of cartridge activated tools.
9. Adequately maintain all the above equipment.
DAMAGE CONTROL
1. Separation of the dust (isolate with distance).

2. Segregation of hazard (Isolate with the barriers).
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3. Pressure relief venting for equipment.
4. Provision of spark detection and extinguishing system.
5. Explosion protection system.
6. Sprinkler system.
TRAINING OF EMPLOYEES
1. Workers proper training.

2. If they will be trained than they can take actions against the incident.
3. Refresher courses.
4. Awareness about the work place.
MANAGEMENT
1. Qualified managers.
2. Supervision & managers should be aware of and support the plant dust.
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CHAPTER # 22
FIRE IN METALS
Nearly all metals can burn in air under certain conditions. Some oxidize
rapidly in the presence of air or moisture, generating sufficient heat to reach their ignition
temperatures. Other metals oxidize so slowly that heat generated during oxidization is
dissipated before the metals become hot enough to ignite. Temperatures produced by
burning metals are generally much higher than temperatures generated by burning liquids.
Some hot metals can continue burning in carbon dioxide, nitrogen, or steam atmospheres in
which ordinary combustibles or flammable liquids cannot sustain a fire. Metals tend to be
most reactive when finely divided; some powders may even require shipment and storage
under inert gas or liquids to reduce fire risks. Dust clouds of most metals, when airborne,
are explosive. Hot or burning metals may react violently upon contact with other materials,
such as the extinguishing material used on fires involving ordinary combustibles or
flammable liquids.
Fire Hazards: Metals such as: calcium, hafnium, magnesium, titanium, zinc, zirconium and
alkali metals are known combustible metals because their fine particles are easily ignited.
When working with any of these metals one should be aware that they present a fire hazard
in which common fire extinguishing media may not be effective. Combustible metal fires are
known as Class-D fires with regard to portable fire extinguisher selection.
Fire Prevention: A cardinal rule of fire prevention is to practice good housekeeping. If you
practice good housekeeping and have a metal fire you then have only a small fire to deal
with. The task is then to extinguish the small fire before it becomes a general fire. Poor
housekeeping could easily result in a small fire advancing to a large fire, very quickly, due to
the presence of combustibles distributed throughout the area
COMBUSTIBLE METALS
 Calcium
Properties of Calcium: Calcium is
highly flammable when it is finely
divided. When not finely divided
Calcium is not readily combustible but forms flammable gas on contact with water or damp
air. Finely divided calcium will ignite spontaneously in air.
Storage and Handling of Calcium and Zinc: Calcium and zinc are to be stored in a
fireproof, dry container, under inert gas, or under petroleum oil. The storage building
preferably should be noncombustible and the metal should be segregated from other
combustible material as a fire prevention measure.
Process Hazards of Calcium and Zinc: In machining operations involving calcium or zinc,
sufficient frictional heat to ignite the chips or shavings may be created if the tools are dull or
deformed. Waste calcium or zinc should be kept in covered, clean, dry steel or other non-
combustible drums, which should be removed from the building at regular intervals.
Calcium or zinc dust clouds are explosive if an ignition source is present.
Fire Fighting Agents: Extinguishing agents for Calcium and Zinc include Dry Sand, Sodium
Chloride, Cast Iron Borings, Foundry Flux, Copper Powder, Graphite Powder, Talc Powder, G-
1 powder, Lith-X Powder, Ternary Eutectic Chloride Powder, Boron Trifluoride, Boron
Trichloride, and Met-L-X Powder.
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WARNING: Do not use water, halons or carbon dioxide.
 Hafnium
Properties of Hafnium: Hafnium has combustion properties similar to those of zirconium.
Hafnium burns with very little flame, but releases large quantities of heat. Unless
inactivated, hafnium in sponge form may ignite spontaneously. Hafnium is generally
considered to be more reactive than titanium or zirconium. Damp hafnium powder reacts
with water to form hydrogen gas, but at ordinary temperatures this reaction is not
sufficiently vigorous to cause the hydrogen to ignite. Hafnium reacts violently with strong
acids, strong oxidants, and halogens, causing an explosion hazard.
Storage and Handling of Hafnium and Zirconium: Special storage precautions are not
required for castings because of the very high temperatures massive pieces of the metals
can withstand without igniting. Zirconium powder on the other hand, is highly combustible
and special regulations are imposed for shipping. Storerooms should be of fire-resistant
construction and equipped with explosion vents. These metals should be separated from
strong oxidants, strong bases, halogens, phosphorous and sulfur.
Process Hazards of Hafnium and Zirconium: In general, processing recommendations for
zirconium and hafnium are the same. Whenever possible, handling of hafnium or zirconium
powder should be under inert liquid or in an inert atmosphere. An inert atmosphere of
argon or helium in equipment and storage containers is a method used to prevent flash fires
and explosions. If zirconium or hafnium powder is handled in air, extreme care must be
taken because small static charges may cause ignition. To prevent heating during machining
operations, a large flow of mineral or water-based coolant is required. Where dust is a
byproduct, dust-collecting equipment that discharges into a water-precipitation-type
collector is a necessity.
Fire Fighting Agents for Hafnium and Zirconium: Extinguishing agents for Hafnium and
Zirconium include Dry Sand, Sodium Chloride, argon or helium, Dolomite, G-1 Powder, Lith-X
Powders, and Met-L-X powder.
WARNING: Do not spray a small volume of water (Class A fire extinguisher) on a
hafnium or zirconium fire as an explosion may result.
 Lithium (Alkali Metal)

Properties of Lithium:
Lithium undergoes many of the same reactions as sodium. For example, both lithium and
sodium react with water to form hydrogen, but whereas the sodium-water reaction can
generate sufficient heat to ignite the hydrogen, the far less violent lithium-water reaction
does not. Unlike sodium and potassium, it will burn in nitrogen. Noble gasses such as helium
and argon are used for inerting into equipment and storage containers involving lithium.
The caustic fumes that accompany lithium combustion are more profuse and dense than
those of other alkali metals burning under similar conditions. Lithium is the lightest of all
metals and during combustion it tends to melt and flow.
Storage and Handling for Alkali Metals:
Because of their reactivity with water, alkali metals require special precautions to prevent
contact with moisture. Drums and cases preferably are stored in dry, fire resistant rooms or
buildings used exclusively for alkali metal storage. Keep alkali metals separated from strong
oxidants, acids, halons and other incompatible materials. Since sprinkler protection would
be undesirable, combustible materials should not be stored in the same area as alkali
metals. However, if exposure to fire could jeopardize equipment containing alkali metals,
sprinkler protection should be considered. There should be no water or steam pipes and
sufficient heat should be maintained to prevent moisture condensation in a room where
95
alkali metals are to be stored. Ventilation at a high spot in the room is desirable to vent any
hydrogen that may be released by accidental contact of alkali metals and moisture. For
small-scale transfer of solid alkali metal from a storeroom to the use area, a metal container
with a tight cover is recommended. Due to the possible presence of hydrogen, a container
should not be opened by hammering on the lid.
Process Hazards for Alkali Metals:

Liquid alkali metals are valuable as high-temperature heat transfer media. Processing of
alkali metal is essentially re-melting it to form sticks or bricks or to add it as a liquid to
closed transfer systems. During this handling, contact with moist air, water, halogens,
halogenated hydrocarbons and sulfuric acid must be avoided.
Fire Fighting Agents:
Extinguishing agents for lithium include Dry Sand, Sodium Chloride, Soda Ash, Graphite
Powder, Copper Powder, Argon or Helium atmosphere, Lith-X Powder, G-1 Powder, Lithium
Chloride, and Zirconium Silicate. WARNING: Never use water or foam.
Magnesium
Properties of Magnesium:
A match flame can ignite small pieces of magnesium such as shavings. Larger pieces are
harder to ignite even with a torch because of a high thermal conductivity. Magnesium melts
as it burns and usually forms puddles of molten magnesium, which may present an
explosion hazard in the presence of moisture. Grinding fines that are slightly wetted with
water may generate sufficient heat to ignite spontaneously in air, burning violently as
oxygen is extracted from the water with the release of hydrogen, which can also ignite or
explode.
Storage and Handling:
The larger the piece of magnesium the harder it is to ignite. Once ignited, however,
magnesium burns intensely and is difficult to extinguish. The storage building preferably
should be noncombustible and the magnesium should be segregated from combustible
materials as a fire prevention measure.
Process Hazards:
In machining operations involving magnesium alloys, sufficient frictional heat to ignite the
chips or shavings may be created if the tools are dull or deformed. Waste magnesium should
be kept in covered, clean, dry steel or other non-combustible drums, which should be
removed from the building at regular intervals. Magnesium dust clouds are explosive if an
ignition source is present. Grinding equipment should be equipped with a water spray dust
precipitator.
Extinguishing agents for magnesium include Dry Sand, Sodium Chloride, Cast Iron Borings,
Foundry Flux, Graphite Powder, G-1 powder, Lith-X Powder, Ternary Eutectic Chloride
Powder, Talc Powder, Boron Trifluoride, Boron Trichloride, Met-L-X Powder, Copper
Powder.
WARNING: Do not use foam, halogens, carbon dioxide, or small amounts of water.
Small amounts of water will intensify a magnesium fire. Water is only effective in very
large volumes on a magnesium fire such as from automatic sprinklers .
 NaK (Alkali Metal)

Properties of NaK:
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"NaK" is the term used when referring to several sodium-potassium alloys. The various
alloys differ from each other in melting point, but all are liquids or melt near room
temperature. NaK alloys posses the same fire hazard properties as do potassium and sodium
individually, except that the reactions are more vigorous. Under pressure, NaK leaks have
ignited spontaneously.
Storage and Handling and Process Hazards: see Lithium
Extinguishing agents for NaK include Dry Sand, Sodium Chloride, Soda Ash, Met-L-X Powder,
G-1 Powder.
WARNING: Do not use water or foam.
Potassium (Alkali Metal)
Properties of Potassium:
The fire hazard properties of potassium are very similar to those of sodium, with the
difference being that potassium is usually more reactive. For example the reaction between
potassium and the halogens is more violent, and, in the case of bromine a detonation can
occur. There is an explosive reaction with sulfuric acid. Unlike sodium, potassium forms
some peroxides during combustion. These peroxides may react violently with organic
contaminants.
Storage and Handling and Process Hazards: see Lithium
Extinguishing agents for potassium include Dry Sand, Sodium Chloride, Soda Ash, Met-L-X
Powder, G-1 Powder, Ternary Eutectic Chloride Powder, Graphite Powder.
 Sodium (Alkali Metal)

Properties of Sodium:
At room temperature sodium oxidizes rapidly in moist air, but spontaneous ignitions have
not been reported except when the sodium is in a finely divided form. Once ignited, hot
sodium burns vigorously and forms dense white clouds of caustic sodium oxide fumes.
During combustion, sodium generates about the same amount of heat as an equivalent
weight of wood. The principal fire hazard associated with sodium is its rapid reaction with
water. Sodium floats on water (density .97), reacting vigorously and melting. Hydrogen is
released from sodium's reaction with water. The heat generated by the reaction may then
ignite the hydrogen causing an explosion. Sodium also reacts violently with halogenated
hydrocarbons, with halogens, e.g., iodine and with acids.
Storage, Handling and Process Hazards: see Lithium
Extinguishing agents for sodium include Dry Sand, Sodium Chloride, nitrogen, Soda Ash,
argon or helium, Graphite Powder, Ternary Eutectic Chloride Powder, Met-L-X Powder, Na-X
Powder, G-1 Powder, Lith-X Powder.
 Zinc
Properties of Zinc:
Zinc does not introduce a serious fire hazard in sheets, castings, or other massive forms
because of the difficulty of ignition. Once ignited, however, large pieces burn vigorously.
Moist zinc dust reacts slowly with the water to form hydrogen and if sufficient heat is
released, ignition of the dust can occur. Burning zinc generates a substantial amount of
smoke.
Storage and Handling, Process Hazards and Fire Fighting Agents: see Calcium
Titanium
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Properties of Titanium:
Castings and other large pieces of titanium are not combustible under normal conditions.
Small chips, fine turnings, and dust ignite readily, and once ignited, burn with the release of
large quantities of heat. Fine titanium chips coated with water-soluble oil can spontaneously
ignite.
Storage and Handling:
Titanium castings are difficult to ignite. However, smaller pieces of titanium do require
special precautions, such as storage in covered metal containers and segregation of the
containers from combustible materials. Because of the possibility of hydrogen generation in
moist scrap and spontaneous heating of scrap wet with animal or vegetable oils, a yard
storage area remote from buildings is recommended. Buildings and rooms for storage of
scrap fines should have explosion vents. There are special shipping requirements for
titanium when it is in powder form.
Process Hazards:
The heat generated during machining, grinding, sawing and drilling of titanium may be
sufficient to ignite the small pieces formed by these operations or to ignite mineral-oil-
based cutting lubricants. Consequently, water-based coolants should be used in ample
quantity to remove heat, and cutting tools should be kept sharp. To prevent Titanium dust
explosions, any operation that produces dust should be equipped with a dust collecting
system discharging into a water-spray dust precipitator.
Extinguishing agents for titanium include Dry Sand, Sodium Chloride, Cast Iron Borings,
Foundry Flux, Graphite Powder, Dolomite, G-1 powder, Lith-X Powder, Ternary Eutectic
Chloride Powder, Talc Powder, Boron Trifluoride ,Boron Trichloride, Met-L-X Powder,
Copper Powder. Small pieces of burning titanium other than fines can be extinguished by
submersion in a large volume of water.
WARNING: The application of water to burning titanium can cause an explosion.
 Zirconium
Properties of Zirconium:
The combustibility of zirconium increases as particle size decreases. In massive form
zirconium can withstand high temperatures without igniting, whereas clouds of dust can
spontaneously ignite at room temperature. Spontaneous heating and ignition are also
possibilities with scrap chips, borings, and turnings if fine dust is present. Massive pieces of
zirconium do not ignite spontaneously under ordinary conditions, but ignition will occur
when an oxide free surface is exposed to sufficiently high oxygen concentrations and
pressure.
Storage and Handling, Process Hazards and Fire Fighting Agents see Hafnium
INFORMATION ON METALS THAT ARE NOT NORMALLY

COMBUSTIBLE
 Aluminum
Properties of Aluminum:
Aluminum has a sufficiently high ignition temperature so that it is not readily ignitable. Very
fine chips of aluminum however are subject to similar combustion as that of magnesium.
Finely dispersed particles of aluminum form explosive mixtures in air. There is a risk of fire
and explosion on contact with acids, alcohol, oxidants, and water.
Extinguishing agents for aluminum include Dry Sand, Sodium Chloride, Copper Powder, and
special powders.
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WARNING: Do not use water, foam or carbon dioxide to extinguish an aluminum fire.
COMBUSTIBLE METAL EXTINGUISHING AGENTS and APPLICATION

TECHNIQUES
 Dry sand
By laying fine, dry sand around the perimeter of the fire, it can be used to isolate the
fire. Caution: sand is seldom completely dry and burning metal reacting with the moisture
in the sand produces steam and under certain conditions it may even produce an explosive
metal-water reaction.
 Sodium Chloride (Salt)

Alkali metal fires can be extinguished by sodium chloride, which forms a protective blanket
that, excludes air over the metal so that the metal cools below its burning temperature.
Sodium chloride is used to extinguish sodium, potassium, lithium and magnesium fires.
 Water
Water is a good coolant and can be used on some combustible metals, under proper
conditions and applications to reduce the temperature of the burning metals to below their
ignition point. Automatic sprinklers will provide an adequate amount of water to extinguish
many metal fires. However, when burning metals are spattered with limited amounts of
water, the metal extracts the oxygen from the water and promotes combustion. The
hydrogen released in a free state ignites readily. Since small amounts of water accelerate
combustion, use of portable extinguishers containing water is discouraged.
Sodium, Potassium, Lithium, NaK, Barium, Calcium or Strontium: Water must not be used on
fires involving these metals. Water applied to these types of fires will induce chemical
reactions that will lead to fire or explosion even at room temperature.
Zirconium: Small volumes of water should not be applied to burning zirconium, but large
volumes such as from automatic sprinklers can be used successfully to completely cover
solid chunks or large chips of burning zirconium. Hose streams applied directly to burning
zirconium chips may yield violent reactions.
Magnesium: Small quantities of water will accelerate magnesium fires; however, rapid
application of large amounts of water is effective in extinguishing them because of the
cooling effect. Automatic sprinklers will extinguish a typical shop fire where the quantity of
magnesium is limited. Water should not be used on a fire involving a large amount of
magnesium chips when it is doubtful if there is sufficient water to handle the large area. A
few burning chips can be extinguished by dropping them into a bucket of water. Small
steams from a portable fire extinguisher will accelerate a magnesium chip fire violently.
Water should not be applied to magnesium fires where quantities of molten metal are likely
to be present because steam formation and possible metal-water reactions may be
explosive.
Titanium: Water must not be used on fires in titanium fines and should be used with
extreme caution on other titanium fires. Small amounts of burning titanium other than fines
can be extinguished by submersion in a large volume of water.
 Foundry Flux
In magnesium foundry operations, molten magnesium is protected from contact with air by
layers of either molten or crust-type fluxes. When applied to burning magnesium foundry
flux melts on the surface of the solid or molten metal, excluding air. In open fires the flux is
applied with a hand scoop or shovel.
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 Soda Ash
Sodium carbonate or soda ash (not dry chemical) is recommended for extinguishing sodium
and potassium fires.
 Graphite Powder
The graphite acts as a coolant. Unless the powder is finely divided and closely packed over
the burning metal, some air does get through to the metal.
 Copper Powder
The process of extinction is by the formation of a copper-lithium alloy, which is non-reactive
and forms a boundary on the surface of the metal. The alloy becomes an exclusion
boundary between air and the molten metal promoting cooling and preventing re-ignition.
The method of application is similar to other metal fire powders. The fuel surface is coated
in an initial pass, with a throttled application and followed with another pass to completely
cover the metal. Copper powder can be used on lithium, magnesium and aluminum fires.
 Talc
Talc acts to control rather than extinguish a fire, industrially used on magnesium fires. Talc is
an insulator rather than a coolant to the fire.
 Cast-Iron Borings
Cast-Iron Borings of turnings are frequently available in the same machine shop as various
combustible metals. Clean iron-borings applied over a magnesium chip fire cool the hot
metal and help extinguish the metal.
 Ternary Eutectic Chloride (TEC Powder)
TEC powder tends to seal the metal, excluding air. TEC powder is effective for control of
magnesium, sodium, potassium and sodium-potassium alloy fires.
 Met-L-X Powder (Used in Class-D Fire Extinguishers)
This dry powder is suitable for fires in solid chunks, such as castings, because of its ability to
cling to hot surfaces. When stored in extinguishers or original containers this powder is not
subject to decomposition or a change in physical properties. Periodic replacement of the
extinguisher charge is therefore unnecessary. To control and extinguish a metal fire, the
nozzle of the extinguisher is fully opened and a thin layer of agent is applied over the
burning mass.
 G-1 Powder/ Metal GuardTM Powder
A combination of different sized particles is used to provide good packing characteristics
when applied to a metal fire. The graphite acts as a heat conductor and absorbs heat from
the fire to lower the metal temper
ature below its ignition point. The closely packed graphite also smoothers the fire and the
slightly organic material in the agent breaks down with heat to yield a slightly smoky gas
that penetrates the spaces between the graphite particles, excluding air. This powder is
effective in fires involving magnesium, sodium, potassium, titanium, lithium, calcium,
zirconium, and hafnium.
 Na-X Powder (Used in Class-D Fire Extinguishers)
Stored in supplier's metal pails and extinguishers, Na-X is not subject to decomposition, so
periodic replacement of the agent is not necessary. Na-X has been developed as a low or
non-chloride-containing agent for use on sodium metal fires. Na-X has a sodium carbonate
base with various additives incorporated to render the agent resistant to moisture and to
increase its fluidity for use in pressurized extinguishers. The agent also contains a polymer
that will soften and form a crust over an exposed surface of burning sodium metal.
 Lith-X Powder (Used in Class-D Fire Extinguishers)
This dry powder is composed of a special graphite base with additives to render it free
flowing so it can be discharged from an extinguisher. Lith-X excludes air and conducts heat
100
away from the burning mass. It does not cling to hot metal surfaces so it is necessary to
cover the metal completely. Lith-X will extinguish lithium fires and is suitable for the control
and extinguishment of magnesium and zirconium chip fires. It will also extinguish sodium
and sodium-potassium fires.
 Dolomite
Control of zirconium or titanium dry powder fires can be achieved by spreading dolomite
around the burning area and adding more powder until the burning powder is covered
completely.
 Boron Trifluoride and Boron Trichloride
These agents can be used to control magnesium fires in heat-treating furnaces. In the case
of small magnesium fires, these gases provide complete extinguishment. In the case of a
large magnesium fire, they control flames and rapid burning, but the hot metal re-ignites on
exposure to air. A combined attack of boron trifluoride gas followed by application of
foundry flux completely extinguishes a magnesium fire.
 Inert Gases
In some cases, inert gases, such as argon and helium, will control zirconium fires if they can
be used under conditions that will exclude air. Gas blanketing with argon is effective in
controlling lithium, sodium and potassium fires. Caution should be used when using these
agents in confined spaces because of the suffocation danger to personnel.
 Lithium Chloride
Lithium chloride is effective in extinguishing lithium metal fires. However, its use should be
limited to specialized applications because the chemical is hygroscopic to a degree and the
reaction between moisture and lithium may present problems.
 Zirconium Silicate
This agent can be used to extinguish lithium fires.
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CHAPTER # 23
HUMAN BODY SYSTEM
INTRODUCTION:
Human body is made by different types of systems which have their own
specific works. The smallest unit of the body is called cell which has its own
character. these cells make tissues and tissues make part of the body. Body is made of
cell, tissues and parts.
For Example.
● Integumentary system
● Skeletal system
Bones
Cartilage
Ligaments
Muscles
● Nervous system
● Muscular system
● Circulatory system
● Respiratory system
SKELETAL SYSTEM
1. It helps us to move according to our wish and need.

2. Movement
3. Support
4. Functions of bone
Support body
Protection and support the organs.
Movement due to attached skeleton muscles.
Storage minerals and fats.
Blood cell formation.
NOTE. There are 300 bones in a baby and 206 bones in adults.
DYNAMIC STRUCTURE OF BONE
Compact bones:
Stake homogenous and hard.
Sponge bones:
Small spoon like pieces of many open sponges.
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103
CHAPTER # 24
“BANDAGE”
SIMPLE INCIDENT. Injured people are in less quantity.
MULTIPLE INCIDENT. An incident in which injured persons are in a huge quantity and
they have different types of injuries.
CASUALTY. An effected person is called casualty.
PATIENT. When an effected person is admitted in the hospital at that time

that person is called patient.
DEFINITION OF BANDAGE.
“A strip of woven material used to bind up a wound or to protect an injured part of

the body.”
A bandage is a piece of material used either to support a medical device such as

a dressing or splint, or on its own to provide support to or to restrict the movement of a part
of the body. When used with a dressing, the dressing is applied directly on a wound, and a
bandage used to hold the dressing in place. Other bandages are used without dressings, such
as elastic bandages that are used to reduce swelling or provide support to a sprained ankle.
Tight bandages can be used to slow blood flow to an extremity, such as when a leg or arm is
bleeding heavily.
USAGE OF BANDAGES
1. Used to cover the wound.

a. Protection from the germs of cough.
b. protection from the germs of sneezing.
c. dust infection.
2. Retarding splint.
In case of fracture to immobilize the broken bone. Standard splints are made
of wood and are available in different lengths.
3. Giving slings.
It is used in one condition when arm is effected than it is used to elevate the
arm.
4. Stop the bleeding.

By pressure bandages.
5. Prevent or reduce the swelling.
6. Assisting and lifting the casualty from one place to another.

BANDAGES SHOULD BE?
104
1. Sterilized: Free from germs.
2. Thick & soft.
3. No adherent
TYPES OF BANDAES
1. ROLLER BANDAGES
Finger -------------------------------- Width 1 inch
Hand---------------------------------- Width 2 inches
Arm-----------------------------------Width 2\1/2 inches
Leg------------------------------------Width 3 or 3\1/2 inches
Trunk----------------------------------Width 4 to 6 inches
2. TRIANGULAR BANDAGES
A triangular bandage is a large triangle of cloth, usually a loose weave cotton cloth, used
in first aid. It is also called a ‘cravat’ (French for necktie) because it is sometimes folded
to the shape of a long narrow band, for certain uses. This type of bandage has many
applications:
1. Folded as a thick rectangle of cloth, the cravat can be placed over a large wound. In
this case, it functions like a trauma pad, absorbing blood and helping to stop bleeding.
2. One folded cravat can be used as a trauma pad, and a second cravat can be used to
wrap the wound and trauma pad. In this usage, it functions like first-aid tape, to hold the
trauma pad in place.
3. If a victim has an injured arm, a triangular bandage can be used as asling, to support
the arm in a bent position over the chest. A second cravat (folded as a long band) can be
used around the torso as a swathe, to immobilize the arm against the chest. This technique
is called a sling and swathe. Dedicated sling and swathe kits are available for purchase.
But the advantage of the triangular bandage is that a few compact bandages serve
multiple purposes.
This allows a smaller first aid kit to do more.
4. If a victim has a broken leg, the leg can be immobilized with a blanket between the legs
and a couple of cravats to tie the legs together, firmly but not so tight as to restrict
circulation.
5. If a victim has a sprained ankle or wrist, a cravat can be used like an Ace bandage to
wrap and support the appendage. Always remember, when wrapping, bandaging, or
taping any wound, to avoid restricting circulation.
6. In the case of a head wound, a triangular bandage can be wrapped over the forehead
and around the top of the head to cover the wound. Do not use bandages over the eyes,
nose, or mouth. Do not use bandages of any kind around the neck, because you might
restrict circulation to the head.
The base of the triangular bandage is 56 inches and the both sides are 40 inches.
105
NOTE:- Do not use a cravat or other bandage or tape over a compound fracture (a
broken bone in which the bone is sticking out of the wound).Follow your first aid
training. Do not exceed your training. Do not play doctor. Know your limits, and
always avoid doing anything that might harm a patient. Most cravats (triangular
bandages) are not sterile. Replace with a sterile dressing as soon as possible, and get
the victim to professional medical help.
IMPROVISED STRETCHER
 Bandage stretcher (Standard 8 Bandages).
 Rope (with two sticks and the rope length should be at least 40 feet.
 Blanket
 Shirt and qameez
 Belts
 First floor ladder/scaling ladder can also be used as a stretcher.
106
CHAPTER # 25
SHOCK
DEFINITION.
 Shock is a condition of sudden depression of nervous system
 The blood flowing to the vital organs (brain, heart, lungs, liver and
kidneys) is insufficient to keep them supplied with oxygen leading
to a slowing down in their functions
TYPES OF SHOCK
1. Primary or nervous shock
2. Secondary or surgical shock
The other types are as follows:

Septic shock results from bacteria multiplying in the blood and releasing toxins. Common
causes of this are pneumonia, urinary tract infections, skin infections (cellulitis), intra-
abdominal infections (such as a ruptured appendix), and meningitis.
Anaphylactic shock is a type of severe hypersensitivity or allergic reaction. Causes include

allergy to insect stings, medicines, or foods (nuts, berries, seafood), etc.
Cardiogenic shock happens when the heart is damaged and unable to supply sufficient
blood to the body. This can be the end result of a heart attack or congestive heart failure.
Hypovolemic shock is caused by severe blood and fluid loss, such as from traumatic bodily
injury, which makes the heart unable to pump enough blood to the body, or severe anemia
where there is not enough blood to carry oxygen through the body.
Neurogenic shock is caused by spinal cord injury, usually as a result of a traumatic accident
or injury.
CAUSES
1. To listen
2. To look
3. To touch
4. An accident
5. Bleeding
6. Thinking
7. Disappointment Loss of fluids
8. Electrical injuries
9. Allergic reactions
10. Some poisoning
11. Heart failure
SIGNS AND SYMPTOMS

1. Skin become pale, cold and moist
2. Inner side of the lips becomes grey
3. Rapid and feeble pulse
4. Breathing fast and shallow
107
5. May be anxious and restless
6. May be thirsty or nauseous
7. May become unconscious and die
FIRST AID TREATMENT FOR

SHOCK
1. Lower head and raise legs
2. Keep warm and comfortable
3. Nothing by mouth
4. First Aid for the cause
5. Arrange the transport to the hospital
6. Stay with the casualty all the time.
REASSURE
COVER & COMFORT
108
CHAPTER # 26
Line & Rope
HISTORY:
The ancient Egyptians were probably the first civilization to develop special tools to
make rope. Egyptian rope dates back to 4000 to 3500 B.C. and was generally made of
water reed fibres.[5] Other rope in antiquity was made from the fibres of date palms,
flax, grass, papyrus, leather, or animal hair. The use of such ropes pulled by
thousands of workers allowed the Egyptians to move the heavy stones required to
build their monuments. Starting from approximately 2800 B.C., rope made of hemp
fibres was in use in China. Rope and the craft of rope making spread throughout Asia,
India, and Europe over the next several thousand years.
Similarly Islamic says that the history of rope is 3500 BC. In 1586 AD a British made a
minar and placed 327 tone weight stone. They used 900 men and 75 horses.
In 712 AD Muhammad Bin Qasim used the rope in Munjaaneeq (Large size catapult) for
fighting.
ROPE:
“A rope is a group of yarns, plies, or strands that are twisted or braided together
into a larger and stronger form”.
Ropes have tensile strength and so can be used for dragging and lifting, but
are too flexible to provide compressive strength.
LINE:
"Rope" refers to the manufactured material. Once rope is purposely sized, cut,
spliced, or simply assigned a function, the result is referred to as a "line", especially
in nautical usage.
Construction:
1. Natural:
Coir, Sisal, Animal hair, Silk wool, Manila hemp, Cotton, Jute, Flax, Grass.
2. Synthetic:
Polyester, Nylon, Polyethene, Polypropylene, Terelyne.
Usage:
Rope is of paramount importance in fields as diverse as construction,
hunting, climbing, lifting, attaching, pulling, seafaring, exploration, sports, theatre,
and communications; and has been used since prehistoric times. To fasten rope,
many types of knots have been invented for countless uses. Pulleys redirect the
pulling force to another direction, and can create mechanical advantage so that
multiple strands of rope share a load and multiply the force applied to the end.
Winches and capstans are machines designed to pull ropes.
Types of rope construction:
1. Laid or twisted rope:
Laid rope, also called twisted rope, is historically the prevalent form of rope, at
least in modern western history. Common twisted rope generally consists of
three strands and is normally right-laid, or given a final right-handed twist. The
109
ISO 2 standard uses the uppercase letters S and Z to indicate the two possible
directions of twist, as suggested by the direction of slant of the central portions
of these two letters. The handedness of the twist is the direction of the twists as
they progress away from an observer. Thus Z-twist rope is said to be right-
handed, and S-twist to be left-handed.
2. Braided rope:
While rope may be made from three or more strands,[8] modern braided rope
consists of a braided (tubular) jacket over strands of fiber (these may also be
braided). Some forms of braided rope with untwisted cores have a particular
advantage; they do not impart an additional twisting force when they are
stressed. The lack of added twisting forces is an advantage when a load is freely
suspended, as when a rope is used for rappelling or to suspend an arborist. Other
specialized cores reduce the shock from arresting a fall when used as a part of a
personal or group safety system.
CARING & MAINTENANCE:
 Keep dry all time.

 Keep away from oil and grease.
 Avoid sunlight.
 Don’t drag it.
 Avoid dump places.
 Avoid sudden pull during using.
 Average life of a rope is 5 years depending upon usage rate.
110
CHAPTER # 27
KNOTS & THEIR APPLICATIONS.
INTRODUCTION:
A knot is a method of fastening or securing linear material such as rope by tying or
interweaving. It may consist of a length of one or several segments of rope, string, webbing,
twine, strap, or even chain interwoven such that the line can bind to itself or to some other
object (the "load"). Knots have been the subject of interest for their ancient origins, their
common uses, and the area of mathematics known as knot theory.
DIFFERENT TERMS USED:

Loop:
A curve narrower than a bight but with separate ends.
Bight:
A bight is any curved section, slack part, or loop between the ends of a rope,
string, or yarn.
Knot:
A knot is a method of fastening or securing linear material such as rope by tying
or interweaving
Hitch:
A knot tied to a post, cable, ring, or spar
Running end:
Section of line between knot and the working end.
Standing part:
The standing end is the longer end of the rope not involved in the knot, often shown
as unfinished. It is often (but not always) the end of the rope under load after the knot is
complete. For example, when a clove hitch ties a boat to a pier, the end going to the boat is
the standing end.
Types:
1. OVER HEAD KNOT/THUMB KNOT:
The overhand knot is a stopper, especially when used alone, and hence it is very
secure, to the point of jamming badly. It should be used if the knot is intended to
be permanent. It is often used to prevent the end of a rope from unraveling.
This knot is used for using the rope for climbing purpose and different numbers
of knots tied at a distance of 1 foot.
2. ONE ROUND &TWO HALF HITCHES:

Specially used for tent purpose.
The two half-hitches is a type of knot, specifically a binding knot or hitch knot. It
consists of an overhand knot tied around a post, followed by a half-hitch.
111
Equivalently, it consists of a half-turn around a post followed by a clove hitch of
the running end around the standing part.
3. CLOVE HITCH:
Used by rescuer for lashing the victim with stretcher for getting down from top
floor of building and clove hitch knot is tied in the end.
This knot is particularly useful where the length of the running end needs to be
adjustable or shortened.
4. TIMBER HITCH:
Used to lift or down the timber from down floor to top floor and vice versa.
The timber hitch is a knot used to attach a single length of rope to a cylindrical
object. Secure while tension is maintained, it is easily untied even after heavy
loading
5. REEF KNOT:
Used for joining two equal diameter ropes.
6. SHEET BEND KNOT:

112
The sheet bend (also known as becket bend, weaver's knot and weaver's hitch) is
a bend, that is, a knot that joins two ropes together. Doubled, it is effective in
binding lines of different diameter or rigidity securely together, although it has a
tendency to work loose when not under load.
7. FIGURE OF EIGHT KNOT:

Used for getting out the victim by fastening with his wrist.
The figure-eight knot or figure-of-eight knot is a type of stopper knot. It is very
important in both sailing and rock climbing as a method of stopping ropes from
running out of retaining devices. Like the overhand knot, which will jam under
strain, often requiring the rope to be cut, the figure-of-eight will also jam, but is
usually more easily undone than the overhand knot.
8. CHAIR KNOT:
Used to get down the victims from top floor to down floor.
113
9. DRAW HITCH/ THIEF KNOT:
Used by rescuer only for getting down from top to bottom and get the rope back.
10. BOW LIINE:

It is used by rescuer around his center body.The Bowline on a bight is a knot
which makes a pair of fixed-size loops in the middle of a rope. Its advantage is
that it is reasonably easy to untie after being exposed to a strain. This knot can
replace the figure-eight knot when tying into a climbing harness. However, it is
critical to use a strong backup knot with plenty of tail beyond the knot.
11. SHEEP SHANK:

A shank is a type of knot that is used to shorten a rope or take up slack, such as
the sheepshank. The sheepshank knot is not stable. It will fall apart under too
much load or too little load. It is also used to strengthened the weak ropes.
12. HANG KNOT:

The hang knot/hangman's knot or hangman's noose (also known as a collar
during the Elizabethan era) is a well-known knot most often associated with its
use in hanging a person.
114
13. HANG HITCH:
Same as above.
14. CAT’S PAW:
The Cat's paw is a knot used for connecting a rope to an object. It is very similar
to the cow hitch except there is an additional twist on each side of the bight,
making it less prone to slipping
Used for joining two objects like car to car to chain.
115
CHAPTER # 28
“PERMIT TO WORK”
INTRODUCTION:
“The object of “Permit to Work” system is to ensure that written

permission and authorization is given to carry out the defined work which is potentially
hazardous and that all possible measures are taken to maintain the safety of the
personnel and equipment in all areas of operation.”
PURPOSE:
The purpose of HSE regulations is to set down a system for the safe control of works
which:
 Provides for maximum safety of both personnel and plant.
 Complies with legislative requirements.
For what kind of work?
A work permit is required in case of
 Potential oxygen deficiency or enrichment

 Potential flammable/explosive atmosphere
 Potential high temperature/pressure
 Potential hazardous chemicals, e.g.: toxic substances
 Confined space entry, e.g.: tanks, cold box, pit, normally closed vessels
 Bypassing or removing/altering safety devices or equipment
 Elevated works
 Introduction of ignited sources where not permanently allowed (fire permit), e.g.:
open flame, welding, grinding,
 Maintenance or repairs in areas or to equipment or lines, containing or supposed to
contain hazardous materials or conditions,
 Electrical troubleshooting or repair on live circuits.
 Manual or powered excavations
 Use of mobile cranes
 Insulation or catalysts handling
 Use of adapters
 Product conversion of stationary or mobile or portable vessels and containers
 Temporary or permanent changes, alterations, modification of equipment or
processes,
 Exposure to traffic,
 Exposure to moving/rotating machinery
 In proximity of vents, liquid of gas
 On process lines with gas release
Etc.
THE WORK PERMIT SYSTEM : Why?

1. Because:
o In charge of the work, you don’t know everything
116
about the site and the process around
about the work
o Safety measures have to be prepared
o You cannot start the work without the OK of the production personnel or the
customer or the supplier
o The production needs your OK in order to re-start the plant after your work is
achieved
2. To obtain a safe as well as a quick and cost effective work
THE WORK PERMIT SYSTEM : With who?
In order to define the scope of work for everyone concerned/involved by and during
the work, the Work Permit must be prepared with:
o The person responsible for the work
o The person(s) in charge of the production, the customer or supplier, who will release
the process before the work starts
o The other work bodies
o The person in charge of HSE measures.
THE WORK PERMIT SYSTEM : How?

o Before issuing the Work Permit, you must:
 Describe the work to be done
 List all the specifications and drawings which are required
 Issue detailed planning with all involved entities
 Determine the logging and tagging procedures
o Fill-in together the work permit and sign,
o The start of the work must be authorized by production and/or user,
o The re-start of the process must take place after the work is finished.
Review of flowsheets, drawings and specifications.

 Process fluids and materials involved,
 Degree of isolation,
 Effect of other processes,
 Power supply isolation,
-Specialist advice,
 Location of underground services and pipes,
 Location of elevated power cables,
 Location of elevated pipelines and walkways,
 Purging and lock-out requirements,
 Pressure, Temperature,
 Valve identification,
 Equipment specification,
 Operating and maintenance instructions,
 Materials of construction and compatibilities
Work site inspection

Anyone involved and signing the Safe Work Permit must visit the work place in
order:
 To inspect the work area
117
 Neighbouring activities, site rules, overhead,
underground, access, natural hazards (flood, rain,
snow…), etc,..
 To identify potential hazards
 Flammable, oxygen, toxic substances, confined

spaces, electricity, pressure, temperature, moving
objects, traffic, falls/trips/slips, etc,..
Development of work procedures

Preparation of a detailed work procedure is essential to ensure the work will
proceed safely in a planned and logical manner:
Following requirements to be considered:
 Reference drawings, Timing of various operations,

Details of any special equipment, Needs to inform local
authorities, safety precautions and equipment,
Emergency procedures, etc,..
The procedure should include:
 Logging and tagging procedures: Electricity, process

fluids Instrumentation, utilities (water, air, oil,…)
 Depressurising, Draining, Venting, Purging, Flushing,

Isolating, Atmosphere checking, Disassembly of
equipment, Method of repair, Reassembly and
installation, Quality control, Pressure and leak testing,
Reinstatement of equipment, Hand-back procedure,
etc..
Any attached document or log sheet ? Y ES NO HOW MA NY ………..
EXAMPLE OF FORM WORK PLANNING List of attached documents ……………….……………………….…………..……………...………………………………………………..
1. WORK ACTIVITY
Plant / Unit :………………...……………….…………………………………………………………………………………………………………..………...…

Des cription of work to be done………………....……..….………….…………….……………………………………………………………………….......…
WORK SCOPE Perm it valid from :…………………………………………………………

Have all relevant departm ents /pers onnel been cons ulted ?
Hours /date
Y ES
To :…………………………………………………………………….
NOT A PPLICA BLE
Hours /date
 REVIEW DRAWINGS / FLOWSHEETS 2. POTENTIAL HAZARDS & HAZARDOUS JOBS

Y ES NO Y ES NO

. Jobs perform ed by contractors or tem porary workers . Maintenance or repairs in areas , or to equipm ent or lines ,
INSPECT WORKSITE .
.
.
Potential oxygen deficiency or enrichm ent
Potential flam m able / explos ive atm os phere .
.
containing or s uppos ed to contain hazardous m aterials or conditions
Manual or powered excavations

Potential high tem perature / pres s ure Us e of m obile cranes
IDENTIFY SAFETY PRECAUTIONS .
.
Potential expos ure to hazardous chem icals (toxic, reactive,
acid, caus tic….)
Confined s pace entry
.
.
.
Ins ulation or catalys t handling
Us e of adapters
Product convers ion of s tationary or m obile or portable ves s els
 COMPLIANCE WITH REGULATIONS .

.
.
Bypas s ing or rem oving/altering s afety devices and equipm ent
Elevated work
Introduction of ignition s ources where not perm anently
and containers
. Tem porary or perm anent changes , alterations , m odifications of
equipm ent or proces s es
 DEVELOP WORK PROCEDURE

allowed (fire perm it) . Expos ure to traffic (road, m ail)
. Electrical troubles hooting or repair on live circuits . Expos ure to m oving / rotating m achinery

Others (s tate) ……………………..……...…………………………………………………………………………
ASSIGN RESPONSIBILITIES 3. SAFETY PRECAUTIONS

Y ES NO Y ES NO Y ES NO
COMMUNICATION PROCEDURES .
.
Draining
Depres s uris ing
. Rem ove hazardous m aterials
. Fres h air ventilation
.
.
Standby m an
Elevated work

. Phys ical Is olation . Atm os phere analys is : .Contractors trained
WORK EXECUTION .
.
Electrical Is olation
Safety tags and locks
. Oxygen
. Flam m able
.
.
Elim inate ignition s ources
Fire hos e
. Flus hing with water/s olvent . Toxic .Fire s creen
. Steam ing out . Other .Wet s urrounding area
. Purging with inert gas /air . Area m arked off .Audible/vis ible warnings
. Tem perature norm alis ation . Warning notices .Clear area of com bus tibles
Work Execution Others (s tate) …………….……………………………………………………………………………………

.Fire extinguis hers
Type : ………………………………………..
4. PERSONNEL PROTECTION
Y ES NO Y ES NO Y ES NO
 PREPARATORY WORK
. Head . Ears . Body
. Face . Hands . Breathing
. Eyes . Feet . Others
State Special Requirem ents : …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
118 5. WORK AUTHORISATION
Is s uer : This certifies that I have cons ulted all relevant departm ents /pers onnel, dis cus s ed the s cope of work, ins pected the preparatory work
and the work area covered by this Work Perm it. I therefore confirm that the work, as detailed in Section 1, can be carried out.
 ISSUE WORK PERMITS
 SUPERVISION MONITORING
 WORK COMPLETED
 TESTING
 RE-INSTATE EQUIPMENT
 RETURN WORK PERMIT
 HANDBACK PLANT / EQUIPMENT
Permit issuer’s responsibilities
 INSPECTING WORK AREA
 IDENTIFYING HAZARDS
 DEFINING SAFETY PRECAUTIONS
 OBSERVING PRINCIPLES OF SAFE WORKING PRACTICES
 CREATING WORK PERMIT CONDITIONS
 REVIEWING WORK WITH PERMIT ACCEPTOR
 ISSUING WORK PERMIT
 IMPLEMENTING HANDBACK PROCEDURE
Permit acceptor’s responsibilities
 UNDERSTANDING OF WORK PROCEDURES
 UNDERSTANDING POTENTIAL HAZARDS AND SAFETY PRECAUTIONS
 ACCEPTING THE SAFE WORK PERMIT
 OBSERVING PERMIT CONDITIONS
 COMPLYING WITH HANDBACK PROCEDURE
THE WORK PERMIT SYSTEM: In brief
Many accidents have occurred due to lack of Work Permit or non

observance of its consigned safety measures.
 The Safe Work Permit is useful for:

119
 The safety of persons in charge of the work
 The safety of persons in charge of the process
 The risk management of the process and equipment
 It is not one more administrative paper!
 Fill in and follow correctly the work permit, because….
It could save your life!
FUNCTIONS
 Prescribes the nature and extent of work.
 Prescribes the conditions (isolations, gas-test, etc.) that have to be observed.
 Records the places in which men other than process personnel are, for a specified
time, allowed to work.
EQUIPMENT:
 All equipment used in conjunction with the permit to work system has to be
approved for use by the Electrical Authority for the area where the work is to be
carried out.
WORK NOT REQUIRING WORK PERMITS – OFFSHORE:
 General shipboard maintenance & deck work that does not use equipment that
could provide a local source of ignition, i.e. use of Gas Cutting, Disk Grinders,
Welding Equipments, etc.
 Replenishment of stocks of chemicals, hydraulic oils & fuel oils.
 Greasing of valves.
 Cleaning up of oil spillages.
 Offloading & Back loading of cargo
TYPES OF PERMIT
TYPES OF WORK PERMITS
COLD WORK PERMIT:
 A Cold Work Permit is required for any work other than ‘Routine Work’ listed which
does not involve the use of local source of ignition or produce/expose an electrical
ignition source. It’s also required for non-destructive tests involving the use of
radioactive isotopes.
120
HOT WORK PERMIT:
 A Hot Work Permit is mandatory for any work in restricted/operational areas

involving the use of local source of ignition or work which could produce/expose an
electrical or auto-ignition source. This includes specific functions concerning work on
vehicle fuel tanks, vacuum browsers used in the transport system trunk sewage
system.
VALIDITY OF PERMITS:
 A permit is valid only when signed by the person ‘Approved’.
 A Work permit will be valid on initial signature for the daylight hours of the first day:
 date and period of validity to be stated on the permit.
A WORK PERMIT BECOMES INVALID IF:
 The permit is cancelled for any reason by the operating Authority.
 The method of isolation is disturbed.
 The special instructions written on the permit are not observed.
 A warning of an emergency is given.
 Work is stopped due to unforeseen circumstances.
 Any change in the specified work requirement occurs.
 Period of validity expires.
 The performing Authority leaves the site without nominating a deputy.
 Hot Work is not commenced within one hour of issue.
 Under the above circumstances, anew work permit.
PROCEDURES FOR ISSUES OF PERMITS:
 The request for a permit should be made, when practical, at least 24 hours in
advanced to the operating/area authority.
 The approved person shall consider all aspects of the work to be performed &
identify possible hazards
 If electrical isolation is required, this shall be effected by an authorised person. The

electrical certificate no. and key no. shall be entered on the work permit.
PREPARATION PRIOR TO ISSUE OF PERMITS:
 The Operating Authority shall ensure that work site area and equipment are properly
prepared. The specific precautionary measures are listed on the permits. The
121
procedures to be considered for preparation are contained within the various parts
of these regulations, e.g. tanks & vessels preparation has special consideration as it
come under hazard. It is imperative that persons carrying out this work regulations.
CLEAN UP:
 The working area is to be kept as clean & tidy as reasonably practicable through out
the working period.
 On completion of work detailed on a Work Permit, the Issuing Authority &

performing Authority shall ensure the work site has been left in clean & tidy
condition & shall complete the relevant sections of the permit.
122
CHAPTER# 29
SNAKE BITE.
Identifying venomous snakes
If you are unfamiliar with the different types of snakes and unable to distinguish between
venomous and non-venomous ones, it can be difficult to know how to respond in the event
of a bite.
Always treat a snake bite as if it’s venomous.
While most snakes in the U.S. are not venomous, several types do contain venom. In the
U.S., all of the venomous snakes, except for the coral snake, are pit vipers. Pit vipers are
distinguishable by a noticeable depression between the eye and nostril. This pit is the heat-
sensing area for the snake. While all pit vipers have a triangular head, not all snakes with a
triangular head are venomous.
If you or someone you are with has been bitten by a snake, you will know immediately. It’s
possible, though, for the bite to happen quickly and for the snake to disappear.
To identify a snake bite, consider the following general symptoms:
 two puncture wounds

 swelling and redness around the wounds
 pain at the bite site
 difficulty breathing
 vomiting and nausea
 blurred vision
 sweating and salivating
 numbness in the face and limbs
Some venomous snakes also cause symptoms specific to their type.
Rattlesnakes
Rattlesnakes are easily identifiable. They have rings at the end of their tails that shake when
they feel threatened. This makes a rattling sound and is a warning for you to back away.
Rattlesnakes are the largest of the venomous snakes and account for many of the venomous
bites in the U.S. each year. These snakes can be found in nearly any habitat across the
country. They like open areas where they can rest in the sun such as rocks, and logs.
Symptoms
Symptoms specific to rattlesnake bites are immediate and include:
123
 severe pain
 drooping eyelids
 low blood pressure
 thirst
 tiredness or muscle weakness
Water moccasins or cotton mouths
The water moccasin is another type of pit viper. This snake is also known as a cottonmouth,
because the inside of its mouth is lined with a white, cottony material. The water moccasin’s
average size is between 50 to 55 inches. Adults have dark tan to black skin with faint dark
brown or black crossbands. Young snakes have brown or orange crossbands with a yellow
tail. These snakes are found in the southeastern states, usually in or near water. They don’t
scare easily, and will defend themselves should they feel threatened.
Symptoms
Water moccasin bites share symptoms with copperhead bites. Specific symptoms include:
 immediate pain and symptoms

 change in skin color
 shock
 weakness
Copper heads
Copperheads are reddish or gold in color with hourglass-shaped bands. This snake is
typically 18 to 36 inches in length. Copperheads are mostly found in forests, swamps, rocky
areas, and rivers in the eastern states (as far as Texas). They are not aggressive. Most
copperhead bites occur if you accidentally step on or near one.
Symptoms
Copperhead snake bites share symptoms with water moccasin snake bites. Symptoms can
include:
 immediate pain and symptoms

 shock
 weakness
124
Coral snakes
Coral snakes have black, yellow, and red banding and are often confused with non-
venomous king snakes. You can distinguish a coral snake by the fact that the red bands
touch the yellow bands. They live in the woods, marshes, and sandy areas of the South.
Coral snakes typically hide underground and in leaf piles.
Symptoms
Symptoms specific to coral snake bites include:
 pain that is not immediate
 symptoms that set in hours after the bite
 convulsions
 drooping eyelids
 stomach pain
 difficulty swallowing
 headache
 shock
 paralysis
First aid for snake bites

Should you be bitten by a snake, it’s essential to get emergency treatment as quickly
as possible. However, there are some tips that you should also keep in mind:
 Call 911 immediately.
 Note the time of the bite.
 Keep calm and still as movement can cause the venom to travel more quickly
through the body.
 Remove constricting clothing or jewelry because the area surrounding the bite will
likely swell.
 Don’t allow the victim to walk. Carry or transport them by vehicle.
 Do not kill or handle the snake. Take a picture if you can but don’t waste time
hunting it down.
There are also several outdated first aid techniques that are now believed to be unhelpful or
even harmful:
 Do not use a tourniquet.
 Do not cut into the snake bite.
 Do not use a cold compress on the bite.
 Do not give the person any medications unless directed by a doctor.
 Do not raise the area of the bite above the victim’s heart.
 Do not attempt to suck the venom out by mouth.
125
 Do not use a pump suction device. These devices were formerly recommended for
pumping out snake venom, but it's now believed that they are more likely to do
harm than good.
Treatment for snake bites
The most important thing to do for a snake bite is to get emergency medical help as soon as
possible. A doctor will evaluate the victim to decide on a specific course of treatment. In
some cases, a bite from a venomous snake is not life-threatening. The severity depends on
the location of the bite and the age and health of the victim. If the bite is not serious, the
doctor may simply clean the wound and give the victim a tetanus vaccine.
If the situation is life threatening, the doctor may administer anti venom. This is a substance
created with snake venom to counter the snake bite symptoms. It’s injected into the victim.
The sooner the ant venom is used, the more effective it will be.
Outlook for a snake bite

The outlook for a person with a snake bite is highly variable. For a non-venomous snake
bite, the outlook is excellent if the wound is cleaned and treated promptly. For a venomous
bite, the outlook is good if the victim receives emergency care very soon after the bite has
occurred. Healthy adults with shallow bites have a better outlook than children and those
with weakened immune systems who have received deep bites.
Prevention of snake bites

Snake bites can be prevented in many cases. It’s best to refrain from approaching or
handling snakes in the wild. Avoid typical places where snakes like to hide, such as patches
of tall grass and piled leaves, and rock and woodpiles. If you encounter a snake, give it space
to retreat and let it take cover. It’s in the snake’s nature to avoid interaction.
When working outside where snakes may be present, wear tall boots, long pants, and
leather gloves. Avoid working outside during the night and in warmer weather, which is
when snakes are most active.
126
CHAPTER # 30
“OIL INSTALLATION”
1. Natural History:
Petroleum is a naturally occurring liquid found in rock formations.
It consists of a complex mixture of hydrocarbons of various molecular weights,
plus other organic compounds. It is generally accepted that oil is formed mostly
from the carbon rich remains of ancient plankton after exposure to heat and
pressure in the Earth's crust over hundreds of millions of years. Over time, the
decayed residue was covered by layers of mud and silt, sinking further down into
the Earth’s crust and preserved there between hot and pressured layers,
gradually transforming into oil reservoirs.
2. Early history:
The earliest known oil wells were drilled in China in 347 AD or
earlier. They had depths of up to about 800 feet (240 m) and were drilled using
bits attached to bamboo poles. The oil was burned to evaporate brine and
produce salt. By the 10th century, extensive bamboo pipelines connected oil wells
with salt springs. The ancient records of China and Japan are said to contain
many allusions to the use of natural gas for lighting and heating. Petroleum was
known as burning water in Japan in the 7th century. In his book Dream Pool
Essays written in 1088, the polymathic scientist and statesman Shen Kuo of
the Song Dynasty coined the word (Shíyóu, literally "rock oil") for petroleum,
which remains the term used in contemporary Chinese and Japanese (Sekiyū).
3. Definition:
“Oil installation is a facility or place where petroleum is extracted from
earth for industrial purposes”.
4. Different process in oil installation:

i) Exploration:
Exploring for oil is the first step in petroleum production. Small crews of
specialized workers (survey party) travel to remote areas to search for geological
formations which are likely to contain oil.
Exploration parties, led by a petroleum geologist , study the surface and
subsurface composition of the earth. Geologists seek clues to the possibility of oil
traps by examining types of rock and rock formations on and under the earth's
surface. Besides making detailed, foot-by-foot surveys, petroleum geologists depend
on aerial photographs for a broad picture of the surface features of the area being
explored. Geologists often use the “atomic clock,” a device that determines the age of
rocks by measuring their radioactivity. Subsurface evidence is collected by making test
drills and bringing up samples of the rocks, clays, and sands that form the layers of the
earth. From these examinations, geologists can draw a cross-section map of the
underground formations being surveyed in order to pinpoint areas where oil may be
located. Many geologists work in district offices of oil companies or exploration firms
where they study geological maps. They also analyze core samples collected by
exploration parties to find any clue to the presence of oil. Exploration parties /survey
parties may include, in addition to the geologist, paleontologists who study the fossil
127
remains in the earth in order to locate oil-bearing sands; chemists and mineralogists who
study the physical and chemical properties of minerals and rock samples. Plane table
operators’ draftsmen and rod men assist in surveying and mapping operations. A drilling
crew may also be part of the party.
Another way of searching for oil is through the Science of geophysics—the
study of the inner characteristics of the earth's structure. About 90 percent of geophysical
exploration is done by seismic prospecting. The seismograph is a sensitive instrument
which records natural and manmade earthquakes. Manmade earthquakes are caused
by exploding small charges of dynamite in the ground. The time it takes for sound
waves to reach an underground rock layer and to return indicates the depth of the
layer. The seismograph records such information by wavy lines on a chart. By setting
off explosions at a number of points, underground formations can be mapped with
considerable accuracy, thus providing a clue to the where abuts of traps which may
contain oil.
A seismograph crew generally includes from 10 to 20 persons, led by a party
chief who is usually a geophysicist. Other members of the seismograph crew may
include computers who prepare maps from the information recorded by the
seismograph; observers who operate and maintain seismic equipment; prospecting
drillers and their helpers who operate portable drilling rigs to make holes into which
explosive charges are placed; and shooters (D.O.T. 5–74.030) who are in charge of
placing and detonating explosive charges. Once the oil company has decided where
to drill, it must obtain permission to use the land. The landman or leaseman and
makes necessary business arrangements with owners of land in which his company
is interested.
ii) Drilling:
Another important job in oil exploration is that of the scout). He keeps his
company informed of all exploring, leasing, drilling, and production activity in his area.
Drilling. Despite all the petroleum exploration methods that have been developed, there
is no device that will actually find petroleum. Only by drilling can the presence of oil be
proved. Overall planning and supervision of drilling are usually the responsibilities of the
petroleum engineer. He helps to select drilling sites and the method of drilling. He directs
workers in erecting the derrick and installing the drilling machinery. He advises drilling
personnel on technical matters and may stay on the drilling site until oil drilling operations
are completed.
There are two methods of drilling a well—rotary drilling and cable-tool drilling.
No matter which method is used, all wells are started in the same way. Rig builders and
a crew of helpers erect a steel tower, called a derrick. The main purpose of the
derrick is to support the machinery and equipment which raise and lower the
drilling tools. The rotary method is used for drilling deep wells through rock and
clay formations such as those found in Texas, California, and Oklahoma. In 1960,
about 85 percent of the wells in the United States were drilled by this method.
In rotary drilling, a revolving steel drill bit bores a hole in the ground by
chipping and cutting rock. The drilling bit is a steel tool with cutting teeth at its
lower end. The bit is attached to a string of jointed pipe (drill stem) which is
rotated by a steam, diesel, or gasoline engine. As the bit cuts through the earth,
the drill stem is lengthened by the addition of more pipe which is screwed on
at the upper end. A stream of mud is continuously pumped through the hollow
pipe. This mixture of clay and water cools the drill bit, plasters the walls of the
hole to prevent cave-ins, and floats the cuttings to the surface.
128
In cable-tool drilling, a hole is broken through rocks by continuously raising
and dropping a heavy, sharpened bit attached to the end of a cable. Cable-tool
drilling is mainly used to drill shallow wells in hard rock formation. Most of it is done
in Kentucky, Ohio, West Virginia, Pennsylvania, and the rocky areas of Texas and
Oklahoma.
iii) Separation:
Petroleum engineers generally have charge of overall planning and supervision
of the operation and maintenance of wells. One of their principal duties is to
prevent waste by deciding which production method to use and how fast the oil
should flow. Some companies hire assistants to the petroleum engineer.
These aids perform routine duties such as making elementary
calculations, running tests, and keeping records. The job of pumper is the
largest occupation in the oil field. The crude oil stored in large tanks in oil field
for some time and then send to refining industry.
So in this stage crude oil is separated in gas and liquid petroleum.
iv) Refinery:
Petroleum refining changes crude oil into gasoline, kerosene, fuel oil,
lubricants, and other products for use in homes and industry. The
modern refinery is a complicated structure made up of tanks and
towers connected by a maze of pipes. From the time crude oil enters the
refinery to the shipment of finished products, the flow of
production is continuous. The refining process is highly automatic
and is controlled by instruments which measure and regulate the flow,
temperature, and pressure of the liquids and gases going through the pipes and
tanks. Manual handling of materials is virtually eliminated in
the modern refinery.
Briefly, petroleum refining consists of heating crude oil as it flows
through a series of pipes in a furnace. The vapors from the heated oil
pass into a tower where the various “fractions,” or parts, of crude oil are
condensed. The heaviest (for example, asphalt) are drawn off along the
bottom of the tower where temperatures are highest; lighter parts
(kerosene) are drawn off along the middle of the tower; and the lightest
(gasoline and gases) are taken off at the top where temperatures are lowest.
v) Storage tanks:
The storage tanks is a facility for the storage of oil and/or petrochemical
products and from which these products are usually transported to large
industries or oil pumps. The storage tanks are either above ground or
underground, and gantries (framework) for the discharge of products into
road tankers or other vehicles (such as barges) or pipelines.
Storage tanks are usually situated close to oil refineries or in locations
where marine tankers containing products can discharge their cargo. Some
storage tanks are attached to pipelines from which they draw their
supplies.
vi) Transportation:
Petroleum transport is the transportation of petroleum and derivatives
129
such as gasoline (petrol).Petroleum is transported via rail cars, trucks,
marine tanker vessels, and through pipelines. Which method is used to transport
this oil depends on the amount that is being moved and where it is being
moved to. The biggest problems with moving this oil are pollution and
the chance that the oil can spill. Petroleum oil is very hard to clean up
and is very toxic to living animals.
vii) Customers (End Users):
These include all users like large, medium and small industries and even
vehicle drivers etc.
5. Fire prevention during oil installation:

Precautionary measures,
Any environment in which triangle of fire available but don’t let combine together to
cause fire is called precautionary measure. For example better housekeeping.
Preventive measure,
Any environment in which triangle of fire available and combine together but let to
cause fire is called preventive measure. For example proper ventilation system,
sprinkler system, cleanliness etc.
Further points regarding preventive measures:
 Fuel:
Careful handling of fuel, safe transportation, proper storage, and right usage.
 Heat:
Don’t let short circuit, smoking (700°c), lightening, friction, radiations (mobile),
fireworks, spark, metal plate cutting, welding, mobile, mobile usage etc.
 Oxygen:
Remove oxidizing agents.
Flammable :Above 21°c (Flash point).
Inflammable :Between 0°c and 21°c.(Flash point).
Extremely Flammable :Below 0°c (Flash point).
130
CHAPTER # 31
LPG (Liquefied Petroleum Gas):
Intoduction:
LPG stands for “Liquefied Petroleum Gas”. The composition of LPG is Hydrogen and
Carbon, also known as Hydrocarbons. Specifically, LPG consists of a combination of Propane
(C3H8 ), and Butane ( C4H10).
LPG can be obtained as a co-product of refining of crude oil at refineries, or extracted from
streams of natural gas from oil and gas fields. Propane and Butane are both gases in
ambient conditions but can be liquified under modest pressure and temperature conditions.
Furthermore, LPG can safely and easily be stored at room temperature.
Benefits of LPG:
 LPG is a very clean burning fuel, with lower greenhouse gas emissions than any
other fossil fuel when measured on a total fuel cycle, and is thus considered an
environment friendly fuel source.
 It is also non-toxic and will not contaminate with soil or aquifers in the event of a
leak.
 The energy content and calorific value per unit of LPG is higher than many other
commonly used fuels, including coal, natural gas, diesel, petrol, fuel oils, and
biomass-derived alcohols.
 Due to its versatile nature, LPG is used in more than a thousand applications,
from cooking, heating, air conditioning, and automobiles, to aerosol propellant
and foam manufacturing. It is also used to create SNG or Synthetic Natural Gas.
 Transportation and storage of LPG is relatively easy, and it can be used virtually
anywhere. It does not require a fixed network and will not deteriorate over time.
 LPG is easily interchangeable with natural gas and thus a good backup fuel for
the industry in times of natural gas shortages. When used as SNG, it does not
need any changes in pipeline network or sizes, and provides the convenience of
switching between natural gas and LPG without modifying appliances.
Safety distance: 100 feet minimum.
Uses:
LPG has a very wide variety of uses, mainly used for cylinders across many different markets
as an efficient fuel container in the agricultural, recreation, hospitality, calefaction,
construction, sailing and fishing sectors. It can serve as fuel for cooking, central heating and
to water heating and is a particularly cost-effective and efficient way to heat off-grid homes.
In the safety font LPG cylinders must be updated to new standards in safety and user
experience, giving a huge contribution for domestic usage.
Cooking:
LPG is used for cooking in many countries for economic reasons, for convenience or because
it is the preferred fuel source.
Rural heating:
Predominantly in Europe and rural parts of many countries, LPG can provide an
131
alternative to electric heating, heating oil, or kerosene. LPG is most often used in
areas that do not have direct access to piped natural gas.
LPG can be used as a power source for combined heat and power technologies (CHP).
CHP is the process of generating both electrical power and useful heat from a single
fuel source. This technology has allowed LPG to be used not just as fuel for heating
and cooking, but also for decentralized generation of electricity.
Motor fuel:
When LPG is used to fuel internal combustion engines, it is often referred to as auto gas
or auto propane. LPG has a lower energy density than either petrol or fuel-oil, so the
equivalent fuel consumption is higher. Many governments impose less tax on LPG than
on petrol or fuel-oil, which helps offset the greater consumption of LPG than of petrol
or fuel-oil. Propane is the third most widely used motor fuel in the world. Not all
automobile engines are suitable for use with LPG as a fuel. LPG provides less upper
cylinder lubrication than petrol or diesel, so LPG-fueled engines are more prone to
valve wear if they are not suitably modified. Many modern common rail diesel engines
respond well to LPG use as a supplementary fuel. This is where LPG is used as fuel as
well as diesel. Systems are now available that integrate with OEM engine management
systems.
Refrigeration:
LPG is instrumental in providing off-the-grid refrigeration, usually by means of a gas
absorption refrigerator.
LIQUIFIED PETROLEUM GAS PROPERTIES & CHARACTERISTICS:

COLOUR Colorless
LPG STATES Vapors and Liquid.
ODOUR Faint Smell stanching
DENSITY / SPECIFIC GRAVITY Vapor Phase 1.5 - 2.0 times heavy settles at lower levels and at
Liquid phase 0.525 to 0.58 at 15 degree centigrade
BOILING POINT (-) 2 to (-) 42°C
MELTING OR FREEZING POINT very low i.e. less than (-) 47 deg. cent.
SOLUBILITY Less Soluble In Water
HEALTH HAZARD Non Toxic
INDUSTRIAL LPG APPLICATIONS:

AGRICULTURE: Grain Drying, Weed Killing, Tea/Coffee/Tobacco Curing
AUTOMOBILIES: Heat Treatment & Paint Baking
CERAMIC: Calcination, Gloss Firing, Of Stoneware & Porcelain
CHEMICALS / DRUGS: Heating, Drying, Feed Stock in Petrochemical Industry
ELECTRICAL: Bulbs / Tube lights, Filament Annealing
ENGINEERING: Metal Melting, Forging, Annealing, Stress Relieving, Paint Baking, Heat
Treatment
FOOD: Baking, Boiling, Frying, Drying
GLASS: Melting, Holding, Blowing, Polishing, Stress relieving
METALLURGICAL: Annealing, Billet Heating, Melting, Decaling, Stress Relieving,
Mould/Cupola/ Ladle Pre-Heating
METAL WORKING: Cutting, Hold Piercing, Welding
PACKAGING: Soldering
132
TEXTILE: Drying, Singing, Calendaring, Stentering, Print Drying, Dyeing, Velvet Processing
MISC. AEROCOL - As Propellant, Bitumen Melting, Oil Cleaning
Environmental effects:
Commercially available LPG is currently derived mainly from fossil fuels. Burning LPG
releases carbon dioxide, a greenhouse gas. The reaction also produces some carbon
monoxide. LPG does, however, release less CO. Being a mix of propane and butane, LPG
emits less carbon per joule than butane but more carbon per joule than propane.LPG burns
more cleanly than higher molecular weight hydrocarbons because it releases
less particulates.
Health Effects:
LPG is considered immediately dangerous to life and health (due solely to safety
considerations pertaining to risk f explosion)
133

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IFTIKHAR HUSSAIN

STATION FIRE OFFICER COURSE

NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF FIRE TECHNOLOGY

“Whoever follows a path in the pursuit of knowledge, Allah will

(Prophet Muhammad PBUH)

After I submitted my bundle of thanks to my parents who pray for

Mr. Muhammad Abuzar,

Mr. Abdul Haadi

Miss Riffat Ejaz

Miss Shazia Chaudhry,

Mr. Asad Shah,

CIVIL DEFENCE PAKISTAN:

DEFINITION OF CIVIL DEFENCE

Armed forces which fight by orders like as Army, Navy, Airforce.

OBJECTIVES OF CIVIL DEFENCE

1. Save the lives of people as can be.

Director General CDP

Director NIFTECH Director Administration/ Director Civil Defence

FCDTS Schools Unit Commander BDU Women Mobile Teams

RESPONSIBILITES AT FEDEARL LEVEL

1. To make planning and suggestions of Civil Defense.

Director Civil Defence

Deputy Director Admin Deputy Director Technical

Assistant Director Assistant Director Assistant Director

Admin Transport B&A

ESS Employee Assistant Director District

Self Service Civil Defense Officer

RESPONSIBILITIES AT PROVINCIAL LEVEL

1. To make strategy, planning and suggestions and to implement those according to

Admin Wing Technical Wing

Rescue Service Fire Fighting Casualty Service Warden Service Control&

RESPONSIBILITIES AT DISTRICT LEVEL

1. To prepare the responsibilities of Civil Defense at local level.

FIRE SERVICE ORGANIZATION IN PAKISTAN

RESPONSIBLITIES AT FEDERAL LEVEL

1. To make an arrangement of free trainings.

1. Provincial civil defense organization takes instructions from federal level.

RESPONSIBLITIES AT LOCAL LEVEL

1. Industry will spend 1% of whole income on fire prevention.

(b) Suction Hose.

(c) Hose Reels.

(b) Lined or Non-Percolating Hose.

5. MATERIAL USED IN HOSE CONSTRUCTION.

•Plain Weave •Twill

10. HOSE MAINTENANCE:

11. CARE OF HOSE AT FIRE STATION:

Oxygen (as oxidizing agent)

Note: Air composition,

•SOLID, •LIQUID •GAS.

COMBUSTIBLE LIQUIDS FUEL.

COMBUSTIBLE GASES FUEL.

“Class C fires”- Fire involved gas (methane, propane, butane)

COLOR OF SMOKE PRODUCED BY VARIOUS

FIRE EFFECTS ON LIFE SAFETY

• HEAT & FLAME

PRINCIPLES OF FIRE EXTINGUISHMENT /EXTINCTION

b) FUEL REMOVAL (STARVATION)

c) OXYGEN EXCLUSION (SMOTHERING)

1. Common causes of fire

1. Common causes of fire

These causes are given as under.

Burning of Charcoal Friction Fire Works Faulty Wiring

Bursting of Stove General Negligence