Agni College of Technology Department of Ece: University Questions Ec 6801 Wireless Communication

AGNI COLLEGE OF TECHNOLOGY
DEPARTMENT OF ECE
UNIVERSITY QUESTIONS
ec 6801 wireless communication
VIII-SEM / iV ECE
ACADEMIC YEAR: 2017-2018 (ODD SEMESTER)

B.E / B.Tech. DEGREE EXAMINATION, NOV/DEC 2017
Electronics and Communication Engineering
EC6801-WIRELESS COMMUNICATION
(Regulation 2013)
Time: Three hours Maximum: 100 Marks
Answer ALL questions.
PART A-(10X2=20 marks)
1. What is multipath propagation?

The signal can get from the TX to the RX via no.of different propagation paths. the signal
gets reflected and diffracted by different objects. So each of the path has a distinct
amplitude ,delay and direction of arrival. this effect is known as multipath propagation.
2. What is flat fading?

If the mobile radio channel has a constant gain&linear phase response over a bandwidth
which is greater than the bandwidth of the transmitted signal, then the received signal
will undergo flat fading.
3. What do you mean by forward and reverse channel?

Forward channel is a radio channel used for transmission of information from base
station to mobile. reverse channel used for transmission from mobile to base station.
4. Define frequency reuse.

Frequency reuse is the process of using same radio frequencies on a radio transmitter
sites within a geographical area, which are separated by sufficient distance to cause
minimal interference with each other. Frequency resue allows for a dramatic increase the
number of
Customers that can be served (capacity) within a geographical area on limited amount of
ratio spectrum.
5. Define offset QPSK and 𝜋/4 differential QPSK.

In offset QPSK the amplitude of data pulse are kept constant. The time alignment of the
even and odd bit streams are offset by one bit period in offset QPSK. In 𝜋/4 QPSK,
signaling points of the modulated signal are selected from two QPSK constellations
which are shifted by 𝜋/4
With respect to each other. It is differently encoded and detected so called 𝜋/4
Differential QPSK.
6. Define PAPR.
The peak-to-average power ratio (PAPR) is the peak amplitude squared (giving the peak
power)
Divided by the RMS value squared (giving the average power).
7. Define spatial diversity.

The most common diversity technique is called spatial diversity, whereby multiple
antennas are strategically spaced and connected to a common receiving system. While
one antenna sees a signal null, one of the other antennas may see a signal peak, and the
receiver is able to select the antenna with the best signals at any time.
8. Define STCM.
Channel coding can also be combined with diversity a technique called Space Time
Coded Modulation, the space-time coding is a bandwidth and power efficient method of
wireless.
9. Define spatial multiplexing.
Spatial multiplexing uses MEAs at the TX for transmission of parallel data streams. An
original high-rate data stream is multiplexed into several parallel streams, each of which
is sent from transmit antenna element. A basic condition is that the number of receive
antenna elements is atleast as large as the number of transmit data streams.
10.Define receiver diversity.
Reciever diversity uses two separate, collocated antennas for receive functions. Such a
configuration eliminates the need for a duplexer and can protect sensitive receiver components
from the high power used in transmit.
PART B-(5X13=65 marks)
11.a.i)What do you mean by path loss model? Explain in detail about log-distance path loss
model.
PATH LOSS MODE:
 Most radio propogation models are derived using a combination of analytical and
empirical methods. The empirical approach is based on fitting curves or analytical
expressions that recreate a set of measured data.
 The advantage of implicity taking into account all propogation factors, both knowns and
unknown, through actual field measurements.
 The validity of an empirical model at transmission frequencies or environments other
than those used to derive title model can only be established by additional measured data
in the new environment at the required transmission frequency.
 By using path loss models to estimate the received signal level as a function of distance,
it becomes possible to predict the SNR for a mobile communication system.
LOG DISTANCE PATH LOSS MODEL:
 Both theoretical and measurement based propogation models indicates that average
received signal power decreases logarithmically with distance , whether in outdoor or
indoor radio channels.
 The average large-scale path loss for an arbitrary T-R separation is expressed as a
function by using a path loss exponent,n.
An isotropic radiator is an ideal antenna which radiates power with unit gain uniformly in
all directions, and is often used to reference antenna gains in wireless systems. The effective
isotropic radiated power (EIRP) is defined as
EIRP = P G
t t
But in practice, effective radiated power (ERP) is used instead of EIRP
The free space power received by a receiver antenna which is separated from a radiating
transmitter antenna by a distance d,is given by the Friis free space equation…
where…
P transmitted power,
t
P (d) received power from distance “d”
r
L system loss factor
λ wavelength in meters
G transmitter antenna gain,
t
G receiver antenna gain
r
A effective aperture.
e
The validity of Friis’ law is restricted to the far field of the antenna or Fraunhofer region
far-field distance d is
f
D- largest physical linear dimension of the antenna
the far field requires d > λ and d >>D
The path loss is defined as the difference (in dB) between the effective transmitted power and
the received power.
PL (dB) = 10 log P - 10 log P

t r
If the antennas are assumed to have unity gain
Considering d as a known received power reference point, the received power, P (d), at any
0 r
distance d> d is
0
The reference distance d for practical systems is typically chosen to be 1 min indoor
0
environments and 100 m or 1 km in outdoor environments
The P from the above expression will be a large value so for our convenience it can be
r
represented in dBm(measured power referenced to one milliwatt (mW) …
ii)What is the need for link calculation? Explain with suitable example.
A link budget is accounting of all of the gains and losses from the transmitter, through the
medium (free space, cable, waveguide, fiber, etc.) to the receiver in a telecommunicationsystem.
It accounts for the attenuation of the transmitted signal due to propagation, as well as the antenna
gains, feedline and miscellaneous losses. Randomly varying channel gains such as fading are
taken into account by adding some margin depending on the anticipated severity of its effects.
The amount of margin required can be reduced by the use of mitigating techniques such
as antenna diversity or frequency hopping.
A simple link budget equation looks like this:
Received Power (dB) = Transmitted Power (dB) + Gains (dB) − Losses (dB)
Note that decibels are logarithmic measurements, so adding decibels is equivalent to
multiplying the actual numeric ratios.
(OR)
b) Distinguish and slow fading and fast fading in wireless channel and explain in detail.
Fading due to Doppler spread
a) Fast fading
Fast fading deals with the rate of change of the channel due to motion.The
channel impulse response changes rapidly within the symbol duration. The coherence
time of the channel is smaller than the symbol period of the transmitted signal. This
causes frequency dispersion due to Doppler spreading.The signal distortion due to fast
fading increases with increasing Doppler spread.
For Fast fading
Ts>Tc
BS<BD
BD = Doppler spread
Ts= 1 / BS (time period)
Tc= Coherence time
The velocity of the mobile or velocity of objects in the channel determines whether a
signal undergoes fast fading or slow fading
b) Slow fading
In a slow fading channel, the channel impulse response changes at a rate much slower
than the transmitted signal.
Doppler spread of the channel is much less than the bandwidth of the signal
Ts<Tc
BS>BD
12.a)Identify the channel capacity of TDMA in cell system.
Time Division Multiple Access
Time division multiple access (TDMA) systems divide the radio spectrum into time slots
.Each user occupies a cyclically repeating time slot A set of ‘N’ slots form a Frame. Each
frame is made up of a preamble, an information message, and tail bits
TDMA systems transmit data in a buffer-and-burst method. TDMA shares a single carrier
frequency with several users, where each user makes use of non-overlapping time slots.
TDMA uses different time slots for transmission and reception
Adaptive equalization is usually necessary in TDMA systems, since the transmission

rates are generally very high as compared to FDMA channels.High synchronization overhead
is required in TDMA systems because of burst transmissions. Guard Bands are necessary to
ensure that users at the edge of the band do not "bleed over" into an adjacent radio service.
Frame Structure
The preamble contains the address and synchronization information that both the base station
and the subscribers use to identify each other. Trial bits specify the start of a data.
Synchronization bits will intimate the receiver about the data transfer. Guard Bits are used for
data isolation.
Efficiency of TDMA
The efficiency of a TDMA system is a measure of the percentage of transmitted data that
contains information as opposed to providing overhead for the access scheme
where
b – no over head bits per frame
0H
b - no of overhead bits per
r
b - no overhead bits per preamble in each slot
p
b - no equivalent bits in each guard time interval
g
N - reference bursts per frame,
r
N - traffic bursts per frame
t
The total number of bits per frame, b , is
T
b =TR
T f
T is the frame duration, and R is the channel bit rate
f
Then the frame efficiency is

And the no of frames
m - Maximum number of TDMA users supported on each radio channel
(OR)
b)Write short notes on i)Trunking ii)Grade of service of cell system.
In telecommunication engineering, and in particular teletraffic engineering, the quality of voice

service is specified by two measures: the grade of service (GoS) and the quality of
service (QoS).
Grade of service is the probability of a call in a circuit group being blocked or delayed for more
than a specified interval, expressed as a vulgar fraction or decimal fraction. This is always with
reference to the busy hour when the traffic intensity is the greatest. Grade of service may be
viewed independently from the perspective of incoming versus outgoing calls, and is not
necessarily equal in each direction or between different source-destination pairs. "Grade of
Service" sometimes means a measure of inbound call center traffic to verify adherence to
conditions to measure the success of customers served.
On the other hand, the quality of service which a single circuit is designed or conditioned to
provide, e.g. voice grade or program grade is called the quality of service. Quality criteria for
such circuits may include equalization for amplitude over a specified band of frequencies, or in
the case of digital data transported via analogue circuits, may include equalization for phase.
Criteria for mobile quality of service in cellular telephone circuits include the probability of
abnormal termination of the call.
When a user attempts to make a telephone call, the routing equipment handling the call has to
determine whether to accept the call, reroute the call to alternative equipment, or reject the call
entirely. Rejected calls occur as a result of heavy traffic loads (congestion) on the system and can
result in the call either being delayed or lost. If a call is delayed, the user simply has to wait for
the traffic to decrease, however if a call is lost then it is removed from the system.[1]
The Grade of Service is one aspect of the quality a customer can expect to experience when
making a telephone call. In a Loss System, the Grade of Service is described as that proportion
of calls that are lost due to congestion in the busy hour. For a Lost Call system, the Grade of
Service can be measured using Equation 1.
For a delayed call system, the Grade of Service is measured using three separate terms:
 The mean delay – Describes the average time a user spends waiting for a
connection if their call is delayed.
 The mean delay – Describes the average time a user spends waiting for a
connection whether or not their call is delayed.
 The probability that a user may be delayed longer than time t while waiting for a
connection. Time t is chosen by the telecommunications service provider so that they can
measure whether their services conform to a set Grade of Service.
13.ai)Describe with neat diagram, the modulation technique of QPSK.
Quadrature Phase Shift Keying
In this 2 bits are combined in a single symbol. It is represented by carriers with 4

different phases. QPSK has twice the bandwidth efficiency of BPSK.
Es – Amplitude of digital symbol
Ts- duration of symbol
Tb- duration of a single bit
For QPSK Ts= 2 Tb
Phasor diagram
00 -135(225)
1 +135
10 -45 (315)
11 +45
QPSK Transmitter Block

The input to the system is a binary message stream has bit rate Rb. The NRZ Encoder
will convert the unipolar message to bipolar bit sequence. The serial to parallel convertor will
split the stream of bits into two separate data streams. They are provided to the I-channel and
Q-Channel. The bit stream ml (t) is called the "even" stream and mQ (t) is called the "odd"
stream
The oscillator produces a high frequency carrier. The 90o phase shifter will produce an exactly
out of phase signal to that of the carrier. The two binary sequences are separately modulated by
two carriers. The two modulated signals are summed to produce a QPSK signal. The filter at
the output of the modulator confines the power spectrum of the QPSK signal within the allocated
band. This prevents spill-over of signal energy into adjacent channels and also removes out-of-
band spurious signals generated during the modulation process.
Receiver
A carrier recovery is used to estimate the frequency and phase of a received
signal's carrier. The incoming signal is split into two parts, and each part is coherently
demodulated using the in-phase and quadrature carriers. The decision making device is used to
regenerate digital signals. It uses a threshold level to distinguish between “0” & “1”
ii)List the advantages and applications of BFSK.
Advantage of BFSK produce constant envelope carrier signalswith no amplitute variaTons.

this is a desirable characterisTc for improving the powereciency of transmi³ers.
•Amplitute variaTons can exercise non-lineariTes in anampli´er’s amplitute – transfer funcTon,
generaTngspectral re-growth a component of adjacent channelpower.
herefore, more e²cient ampli´ers (which tend to be lesslinear) can be used with contant-envelope
signals, reducingpower consumpTon.
(OR)
b)Examine the principle of MSK modulation and derive the expression for power spectral
density.
MINIMUM SHIFT KEYING
QPSK results in larger side lobes due to the phase change of 900 or 1800.So to reduce
this we use MSK, where the peak deviation is ¼ of bit rate. MSK is closely related to OQPSK,
where we replace rectangular pulses by sinusoidal pulses. Modulation index of MSK is 0.5
MSK Transmitter
MSK uses two frequencies which are separated by 1/4T.
The carrier frequency is choose to be the multiple of 1/4T
fc - 1/4T & fc + 1/4T.
The filtered signal is then multiplied with the odd and even data sequences to form MSK signal.
SMSK(t) = aI(t)cos(/2T)t. cos2fct + aQ(t)sin( /2T)t . sin2fct
aI(t) = In-phase bit sequence (Even)
aQ(t) = Qudrature sequence (odd)
letbk(t) = aI(t) . aQ(t)
after simplification
SMSK(t) = cos[2 fct + bk(t)  t/2T+ φk]
aI(t) &aQ(t) = +1 for Binary “1” &Φk = 0
aI(t) &aQ(t) = -1 for Binary “0” &Φk = π
Also bk(t) = 0 if aI(t) &aQ(t) are opposite
bk(t) = 1 if aI(t) &aQ(t) are same

14.a) Describe in detail about i)Linear equalizers ii)Non-linear equalizers.
Linear vs. Nonlinear Equalization Techniques
 Linear‐No feedback path to adapt the equalizer, the equalization is linear
 Non linear ‐fed back to change the subsequent outputs of the equalizer,
the equalization is nonlinear
Linear Equalizer
 A linear equalizer can be implemented as an FIR filter or transversal filter.
 The current and past values of the received signal are linearly weighted by the filter
coefficient and summed to produce the output
 The output of this transversal filter
 where cn* represents the complex filter coefficients or tap weights,
 dk is the output at time index k,
 yk is the input received signal
 N is the number of taps

 The minimum mean square error is
is the frequency response of the channel, and N0 is the noise spectral density.
Lattice equalizer
Nonlinear Equalization
1. Decision Feedback Equalization (DFE)
2. Maximum Likelihood Symbol Detection
3. Maximum Likelihood Sequence Estimation (MLSE)
Decision Feedback Equalization (DFE)

 DFE consists of a feed forward filter (FFF) and a feedback filter (FBF).
 The basic idea behind decision feedback equalization is that once an information symbol
has been detected, the ISI that it induces on future symbols can be estimated and
subtracted out before detection of subsequent symbols.
 The FBF is driven by decisions on the output of the detector, and its coefficients can be
adjusted to cancel the ISI on the current symbol from past detected symbols
 The output of equalizer is given by
where c * is tap gain and yn is the input,
Fi are tap gains for the feedback filter
 The mean squared error of a DFE is much better than a LTE (Linear Traversal Equalizer)
if the channel is severely distorted.
 DFE is more appropriate for severely distorted wireless channels.
Predictive DFE
 Another form of DFE proposed by Belfiore and Park is called a Predictive DFE
 The feedback filter (FBF) is driven by an input sequence formed by the difference of the
output of the detector and the output of the feed forward filter.
 The FBF here is called a noise predictor because it predicts the noise and the residual ISI
contained in the signal at the FFF output and subtracts from it the detector output after
some feedback delay.
 The predictive DFE performs as well as the conventional DFE as the limit in the number
of taps in the FFF and the FBF approach infinity
(OR)
b)Analyze various diversity techniques used in wireless communication.
Diversity
 Diversity is a method for improving the reliability of a message signal by using two or
more communication channels with different characteristics.
 It is based on the fact that individual channels experience different levels of fading and
interference.
 The main concept of diversity is that if one radio path undergoes a deep fade, another
independent path may have a strong signal.
 Diversity is usually implemented by using two or more receiving antennas.
 Multiple versions of the same signal may be received and combined in the receiver
 Diversity plays an important role in combating fading, co-channel interference and

avoiding error bursts.
Types
I. Micro Diversity
a) Spatial or Antenna diversity
b) Polarization diversity
c) Frequency diversity
d) Time diversity or Temporal diversity
e) Angular Diversity
II. Macro Diversity
Micro Diversity Techniques
Space or Antenna diversity
 It uses two or more antennas to improve the quality .
 Antenna diversity is effective at negating the multipath loss.
 Each antenna will experience a different level of interference. Thus, if one antenna is
experiencing a deep fade, another antenna will have sufficient signal.
 Collectively such a system can provide a efficient signal
Space diversity reception methods
1. Selection diversity
2. Feedback or Scanning Diversity
3. Maximal ratio combining
4. Equal gain diversity
Selection diversity
 Here mantennas are used to provide “m” diversity branches.
 At any particular instant the receiver branch having the highest instantaneous SNR is
connected to the demodulator.
Disadvantage:
 It is hard to switch between antennas in real time.
 Output of one antenna is selected, so resources is wasted
15.a)What is meant by MIMO systems? Explain the system model with necessary diagrams.
Multiple Input Multiple Output (MIMO) Systems
 MIMO systems are defined as point-to-point communication links with multiple antennas
at both the transmitter and receiver.
 The use of multiple antennas at both transmitter and receiver clearly provide enhanced
performance
 The cost of deploying multiple antennas, the space requirements of these extra antennas
(especially on small handheld units), and the added complexity required for multi-
dimensional signal processing are the challenges faced by MIMO Systems
Spatial multiplexing
 Spatial multiplexing is a transmission technique in MIMO wireless communication to

transmit independent and separately encoded data signals, from each of the multiple
transmit antennas. Therefore, the space dimension is reused, or multiplexed, more than
one time.
A narrowband point to point communication system employing n transmit and m receive
antennas is shown in figure.
It can be represented by the following discrete time model
or simply as
Where
 xrepresents the n-dimensional transmitted symbol,
 Nis the m dimensional additive white Gaussian noise (AWGN) vector,
 Hconsists of zero mean (Rayleigh Fading) complex circular Gaussian random

variables hijrepresenting the channel gain from transmit antenna j to receive
antenna i
 x, y, N and H are all stochastic processes.
 We assume that the receiver is able to estimate the channel state H perfectly. So at each
instant H is known at the receiver
(OR)
b) Distinguish between different beam forming techniques.
Beamforming in MIMO
 Beamforming or spatial filtering is a signal processing technique used in sensor arrays for
directional signal transmission or reception.
 This is achieved by combining elements in a phased array in such a way that signals at
particular angles experience constructive interference while others experience destructive
interference
 Adaptive beamforming is used to detect and estimate the signal-of-interest at the output
of a sensor array by means of optimal spatial filtering and interference rejection.
 To change the directionality of the array when transmitting, a beamformer controls the
phase and relative amplitude of the signal at each transmitter.
 In the receive beamformer the signal from each antenna may be amplified by a different
"weight."
Beamforming techniques can be broadly divided into two categories:
1. Conventional (fixed) beamformers
2. Adaptive beamformers or phased array
Conventional beamformers use a fixed set of weightings and time-delays (or phasings) to
combine the signals from the sensors in the array, primarily using only information about the
location of the sensors in space and the wave directions of interest.
In contrast, adaptive beamforming techniques generally combine this information with properties
of the signals actually received by the array, typically to improve rejection of unwanted signals
from other directions
PART-C
16.a) Analyze and compare the error performance in fading channels with and without diversity
reception techniques.
Bit Error Rate

The bit error probability is a function of BT.
Where  is a constant related to BT
0.68 for GMSK with BT = 0.25

0.85 for simple MSK BT= ∞
Eb/N0 is the energy per bit to noise power spectral density ratio.
It is a normalized signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) measure, also known as the "SNR per bit“
N0 = Noise Spectral Density
(OR)
b)With valid statements, analytically prove that the adaptive exhibit superior performance over
the conventional equalizers.
Adaptive Equalization
 For an equalizer to mitigate the ISI introduced by the channel, it must have an estimate of
the channel impulse or frequency response.
 Since the wireless channel varies over time, the equalizer must learn the frequency
response of the channel (training) and then update its estimate of the frequency response
as the channel changes (tracking).
 Adaptive equalization adapts to the changing channel.
 The training is done by sending a fixed-length known bit sequence over the channel.
 The equalizer at the receiver uses the known training sequence to adapt its filter
coefficients are updated to minimize the error between the actual channel output and the
channel output resulting from the known training sequence transmitted through the
estimate of the channel frequency response.
 During transmission of user data, an adaptive algorithm is used on the received data to
continually update the equalizer coefficients
 yk - input at any time instant
 Transversal filter has N delay elements and N + 1 tunable complex weights.
 These weights are updated continuously by the adaptive algorithm.
 The adaptive algorithm is controlled by the error signal ek.
 This error signal is derived by comparing the output of the equalizer, dk. with some
signal dk which is either an exact scaled replica of the transmitted signal xkor which rep-
resents a known property of the transmitted signal
 New weights = Previous weights + (constant) x (Previous error) x (Current input Vector)
 where
 Previous error = Previous desired output - Previous actual output
 the constant may be adjusted by the algorithm to control the variation between filter
weights on successive iterations
B.E / B.Tech. DEGREE EXAMINATION, APRIL/MAY 2017
EC6801-WIRELESS COMMUNICATION – ANSWER KEY
(Regulation 2013)
Time: Three hours Maximum:100 Marks
1. What is the major advantage of wireless communication?

(i)Flexibility is the major benefit of wireless communication
(ii) low cost
(iii) Support mobility
(iv) Easy to install
(v) More convenient
2. Define Coherence time. In what way does this parameter decide the behavior
of wireless Channel ?
It is defined as the time domain dual of Doppler spread and is used to
characterize the time varying nature of the frequency dispersireness of the
channel in time domain.
This parameters is used for assessing both the performance of various
modulation techniques and the distortion caused by the channel.
3. Why is cellular concept used for mobile telephony?

To improve spectrum efficiency by frequency re-using to support roaming
for seamless connectivity.
4. In a cellular network, among a handoff call and a new call, which one is
given priority ?why?
Handoff call is given priority to achieve seamless connectivity by
supporting roaming and to reduce call dropping rate.
5. What is the basic advantage of using Multicarrier schemes such as OFDM?
Relative immunity to fading caused by multipath enhanced immunity to
inter symbol interference.
6. State any two advantage of MSK.
(i) Constant envelope
(ii) Spectral efficiency high
(iii) Good BER
(iv) Self-synchronizing capability
7. Why is an adaptive equalizer required?
To combat ISI, the equalizer co-efficient should change with respect to
channel variation. So adaptive equalizers are required.
8. What is diversity? Why is it employed?

Diversity a technique used to ensure that same information reaches the
receiver on statistically independent channels in order to improve SNR at
detector input.it is used to compensate for fading channel impairments.
9. What is Spatial multiplexing?

Spatial multiplexing is a technique in MIMO wireless communication to
transmit independent and separately encoded data signals from each transmit
antenna. The space dimension is reused or multiplexed more than one time.
10.What is Channel State Information? What is its benefit?

Channel state information refers to the known channel properties of
communication link.it describes how a signal propagates from the
transmitter to the receiver and represents the combined effect of scattering
,fading and power delay with distance.
11.(a)(i)If a transmitter produces 50W of power, which is applied to a unity

gain antenna with a 900 MHz carrier frequency, find the received power in
dBm at a free space distance of 100m from the antenna. What is received
power at a distance of 10 km? Assume unity gain for the receiver antenna.
(5)
λ= C/f
= 3x108 /900 x106
= 0.33
Pr = Pt Gt Gr λ2 / (4πd)2
= 50 x1 x 1x 0.332 / (4π x 100)2
= 5.445/1577536
Pr=3.45 x10-6 W or 3.45 x10-3 mW
(ii)Derive the path loss considering a Two-Ray Model for the propagation
mechanism in a wireless channel. Is considering just two rays alone
sufficient? Why? (11)
Ground Reflection (2-ray) Model
This model considers both the direct path and a ground reflected propagation
path between transmitter and receiver. This model is used for predicting the
large-scale signal strength over distances of several kilometers for mobile radio
systems
E =E +E
TOT LOS g
Let E is the free space E-field (V/m) at a reference distance d from the
0 0
transmitter, then for d> d
0
E(d,t) =
Two waves arrive at the receiver:
1. The direct wave that travels a distance d‘
2. The reflected wave that travels a distance d".
then ,
The E-field due to Line of Sight component
The E-field due to Ground reflected component
whereΓ = reflection coefficient for ground

For a perfect reflected wave Γ= -1
(i.e) reflected wave is equal in magnitude and 180° out of phase with the incident
wave
E = E +E
TOT LOS g
Method of Images to find Δ = d“- d‘

when the T-R separation distance d is very large compared to h + h Using
t r,
Taylor’s approximation
the phase difference θ =

Δ
the time delay
Ʈ =
d
When d becomes large, the difference between the distances d’ and d" becomes
very small, and the amplitudes of E and E are virtually identical and differ only
LOS g
in phase.
Taylor Series
Using Taylor’s equation it can be reduced to
where k is a constant related to Antenna Height
Now the received power is

And the power loss is
Or
(b)(i)Determine the proper spatial sampling interval required to make a
small-scale propagation measurements which assume that consecutive
samples are highly correlated in time. How many samples will be required
over 10 m travel distance if fc= 1900 MHz and v= 50m/s. How long would
it take to make these measurements, assuming they could be made in real
time from a moving vehicle? What is the Doppler spread BD for the
channel? (5)
Fc= 1900 MHz
V= 50 m/s
D= 10 m
Fm= V/λ
Tc = 9λ/ 16πv
Tc = 565.7 µs
Taking Time samples at less half Tc
∆x = VTc /2
=50x565.7x10-6 / 2 = 14.14 cm
No. of samples over a 10 m travel distance
Nx =10/∆x = 10/ 14.14 cm = 707 samples.
Time Taken for measurement = 10 m / 50m/s = 0.2 Seconds
(ii) Describe in detail, the parameters of mobile multipath channels with

their significance. (6)
Parameters of Mobile Multipath Channels
1. Time Dispersion Parameters

a. Mean excess delay( τ )
b. RMS delay spread (στ)
c. Excess delay spread
2. Coherence Bandwidth (Bc)
3. Doppler spectrum
4. Coherence Time (Tc)
Mean excess delay( τ )
The mean excess delay ( τ ) is the first moment of the power delay profile, this is
the expected value of the signal.
RMS delay spread (στ)
The RMS delay spread is the square root of the second central moment of the
power delay profile
Excess delay spread or maximum excess delay (X dB)
The maximum excess delay (X dB) of the power delay profile is defined to
be the time delay during which multipath energy falls to X dB below the
maximum.
(i.e) The maximum excess delay is defined as Tx- T0 , where t0 is the first arriving
signal and Tx is the maximum delay at which a multipath component is within X
dB of the strongest arriving multipath signal.
Coherence Bandwidth (Bc)
Coherence bandwidth is a statistical measure of the range of frequencies

over which the channel can be considered "flat“.“Flat” refers to a channel which
passes all spectral components with approximately equal gain and linear phase. In
other words, coherence bandwidth is the range of frequencies over which two
frequency components have a strong amplitude correlation.
Mathematically coherence bandwidth is inversely proportional to RMS delay
spread.
Bcα 1 / στ
Doppler spectrum
When a pure sinusoidal signal of frequency fc is transmitted, the received

signal spectrum will have components in the range fc - fd to fc + fd. This called the
Doppler spectrum.
wherefd is the Doppler shift.
fd is a function of the relative velocity of the mobile, and the angle between
the direction of motion of the mobile and direction of arrival of the scattered
waves.
Coherence Time (Tc)
Coherence Time is the time duration over which two received signals have a
strong potential for amplitude correlation.
(iii) Compare and contrast fast fading and slow fading.” In practice fast
fading only occurs for very low data rate (communications)”.Why? (5)
Fast Fading Slow Fading
High Doppler spread Low Doppler Spread
Coherence time is lesser than symbol Coherence time is greater than symbol
period. period.
Channel variations faster than base band Channel variations slower than base band
signal variations signal variations
12.(a)(i)Describe Channel assignment strategies and Hand-off strategies.(10)
1. Fixed channel Assignment
2. Dynamic Channel Assignment
Fixed channel Assignment

 Each cell is allocated a predetermined set of voice channels.
 If all the channels in that cell are occupied, the call is blocked and the
subscriber does not receive service.
 In one approach, called the borrowing strategy, a cell is allowed to borrow

channels from a neighboring cell if all of its own channels are already
occupied.
 The mobile switching center (MSC) supervises such borrowing procedures

and ensures that the borrowing of a channel does not disrupt or interfere with
any of the calls in progress in the donor cell
Dynamic Channel Assignment
 In a dynamic channel assignment strategy, voice channels are not allocated

to different cells permanently.
 Whenever a call request is made, the serving base station requests a channel
from the MSC.
 The MSC allocates a frequency which is not presently in use in the cell or
any other cell which falls within the minimum restricted distance of
frequency reuse to avoid co-channel interference.
 Dynamic channel assignment reduce the likelihood of blocking, which

increases the capacity of the system.
– Co channel interference
– Adjacent channel interference
Co channel interference
Cells that use the same set of frequencies are called co-channel cells and the
interference between signals from these cells is called co-channel interference.
To reduce co-channel interference, co-channel cells must be physically
separated by a minimum distance to provide sufficient isolation due to
propagation.
Adjacent channel interference
Interference resulting from signals which are adjacent in frequency to the

desired signal is called adjacent channel interference. Adjacent channel
interference results from imperfect receiver filters which allow nearby
frequencies to leak into the passband
Adjacent channel interference can be minimized by keeping the frequency

separation between each channel in a given cell as large as possible instead of
assigning channels which form a contiguous band of frequencies to a particular
cell, channels are allocated in a non sequential manner to have a sufficient
separation.
Handoff
It is the process of transferring a moving active user from one base station to
another without disrupting the call.
Handoff Strategies
st
1. I generation handoff
2. MAHO (Mobile Assisted HandOff)
3. Inter system handoff
4. Guard channel concept
5. Queuing
6. Umbrella approach
7. Soft and hard handoff
8. Cell dragging.
st
1. I generation handoff-
In this almost all the work were carried out by MSC with the help of Base
Station. Using the Locator Receiver the MSC will measure the signal strength
of the moving mobile. If the level decreases it will perform handoff by its own.
2. MAHO (Mobile Assisted HandOff)

In this every mobile station measures the received power from surrounding base
stations and continually reports the results of these measurements to the serving
base station. When the power received from the base station of a neighboring
cell begins to exceed the power received from the current base station by a
certain level or for a certain period of time a handoff is initiated. Since all the
measurements were done by the mobile, the load of the MSC is reduced
considerably
3. Inter system handoff -occurs if a mobile moves from one cellular system to a
different cellular system controlled by a different MSC (service provider) or
while roaming
4. Guard channel concept – In this some channels are reserved only for handoff.
5. Queuing – If more number of users request handoff the they will be placed in
queue before allotting channels
6. Umbrella approach
Speed of the user is a main factor in deciding a successful handoff. In urban
areas the cell size will be very small and high speed users will cross quickly. To
perform handoff on these high speed users we use Micro and Macro cells
concurrently.
7. Cell dragging
Cell dragging occurs in an urban environment when there is a line-of-sight
(LOS) radio path between the pedestrian subscriber and the base station. Even
after the user has traveled well beyond the designed range of the cell, the
received signal at the base station does not decay rapidly resulting in Cell
Dragging
8. Soft and hard handoff

Hard handoff- when the user moves to a new cell, he will be assigned with a
new set of channels.
Soft Handoff- when the user moves to a new cell, the channel itself will be
switched to the new base station. CDMA uses soft Handoff.
(ii)If a total of 33 MHz of bandwidth is allocated to a particular FDD

cellular telephone system which uses two 25 kHz simplex channels to
provide full duplex voice and control channels, compute the number of
channels available per cell if a system uses (1) four-cell reuse (2) seven-cell
reuse (3)Twelve-cell reuse. If 1 MHz of the allocated spectrums is dedicated
to control channels, determine the equitable distribution of control channels
and voice channels in each cell of eah of the the three systems. (6)
BW=33 MHz
Simplex channel BW = 25 KHz
Duplex channel BW= 25 x 2 = 50 KHz
Total bandwidth = 33 MHz
Channel BW = 50 KHz
1. Four cell resue N=4

Total available channels =BW/ch.BW = 33MHZ / 50 Khz = 660 channels
No.of channel in one cell = 660/4 = 165 channels
Control channel is of 1 MHZ.
No. of cells = 660/50 = 13
13 control channels out of 660 channel.
For N=4 660-13 =647 voice channels
Voice channels = 162
Control channels =3
2.For N=7
No. of channel in one cell =660/7 =94 channels
Control channel = 1 Mhz
No. of cell = 660/50 = 13
Voice channel = 92 ch
Control channel= 2 ch.
3.For N=12
No. of channel in one cell =660/12 =55 channels
Voice channel =54
Control Channel= 1
Or
(b) (i) Derive the expression for cellular CDMA schemes for both noise limited
and interference limited scenarios. (10)
• CDMA uses CO-Channel Cells

• All the users use the same carrier frequency and may transmit
simultaneously without any knowledge of others.
• The receiver performs a time correlation operation to detect only the specific
desired codeword.
• All other code words appear as noise
• Multipath fading may be substantially reduced because the signal is spread
over a large spectrum
• Channel data rates are very high in CDMA systems
• CDMA supports Soft handoff MSC can simultaneously monitor a particular
user from two or more base stations. The MSC may chose the best version of
the signal at any time without switching frequencies.
• In CDMA, the power of multiple users at a receiver determines the noise
floor.
• In CDMA, stronger received signal levels raise the noise floor at the base
station demodulators for the weaker signals, thereby decreasing the
probability that weaker signals will be received. This is called Near- Far
problem.
• To combat the Near- Far problem, power control is used in most CDMA
Cdma in cellular
frequency reuse in cdma is feasible as long as multiple access Interfernce(MAI) is

kept below a given level.MAI ∞ channel loading
Total interference = (1+f)k/Q Eb
SINR = Eb/ No + Io
Cellular CDMA often – Interference limited Io > No
Large cells – Noise limited Io / No =0
Small cells – Interference limited.
SINR = 1/ (1+f) K/Q (1+No /Io)
Three factor affect SINR
1. K/Q channel loading

2. Other cell interference
3. Operating Io / No
(ii)Consider Global Systems for Mobile, which is TDMA/FDD system that uses 25
MHz for the forward link, which is broken into radio channels of 200 MHZ.If 8
speech signals are supported on a single radio channel and if no guard band is
assumed find the number of simultaneous users that can be accommodated in
GSM. (2)
No. of channels = 25x106 /200 = 125
N= 125x 8 = 1000
(iii) If GSM uses a frame structure where each frames consists of eight time slots.
And each time slot contains 156.25 bits, and data is transmitted at 270.833 kbps in
the channel, find(1) the time duration of a bit(2)the time duration of a slot(3)the
time duration of a frame and (4)how long must a user occupying a single time slot
wait between two successive transmissions? (4)
1.Time duration of a bit Tb = 1/ 270.833 x103

=
3.692 µs
2.the time duration of a slot T slot= 156.25 xTb
= 576.875 µs
3.the time duration of a frame Tf= 8 x T slot
= 8 x 576.875 µs
= 4.615 ms
4.A user has to wait 4.615 ms for it next Transmission.
13.(a) (i) Why are constant envelope modulation schemes such as MSK and
GMSK used in a wireless communication system? Compare and contrast these two
modulation technique? (8)
MSK and GMSK of carrier is constant, regardless of variation in the modulating
signal.
1. MSK special type of CPFSK whereas GMSK isA derivative of MSK.
2. Modulation index of MSK is 0.5
3. The main lobe of MSK is wide which makes unsuitable for application where
narrow BW and sharp cutoff required. This is over come in GMSK using a
Gaussian filter.
4. MSK has self-synchronizing capability since the frequency spacing used is only
half as much as that used in conventional non-coherent FSK& modulation index is
0.5
5. Slow decay of MSK power spectral density curve creates adjacent channel
interference. MSK cannot be used for multiuser communication. This problem can
be overcome with GMSK.
QPSK results in larger side lobes due to the phase change of 900 or 1800.So
to reduce this we use MSK, where the peak deviation is ¼ of bit rate. MSK is
closely related to OQPSK, where we replace rectangular pulses by sinusoidal
pulses. Modulation index of MSK is 0.5
MSK Transmitter

fc - 1/4T & fc + 1/4T.
The filtered signal is then multiplied with the odd and even data sequences to form
MSK signal.
MSK Receiver
PHASOR DIAGRAM
GAUSSIAN MINIMUM SHIFT KEYING
In GMSK the side lobe levels of the spectrum are further reduced. GMSK
will minimize bandwidth, improve spectral performance, and easy for detection.
GMSK has excellent power efficiency , so it is used for GSM applications. But
GMSK is affected by ISI.
GMSK Transmitter
FM
Transm
itter
An unfiltered binary data stream will produce an RF spectrum of

considerable bandwidth. A Gaussian pulse-shaping filter smoothes the phase
trajectory of input NRZ code.
As the BT value decreases the GMSK spectrum becomes more compact and
the ISI increases .
– For BT=0.3 the adjacent symbols will interfere with each other
more than for BT=0.5
Input: Binary NRZ Signal, Each binary pulse goes through a Gaussian LPF
The filter smoothes the phase trajectory of the binary pulses and stabilizes the
instantaneous frequency variations. The power spectrum of MSK & GMSK are
equivalent.
Bit Error Rate


It is a normalized signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) measure, also known as the

"SNR per bit“
MSK Vs GMSK
Receiver
(ii) Describe OFDM scheme and state the reason behind using cyclic prefix in
OFDM scheme. What is PAPR? Why is it normally larger in a OFDM
technique?(8)
 Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing (OFDM) is a modulation

scheme that is especially suited for high data rate transmission in delay
dispersive environments.
 OFDM is used for Digital Audio Broadcasting (DAB), Digital Video

Broadcasting (DVB), and wireless Local Area Networks (LANs)
 It will also be used in fourth generation cellular systems and WiMAX.
 OFDM is also called multicarrier modulation, uses multiple carrier signals at

different frequencies, sending some of the bits on each channel.
 It converts a high rate data stream into a number of low rate streams that are
transmitted over parallel, narrowband channels.
 OFDM is a combination of modulation and multiplexing
 Multiplexing generally refers to independent signals.

 In OFDM the multiplexing is applied to independent signals but these
independent signals are a sub-set of the one main signal.
 In OFDM the signal itself is first split into independent channels, modulated
by data and then re-multiplexed to create the OFDM carrier
 The main concept in OFDM is orthogonality of the sub-carriers.
 Since the carriers are all sine/cosine wave, we know that area under one
period of a sine or a cosine wave is zero.
 The PAPR is the relation between the maximum power of a sample in a

given OFDM transmit symbol divided by the average power of that OFDM
symbol.
Peak to average power ratio (PAPR)
 PAPR occurs when in a multicarrier system the different sub-carriers are out
of phase with each other.
 When all the points achieve the maximum value simultaneously; this will
cause the output envelope to suddenly shoot up which causes a 'peak' in the
output envelope
To combat the time dispersion a special time guards in symbol transition is used.
That is referred as cyclic prefix used to avoid ISI.
Due to large number of sub carrier in typical OFDM systems, the amplitude of txd
signal has large dynamic range, leading to in-band and out-of-ban radiation, when
the signal is passed through the non-linear region of power amplifier.so PAPR is
high in OFDM.
Or
(b)(i)Discuss the error performance of different modulation schemes in fading

channels. (10)
Bit Error Rate

• The bit error probability is a function of BT.
• Where  is a constant related to BT
• Eb/N0 is the energy per bit to noise power spectral density ratio.
• It is a normalized signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) measure, also known as the
"SNR per bit“
• N0 = Noise Spectral Density
(ii)What is Offset-QPSK? What is its advantage? Describe the Offset-QPSK

scheme.(6)
Offset QPSK
In QPSK phase shift of π radians will cause the amplitude to fluctuations.

This will lead to generation of side lobes and spectral widening.
To reduce this 180o phase shift we use O-QPSK. In this we have only 90o
shifts. This is achieved by delaying one channel by Tb sec.
In QPSK the even and odd bit streams occur at the same time instants. But
in OQPSK signaling, the even and odd bit streams, mI (t) and mQ(t) are offset in
their relative alignment by one bit period (half-symbol period).
Because of this at any given time only one of the two bit streams can change
values. So the maximum phase shift of the transmitted signal at any given time is
limited to ±90° .
QPSK
O-QPSK
Advantages of Offset-QPSK.
i. OQPSK is close to a constant envelope modulation scheme that is
attractive for systems using nonlinear transponders, e.g., satellite
communication
ii. Envelope fluctuations in OQPSK is much smaller than in QPSK
Since sudden 180 degree phase changes cannot occur in OQPSK, this
problem is reduced to a certain extent.
14.(a)(i)Describe the role played by Equalisation and Diversity as Multipath

mitigation techniques. Compare and contrast these two techniques. (10)
Diversity Techniques
Diversity is a method for improving the reliability of a message

signal by using two or more communication channels with different
characteristics. It is based on the fact that individual channels experience different
levels of fading and interference.
The main concept of diversity is that if one radio path undergoes a deep fade,
another independent path may have a strong signal.
Diversity is usually implemented by using two or more receiving antennas.

Multiple versions of the same signal may be received and combined in the
receiver. Diversity plays an important role in combating fading, co-channel
interference and avoiding error bursts.
Types
1. Space or Antenna diversity
2. Polarization diversity
3. Frequency diversity
4. Time diversity
It uses two or more antennas to improve the quality. Antenna diversity is

effective at negating the multipath loss. Each antenna will experience a different
level of interference. Thus, if one antenna is experiencing a deep fade, another
antenna will have sufficient signal. Collectively such a system can provide an
efficient signal
a) Selection diversity
b) Feedback or
Scanning
c) Maximal ratio combining
d) Equal gain diversity
a) Selection diversity
Here mantennas are used to provide “m” diversity branches.At any

particular instant the receiver branch having the highest instantaneous SNR is
connected to the demodulator.
Disadvantage:
It is hard to switch between antennas in real time because the signal strength
will vary very quickly. At any point of time only one of the “m” antenna
outputs will be connected across the demodulator hence wasting the energy of
remaining m-1 antenna elements.
Feedback or Scanning Diversity
In this instead of always using the best of “m” signals, the “m” signals are
scanned and one signal is found to be above a predetermined threshold.This signal
is then locked to the receiver until it falls below threshold.And after this a new
scanning process is initiated.
Merit & Demerit
The number of switching is reduced, but we are still considering only one of “m”
antenna outputs.
 Diversity is a method for improving the reliability of a message signal by
using two or more communication channels with different characteristics.
 It is based on the fact that individual channels experience different levels of

fading and interference.
 The main concept of diversity is that if one radio path undergoes a deep
fade, another independent path may have a strong signal.
Equalization:
 Delay spread causes Intersymbol interference (ISI), which in turn produces

an irreducible error floor in most digital modulation techniques.
 There are several techniques we can use as countermeasures to delay spread.
these techniques fall in two broad categories: signal processing and antenna
solutions.
 Equalization defines any signal processing technique used at the receiver to

alleviate the ISI problem caused by delay spread.
 Higher data rate applications are even more sensitive to delay spread, and
generally require high-performance equalizers
 An equalizer is usually implemented at a receiver.
 Since the mobile fading channel is random and time varying, equalizers
must track the time varying characteristics of the mobile channel, and thus
are called adaptive equalizers .
 The general operating modes of an adaptive equalizer include training and

tracking.
 First, a known, fixed-length training sequence is sent by the transmitter so

that the receiver's equalizer may average to a proper setting.
 The adaptive equalizer will continually change its filter characteristics over
time
 Equalizer is actually an inverse filter of the channel.

 If the channel is frequency selective, the equalizer enhances the frequency
components with small amplitudes and attenuates the strong frequencies in
the received frequency spectrum in order to provide a fiat, composite,
received frequency response and linear phase response.
(ii) Consider the design of the US Digital Cellular equalizer,where f=900 MHz and
the mobile velocity v=80 km/hr, determine the maximum Doppler shift, the
coherence time of the channel and the maximum number of symbols that could be
transmitted without updating the equalizer assuming that the symbol rate is 24.3 k
symbols/sec. (6)
F = 900 MHz
V=80 km/hr
Doppler shift = - Ѵ/ λ = - 80x103 /3600x0.33 = 66.73
λ=c/f = 0.33
Max. Doppler shift = fc.v/co ; fm =v/ λ
Coherence time Tc= 9/16πfm
Tc =26ms
Or
(b)(i) With a sketch, describe RAKE receiver. (6)
Rake receiver
Rake receiver is designed to counter the effects of multipath fading. It is

mainly used in reception of CDMA signals. CDMA codes are designed to provide
very low correlation between successive chips, so they appear like uncorrelated
noise at a CDMA receiver. The chip rate of a code is the number of pulses per
second. If multipath components are delayed in time by more than one chip
duration (1/Rc), they appear like uncorrelated noise at a CDMA receiver. So
conventional equalization wont work on CDMA. Multipath results in multiple
versions of the transmitted signal at the receiver. Each component has some
information in it.
The RAKE receiver uses a multipath time diversity principle.It extracts the energy
from the multipath propagated signal components.Each multipath component is
extracted by using a single correlator. In all we use several correlators which
independently decodes a single multipath component.The outputs of each
correlator are weighted to provide better estimate of the transmitted signal than is
provided by a single component.Outputs of the M correlators are denoted as Z 1,
Z2,…, and ZM . The weighting coefficients are based on the power or the SNR from
each correlator output. If the power or SNR is small out of a particular correlator, it
will be assigned a small weighting factor, .
If maximal-ratio combining is used, the total output Z’ is given by
RAKE receiver has to know
Multipath delays -> time delay synchronization
Phases of the multipath components -> carrier phase synchronization
Amplitudes of the multipath components -> amplitude tracking
Number of multipath components.The main challenges is receiver

synchronization.
(ii) Assume four branch diversity is used, where each branch receive an
independent Rayleigh fading signal. If the average SNR is 20dB,determine the
probability that the SNR will drop below 10 dB. Compare this the case of a single
receiver without diversity. (4)
Probability of SNR dropping below 10db for a 4 branch diversity is
P4(10 dB)= (1-e-0.1)4= 0.000082
Probability of SNR dropping below 10db for a single branch diversity is
P1 (10 dB)= (1-e-0.1)4= 0.095
(iii)Derive an expression for performance improvement due to Maximal Ratio

Combining. (6)
 The output of equalizer is given by
where c * is tap gain and yn is the input,
Fi are tap gains for the feedback filter
15. (a) Discuss in detail, the capacity in fading and Non-fading channels. (16)
 The capacity equation for single-antenna Additive White Gaussian Noise

(AWGN) channels is
 where γ is the SNR at the RX, and H is the normalized transfer function
from the TX to the RX
The capacity of channel H is thus given by the sum of the capacities is given by
whereσn2 is noise variance, and Pkis the power allocated to the kth eigenmode; we
assume that Pk = P is independent of the number of antennas.
It can be rewritten as
whereINr is the Nr × Nr identity matrix, γ is the mean SNR per RX branch, and Rss
is the correlation matrix of the transmit data.
 The distribution of power depends on the amount of CSIT
 When the RX knows the channel perfectly, but no CSI is available at

the TX the capacity becomes
 the capacity of a MIMO system increases linearly with min(Nt,Nr),

irrespective of whether the channel is known at the TX or not.
 we assume that Nt = Nr = N
 Till now we considered capacity for one given channel realization channel
matrix H is assumed to be constant for the given period of time.
 In wireless systems, we have channel fading. The entries in channel matrix

H are random variables.
 Hence the fading effects has to be considered for capacity calculations

Or
(b) (i)Describe MIMO systems with emphasis on their requirements in a

wireless communication environment. (8)
 MIMO systems are defined as point-to-point communication links with

multiple antennas at both the transmitter and receiver.
 The use of multiple antennas at both transmitter and receiver clearly provide
enhanced performance
 The cost of deploying multiple antennas, the space requirements of these

extra antennas (especially on small handheld units), and the added
complexity required for multi-dimensional signal processing are the
challenges faced by MIMO Systems
 Spatial multiplexing is a transmission technique in MIMO wireless

communication to transmit independent and separately encoded data signals,
from each of the multiple transmit antennas. Therefore, the space dimension
is reused, or multiplexed, more than one time.
(ii)Describe the concepts of pre-coding and Beam forming. (8)
 In general an R symbols/s input data stream can be split into r parallel,

independent data streams, at a rate R/r symbols/s.
 The actual input to the antennas is generated through a linear transformation

on is
whereM is an n × r fixed matrix
 Transmitter does not know the instantaneous channel
 It is no longer possible to transform the MIMO channel into non-interfering

SISO channels.
 Since the decoding complexity is exponential in r, we can keep the

complexity low by keeping r small.
Beamforming
 When r = 1, the input covariance matrix has unit rank and the process is
called beamforming
 Beamforming or spatial filtering is a signal processing technique used in

sensor arrays for directional signal transmission or reception.
 This is achieved by combining elements in a phased array in such a way that

signals at particular angles experience constructive interference while others
experience destructive interference
 Adaptive beamforming is used to detect and estimate the signal-of-interest

at the output of a sensor array by means of optimal spatial filtering and
interference rejection.
 Beamforming techniques can be broadly divided into two categories:
 Conventional (fixed) beamformers
 Adaptive beamformers or phased array

 Conventional beamformers use a fixed set of weightings and time-delays (or
phasings) to combine the signals from the sensors in the array, primarily
using only information about the location of the sensors in space and the
wave directions of interest.
 In contrast, adaptive beamforming techniques generally combine this

information with properties of the signals actually received by the array,
typically to improve rejection of unwanted signals from other directions
---------------------------------------- END OF STATEMENT------------------------------

B.E/ B.Tech. DEGREE EXAMINATION, NOVEMBER/ DECEMBER 2016
(Regulation 2013)
Time: Three hours Maximum:100 Marks
Give the equation for average large scale-, path loss between the
transmitter and receiver as a function of distance.
The far field requires d > λ and d >>D The path loss is defined as the
difference (in dB) between the effective transmitted power and the received
power.
t r
2. What is frequency selectivefading?

If the channel possesses a constant gain and linear phase response over a
bandwidth that is, smaller than the bandwidth of transmitted signal, then the
channel creates frequency selective fading on the received signal.
3. State advantagesofCDMA overFDMA.

CDMA technology has bandwidth thirteen times efficient than FDMA and forty
times efficient than analog systems. CDMA also have better security and
higher data and voice transmission quality because of the spread spectrum
technology it uses, which has increased resistance to multipath distortion.
CDMA has greater coverage area when compared to FDMA. The main
advantage of the CDMA is that, in the single detection method it is more
flexible than FDMA or joint detection. CDMA is said to have higher capacity
than FDMA.
4. Define Grade ofService.
Grade of Service (GOS): probability that a call is blocked (or delayed). A
means for providing access to users on demand from available pool of channels.
With trunking, a small number of channels can accommodate large number of
random users. Telephone companies use trunking theory to determine number of
circuits required. Trunking theory is about how a population can be handled by a
limited number of servers.
5. GivethefunctionofGaussianfilterinGMSK.
The function of Gaussian pulse – shaping filter which smoothen the phase
trajectory of msk signal and stabilizer instantaneous frequency deviation
(∆f) over time.
6. What is Cyclicprefix?
In OFDM, delay dispersion leads to a loss of orthogonality between the
subcarriers and thus leads to
Inter Carrier Interference (ICI). These negative effects can be eliminated by

a special type of guard interval called the cyclic prefix.
7. What are linear equalizers and non linear equalizers?

If the output is not used in the feedback path to adapt, then this type of
equalizer is called linear equalizer. If the output is fed back to change the
subsequent outputs of the equalizer, this type of equalizer is called nonlinear
equalizers.
8. What is Macrodiverstity?
In antenna (or micro) diversity the signal from antennas mounted at
separate locations are combined.
These antennas are located on the vehicle or at the same base station
tower and their spacing is a few wavelengths. The received signal amplitude
is correlated, depending on the antennas separation d relative to the
wavelength.
9. How does spatial multiplexingwork?
Spatial multiplexing uses MEA’s (Multiple element antennas) at the
transmitter for transmission of data streams. An original high-rate data stream is
multiplexed into several parallel streams, each of which is sent from one transmit
antenna element. The channel mixes up these data streams so that each of the
receive antenna elements sees a combination of them.
10. What is ergodic capacity and outage capacity of a flatfadingchannel.

Ergodic (Shannon) capacity - this is the expected value of the capacity.
Outage capacity: - this is the minimum transmission rate that is achieved

over a certain fraction
of the time – e.g., 90% or 95%
PART B—(5 x 16 = 80 marks)
11. (a) Explain the time variant two-path model of a wireless propagation
channel. (16)
Ground Reflection (2-ray) Model
This model considers both the direct path and a ground reflected propagation
path between transmitter and receiver.
This model is used for predicting the large-scale signal strength over distances of
several kilometers for mobile radio systems
ETOT = ELOS + Eg
Let E0is the free space E-field (V/m) at a reference distance d0from the
transmitter, then for d> d0
E(d,t) =
Two waves arrive at the receiver:
3. The direct wave that travels a distance d‘

4. The reflected wave that travels a distance d".
then ,The E-field due to Line of Sight component
The E-field due to Ground reflected component
whereΓ = reflection coefficient for groundFor a perfect reflected wave Γ= -1
(i.e) reflected wave is equal in magnitude and 180° out of phase with the incident
wave ETOT= ELOS+ Eg
Method of Images to find Δ = d“- d‘
when the T-R separation distance d is very large compared to ht + hr, Using
Taylor’s approximation
the phase difference θΔ =
the time delay
Ʈd =
When d becomes large, the difference between the distances d’ and d" becomes
very small, and the amplitudes of ELOSand Egare virtually identical and differ only
in phase.
Taylor Series
Using Taylor’s equation it can be reduced to
where k is a constant related to Antenna Height
Now the received power is
And the power loss is
Or
(b) (i) Explain fadingeffects due to multipath time delayspread

and!fadingeffectsduetoDopplerspread. (10)
(ii) Whataret'hefactorsinfluenci'ng small scalefading? '(6)
Small scale fading - is the rapid fluctuation of the amplitude of a radio signal over
a short period of time or distance.
Large scale fading- is the fading associated with a larger coverage area for a
long amount of time.
Effects of small-scale fading
1. Rapid changes in signal strength over a small travel distance or time interval
2. Randomfrequencymodulationduetovarying
3. Doppler shifts on different multipath signals
4. Timedispersion(echoes)causedbymultipath propagation delays
Factors Influencing Small-Scale Fading
1. Multipath propagation
2. Speed of the mobile (Doppler shift)
3. Speed of surrounding objects
4. The transmission bandwidth of the signal
Mathematically coherence bandwidth is inversely proportional to RMS delay
spread.
B cα 1 / σ τ
Doppler spectrum
When a pure sinusoidal signal of frequency fc is transmitted, the received signal

spectrum will have components in the range fc - fd to fc + fd. This called the
Doppler spectrum.
fd is a function of the relative velocity of the mobile, and the angle

between the direction of motion of the mobile and direction of arrival of the
scattered waves.
Coherence Time (Tc)
Coherence Time is the time duration over which two received signals have a
strong potential for amplitude correlation.
Types of Small Scale Fading

1. Fading due to Multipath Time Delay Spread
a) Flat fading
b) Frequency selective fading
2. Fading due to Doppler spread
a) Fast fading
b) Slow fading
a) Flat fading
If the bandwidth of the channel is greater than the bandwidth of the transmitted
signal, the received signal will undergo flat fading. The response of the channel
will be flat. The strength of the received signal changes with time, due to
fluctuations in the gain of the channel caused by multipath signals.Flat fading is
explained using Rayleigh distribution.
The Rayleigh flat fading channel model assumes that the channel induces an
amplitude which varies in time.
Condition for flat fading
BS << BC and Ts>>στ
Where BS = bandwidth of signal
BS = 1 / Ts
BC =Coherence bandwidth
στ= rms delay spread

If the bandwidth of the channel is smaller than the bandwidth of the transmitted
signal, the received signal will undergo Frequency selective fading. Frequency
selective fading is due to time dispersion of the transmitted symbols within the
channel. Thus the channel induces intersymbol interference (ISI).The received
signal has multiple versions of the transmitted waveform which are faded and
delayed in time. The 2-ray Rayleigh fading model or computer generated impulse
responses are generally used for analyzing frequency selective small-scale fading.
For frequency selective small-scale fading
BS>BC
Ts<<στ
Fading due to Doppler spread
c) Fast fading
Fast fading deals with the rate of change of the channel due to motion.The
channel impulse response changes rapidly within the symbol duration. The
coherence time of the channel is smaller than the symbol period of the
transmitted signal. This causes frequency dispersion due to Doppler
spreading.The signal distortion due to fast fading increases with increasing
Doppler spread.
ForFast fading
Ts>Tc
BS<BD
BD = Doppler spread
Ts= 1 / BS (time period)
Tc= Coherence time
The velocity of the mobile or velocity of objects in the channel determines

whether a signal undergoes fast fading or slow fading
d) Slow fading
In a slow fading channel, the channel impulse response changes at a rate much
slower than the transmitted signal.
Doppler spread of the channel is much less than the bandwidth of the signal
Ts<Tc
BS>BD
12. (a) Explainaboutco-channelinterferenceandadjacentchannelinterference.

Describe the techniques toavoidinterference. (16)
Interference
– Co channel interference
– Adjacent channel interference
Co channel interference
Cells that use the same set of frequencies are called co-channel cells and
the interference between signals from these cells is called co-channel inter-
ference. To reduce co-channel interference, co-channel cells must be
physically separated by a minimum distance to provide sufficient isolation due
to propagation.
Adjacent channel interference
Interference resulting from signals which are adjacent in frequency to the

desired signal is called adjacent channel interference. Adjacent channel
interference results from imperfect receiver filters which allow nearby
frequencies to leak into the passband
Adjacent channel interference can be minimized by keeping the frequency

separation between each channel in a given cell as large as possible instead of
assigning channels which form a contiguous band of frequencies to a particular
cell, channels are allocated in a non sequential manner to have a sufficient
separation. Or
(b) (i)
Explainindetailhowfrequencyisefficientlyallocate
dinancellularradiosystems. ’ (6)
(ii) Explain in detail a handoff scenario atcellboundary. (10)
Frequency division multiple access (FDMA)
FDMA assigns individual frequency to individual users. (i.e ) accommodates

one user at a time. Each user is separated by Guard Bands. The complexity of
FDMA mobile systems is lower when compared to TDMA systems. A guard
band is a narrow frequency band between adjacent frequency channels to
avoid interference from the adjacent channels
Handoff
Handoff Strategies
st
9. I generation handoff
10.MAHO (Mobile Assisted HandOff)
11.Inter system handoff
12.Guard channel concept
13.Queuing
14.Umbrella approach
15.Soft and hard handoff
16.Cell dragging.
st
9. I generation handoff-
In this almost all the work were carried out by MSC with the help of Base
Station. Using the Locator Receiver the MSC will measure the signal strength of
the moving mobile. If the level decreases it will perform handoff by its own.
10.MAHO (Mobile Assisted HandOff)

In this every mobile station measures the received power from surrounding
base stations and continually reports the results of these measurements to the
serving base station. When the power received from the base station of a
neighboring cell begins to exceed the power received from the current base
station by a certain level or for a certain period of time a handoff is initiated.
Since all the measurements were done by the mobile, the load of the MSC is
reduced considerably
11.Inter system handoff -occurs if a mobile moves from one cellular system to a
different cellular system controlled by a different MSC (service provider) or
while roaming
12.Guard channel concept – In this some channels are reserved only for handoff.
13.Queuing – If more number of users request handoff the they will be placed in
queue before allotting channels
14.Umbrella approach
Speed of the user is a main factor in deciding a successful handoff. In urban
areas the cell size will be very small and high speed users will cross quickly. To
perform handoff on these high speed users we use Micro and Macro cells
concurrently.
15.Cell dragging
Cell dragging occurs in an urban environment when there is a line-of-sight
(LOS) radio path between the pedestrian subscriber and the base station. Even
after the user has traveled well beyond the designed range of the cell, the
received signal at the base station does not decay rapidly resulting in Cell
Dragging
16.Soft and hard handoff

Hard handoff- when the user moves to a new cell, he will be assigned with a
new set of channels.
Soft Handoff- when the user moves to a new cell, the channel itself will be
switched to the new base station. CDMA uses soft Handoff.
13. (a) What is MSK? Also derive the expression of MSK signal as a special
type of FSK signal and explain its powerspectraldensity. (16)
QPSK results in larger side lobes due to the phase change of 900 or
1800.So to reduce this we use MSK, where the peak deviation is ¼ of
bit rate. MSK is closely related to OQPSK, where we replace
rectangular pulses by sinusoidal pulses. Modulation index of MSK is 0.5
MSK Transmitter
fc - 1/4T & fc + 1/4T.
The filtered signal is then multiplied with the odd and even data sequences to form MSK
signal.
letbk(t) = aI(t) . aQ(t)
after simplification
SMSK(t) = cos[2 fct + bk(t)  t/2T+ φk]
aI(t) &aQ(t) = +1 for Binary “1” &Φk = 0
aI(t) &aQ(t) = -1 for Binary “0” &Φk = π
Also bk(t) = 0 if aI(t) &aQ(t) are opposite
bk(t) = 1 if aI(t) &aQ(t) are same
MSK Receiver
PHASOR DIAGRAM
Or
(b) Draw the basic arrangement of Orthogonal Frequency Division
Multiplexing transceivers and discuss itsoveralloperation. (16)
 Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing (OFDM) is a modulation
scheme that is especially suited for high data rate transmission in delay
dispersive environments.
 OFDM is used for Digital Audio Broadcasting (DAB), Digital Video

Broadcasting (DVB), and wireless Local Area Networks (LANs)
 It will also be used in fourth generation cellular systems and WiMAX.
 OFDM is also called multicarrier modulation, uses multiple carrier signals at

different frequencies, sending some of the bits on each channel.
 It converts a high rate data stream into a number of low rate streams that
are transmitted over parallel, narrowband channels.
 OFDM is a combination of modulation and multiplexing
 Multiplexing generally refers to independent signals.
 In OFDM the multiplexing is applied to independent signals but these

independent signals are a sub-set of the one main signal.
 In OFDM the signal itself is first split into independent channels, modulated
by data and then re-multiplexed to create the OFDM carrier
 The main concept in OFDM is orthogonality of the sub-carriers.

 Since the carriers are all sine/cosine wave, we know that area under one
period of a sine or a cosine wave is zero.
 The PAPR is the relation between the maximum power of a sample in a

given OFDM transmit symbol divided by the average power of that OFDM
symbol.
14. (a) ,Explain in detail the various factors to determine the algorithm for adaptive
equalizer. Also derive the Least Mean Square Algorithm for
adaptiveequalizer. (16)
Equalizer is actually an inverse filter of the channel. If the channel is frequency
selective, the equalizer enhances the frequency components with small amplitudes
and attenuates the strong frequencies in the received frequency spectrum in order
to provide a fiat, composite, received frequency response and linear phase
response.
Non linear ‐fed back to change the subsequent outputs of the equalizer, the
equalization is nonlinear.Types are Decision Feedback Equalization
(DFE),Maximum Likelihood Symbol Detection and Maximum Likelihood
Sequence Estimation (MLSE).
DFE consists of a feed forward filter (FFF) and a feedback filter (FBF). The basic
idea behind decision feedback equalization is that once an information symbol has
been detected, the ISI that it induces on future symbols can be estimated and
subtracted out before detection of subsequent symbols.The FBF is driven by
decisions on the output of the detector, and its coefficients can be adjusted to
cancel the ISI on the current symbol from past detected symbols
MLSE - Using a channel impulse response the MLSE tests all possible data
sequences and chooses the data sequence with the maximum probability as the
output.The MLSE requires knowledge of the channel characteristics in order to
compute the metrics for making decisions. The MLSE also requires knowledge of
the statistical distribution of the noise corrupting the signal.
Tap -weight vector w= [w0, w1... wN ]T
Signal input x(n) = [x(n) x(n −1) ..... x(n − N +1)]T
Filter output y(n) = wT . x (n)
Error signal e(n) = d(n) − y(n)
Mean Square error is given by
Where R - autocorrelation matrix of the filter input
p- cross-correlation vector between x(n) and d(n)
The gradient of ξ is given by

∇ξ = 2RW − 2 p
The weights are updated as
where μ is a user-defined parameter that determines convergence and residual

error. LMS algorithm converges if
λmax is the largest eigenvalue of the correlation matrix R. If μ is too large, we obtain
faster convergence and If we choose μ too small, then convergence is very but
slow.Or
(b)With relevant diagrams explain Rake receiver. Also discuss howtime
diversity is achieved in a CDMA technique using Rake receiver.(16)
Rake receiver is designed to counter the effects of multipath fading. It is mainly
used in reception of CDMA signals. CDMA codes are designed to provide very
low correlation between successive chips, so they appear like uncorrelated noise at
a CDMA receiver. The chip rate of a code is the number of pulses per second. If
multipath components are delayed in time by more than one chip duration (1/R c),
they appear like uncorrelated noise at a CDMA receiver. So conventional
equalization won’t work on CDMA
Multipath results in multiple versions of the transmitted signal at the eceiver.
Each component has some information in it.
The RAKE receiver uses a multipath time diversity principle. It extracts the energy
from the multipath propagated signal components. Each multipath component is
extracted by using a single correlator. In all we use several correlators which
independently decodes a single multipath component. The outputs of each
correlator are weighted to provide better estimate of the transmitted signal than is
provided by a single component.
CDMA:
• The narrowband message signal is multiplied by a very large bandwidth
signal called the spreading signal (pseudo-noise code). The chip rate of the
pseudo-noise code is much more than message signal. Each user has its own
pseudorandom codeword.CDMA uses CO-Channel Cells. All the users use
the same carrier frequency and may transmit simultaneously without any
knowledge of others. The receiver performs a time correlation operation to
detect only the specific desired code word. All other code words appear as
noise
15. (a) (i) With a neat diagram explain the system model
formultipleinputmultipleoutputsystems.(8)
(ii)Discuss in detail the classification of algorithms for MIMO
basedsystem.(8)
 MIMO systems are defined as point-to-point communication links with
multiple antennas at both the transmitter and receiver.
 The use of multiple antennas at both transmitter and receiver clearly
provide enhanced performance
 The cost of deploying multiple antennas, the space requirements of these
extra antennas (especially on small handheld units), and the added
complexity required for multi-dimensional signal processing are the
challenges faced by MIMO Systems
 When r = 1, the input covariance matrix has unit rank and the process is
called beamforming
 Beamforming or spatial filtering is a signal processing technique used in

sensor arrays for directional signal transmission or reception.
 This is achieved by combining elements in a phased array in such a way that

signals at particular angles experience constructive interference while
others experience destructive interference
Adaptive beamforming is used to detect and estimate the signal-of-interest at the

output of a sensor array by means of optimal spatial filtering and interference
rejection.Or
(b) Calculate the capacity of a MIMO system in flat fading
andnonfadingchannels.(16)
Let us consider the case of perfect Channel State Information at the Transmitter
(CSIT) ie Channel state known.let the instantaneous channel matrix have a singular
value decomposition (SVD) where U and V are unitary matrices (i.e.
UU†= Inand V V†= Im) = is the diagonal matrix of singular values of H. The
Multiple Input Multiple Output (MIMO) channel is transformed into r ( min(m, n))
parallel non-interfering Single Input Single Output (SISO) channels:
transmitter chooses M = V† and the receiver chooses F = U†.Hence,
1.Full CSI at the TX (CSIT) and full CSI at the RX (CSIR)

 This ideal case, both the TX and the RX have full and perfect
knowledge of the channel.
 This case results in the highest possible capacity.
 However, it is difficult to obtain the full CSIT
2. Average CSIT and full CSIR:
 The RX has full information of the instantaneous channel state, but
the TX knows only the average CSI
3.No CSIT and full CSIR:

 this is the case that can be achieved most easily, without any feedback
or calibration.
 The TX simply does not use any CSI, while the RX learns the
instantaneous channel state from a training sequence or using blind
estimation.
4. Noisy CSI :
 when we assume “full CSI” at the RX, this implies that the RX has
learned the channel state perfectly.
 However, any received training sequence will be affected by additive
noise as well as quantization noise.
5.No CSIT and no CSIR: Neither has any knowledge about channel
The capacity of channel H is thus given by the sum of the capacities is given by
where σn2 is noise variance, and Pkis the power allocated to the kth eigenmode; we
assume that Pk = P is independent of the number of antennas.
No CSIT & Full CSIR
 When the RX knows the channel perfectly, but no CSI is available at
the TX the capacity becomes
 the capacity of a MIMO system increases linearly with min(Nt,Nr),

irrespective of whether the channel is known at the TX or not.
 we assume that Nt = Nr = N
B.E / B.Tech. DEGREE EXAMINATION, APRIL/MAY 2016
(Regulation 2013)
Time: Three hours Maximum: 100 Marks
12. Calculate the Brewster Angle for wave impinging on ground having a permittivity €r = 5.
The Brewster angle is the angle at which no reflection occurs in the medium of origin. It
occurs when the incident angle θ is such that the reflection coefficient (Γ ) is equal to
B ll
zero.
=26.56
13. Define Coherence bandwidth.
The coherence bandwidth is related to the specific multipath structure of the channel. The
coherence bandwidth is a measure of the maximum frequency difference for which
signals are still strongly correlated in amplitude. This bandwidth is inversely proportional
to the rms value of time delay spread.
14. What is the soft handoff in mobile communication?
Hand-off occurs when a received signal from its serving cell becomes weak and another
cell site can provide a stronger signal to the mobile subscriber. If the new cell-site has
some free voice channels then its assigns one of them to the handed-off call.In Soft
handoff, the mobile can simultaneously communicate with more than one AP during
the handoff. This new connection is made before breaking the old connection, and is
referred to as make before break.
15. What is a multiple access technique?
The available spectrum bandwidth for our wireless communication is limited. Multiple
access techniques enable multiple signals to occupy a single communications channel.
Major Types,
Time division multiple access (TDMA)
Code division multiple access (CDMA)
16. Why is MSK referred to as fast FSK?
MSK is called fast FSK, as the frequency spacing used is only half as much as that used
in conventional non-coherent FSK.
17. What is windowing?
Windowing is a technique proposed to help reduce sensitivity to frequency offsets in an
OFDM system.This process involves cyclically extending the time domain signal with
each symbol by ‘v’ samples.The resulting signal is then shaped with a window function.
18. Define adaptive equalization?
To combat ISI, the equalizer coefficients should change according to the channel status
so as to track the channel variations. Such an equalizer is called an adaptive equalizer
since it adapts to the channel variations.
19. What are the benefits of RAKE receiver?
Rake receiver is designed to counter the effects of multipath fading.
It is mainly used in reception of CDMA signals.
CDMA codes are designed to provide very low correlation between successive chips, so
they appear like uncorrelated noise at a CDMA receiver.
The chip rate of a code is the number of pulses per second .
20. What is MIMO system?
MIMO systems are defined as point-to-point communication links with multiple antennas
at both the transmitter and receiver. The use of multiple antennas at both transmitter and
receiver clearly provide enhanced performance The cost of deploying multiple antennas,
the space requirements of these extra antennas (especially on small handheld units), and
the added complexity required for multi-dimensional signal processing are the challenges
faced by MIMO Systems
21. What is transmit diversity?
Transmit diversity has been developed in recent years as an approach which allows
the use multiple antennas at the base station transmitter. This is intended to avoid
using multiple antennas at the mobile station Appropriate pre-processing of transmitted
redundant signals to enable coherent combining at receiver.
22. (a)In free space propagation describe how the signals are affected by reflection,
diffraction, and scattering. (16)
Free Space propagation model
The free space propagation model is used to predict received signal strength when the
transmitter and receiver have a clear line-of-sight path between them.
An isotropic radiator is an ideal antenna which radiates power with unit gain uniformly in
all directions, and is often used to reference antenna gains in wireless systems. The effective
isotropic radiated power (EIRP) is defined as
EIRP = P G
t t
But in practice, effective radiated power (ERP) is used instead of EIRP The free space power
received by a receiver antenna which is separated from a radiating transmitter antenna by a
distance d,is given by the Friis free space equation…
where…
P transmitted power,
t
P (d) received power from distance “d”
r
L system loss factor
λ wavelength in meters
G transmitter antenna gain,
t
G receiver antenna gain
r
A effective aperture.
e
The validity of Friis’ law is restricted to the far field of the antenna or Fraunhofer region
far-field distance d is
f
D- largest physical linear dimension of the antenna

the far field requires d > λ and d >>D
The path loss is defined as the difference (in dB) between the effective transmitted power and
the received power.

t r
If the antennas are assumed to have unity gain
Considering d as a known received power reference point, the received power, P (d), at any
0 r
distance d> d is
0
The reference distance d for practical systems is typically chosen to be 1 min indoor
0
environments and 100 m or 1 km in outdoor environments
The P from the above expression will be a large value so for our convenience it can be
r
represented in dBm(measured power referenced to one milliwatt (mW)
Propagation Mechanisms
In practice the path for radio propagation is not so smooth. When a radio wave
propagating in one medium impinges upon another medium having different electrical
properties, the wave is partially reflected and partially transmitted. Factors Influencing
Propagation
1. Reflection
2. Diffraction
3. Scattering
1. Reflection
Reflection occurs when a propagating electromagnetic wave impinges upon an object
which has very large dimensions when compared to the wavelength of the propagating wave.
Reflections occur from the surface of the earth and from buildings.
2. Diffraction
Bending of waves around the edges of an obstacle is called diffraction. It occurs when the
radio path between the transmitter and receiver is obstructed by a surface that has sharp
edges.
3. Scattering
Scattering is caused by objects with small dimensions compared to the wavelength. Street
lamps, Vehicles and other small objects will cause scattering
Reflection:Reflection occurs when a propagating electromagnetic wave impinges upon an object

which has very large dimensions when compared to the wavelength of the propagating wave.
Reflections occur from the surface of the earth and from buildings. If the second medium is a
perfect conductor, then all incident energy is reflected back into the first medium without loss of
energy.
When a radio wave propagating impinges on a perfect dielectric, part of the energy is
transmitted into the second medium and part of the energy is reflected back into the first
medium, and there is no loss of energy in absorption.
The electric field intensity of the reflected and transmitted waves may be related to the
incident wave in the medium of origin through the Fresnel reflection coefficient (Γ ). The
reflection coefficient is a function of the material properties, and generally depends on the
wave polarization, angle of incidence, and the frequency of the propagating wave.
When a wave passes through an interface between two materials at an oblique angle, and
the materials have different indices of refraction, both reflected and refracted waves are
produced.
For a lossless medium angle of incidence is equal to angle of reflection
For a lossy dielectric medium
Or
(b)Explain in detail the pervious parameters involved in mobile multipath channels. (16)
Small scale fading - is the rapid fluctuation of the amplitude of a radio signal over a short period
of time or distance.
Large scale fading- is the fading associated with a larger coverage area for a long amount of
time.
Effects of small-scale fading
5. Rapid changes in signal strength over a small travel distance or time interval
6. Random frequency modulation due to varying
7. Doppler shifts on different multipath signals
8. Time dispersion(echoes)caused by multipath propagation delays
Factors Influencing Small-Scale Fading
5. Multipath propagation
6. Speed of the mobile (Doppler shift)
7. Speed of surrounding objects
8. The transmission bandwidth of the signal
Parameters of Mobile Multipath Channels
5. Time Dispersion Parameters

a. Mean excess delay( τ ) b. RMS delay spread (στ) c. Excess delay spread
6. Coherence Bandwidth (Bc)
7. Doppler spectrum
8. Coherence Time (Tc)
Mean excess delay( τ )
The mean excess delay ( τ ) is the first moment of the power delay profile, this is the expected
value of the signal.
RMS delay spread (στ)
The RMS delay spread is the square root of the second central moment of the power delay
profile
Excess delay spread or maximum excess delay (X dB)
The maximum excess delay (X dB) of the power delay profile is defined to be the time
delay during which multipath energy falls to X dB below the maximum.(i.e) The maximum
excess delay is defined as Tx- T0 , where t0 is the first arriving signal and Tx is the maximum
delay at which a multipath component is within X dB of the strongest arriving multipath signal.
Coherence Bandwidth (Bc)
Coherence bandwidth is a statistical measure of the range of frequencies over which the
channel can be considered "flat“.“Flat” refers to a channel which passes all spectral components
with approximately equal gain and linear phase. In other words, coherence bandwidth is the
range of frequencies over which two frequency components have a strong amplitude correlation.
Mathematically coherence bandwidth is inversely proportional to RMS delay spread.Bcα 1 / στ
Doppler spectrum
When a pure sinusoidal signal of frequency fc is transmitted, the received signal spectrum
will have components in the range fc - fd to fc + fd. This called the Doppler spectrum.
fd is a function of the relative velocity of the mobile, and the angle between the direction
of motion of the mobile and direction of arrival of the scattered waves.Coherence Time (Tc)
Coherence Time is the time duration over which two received signals have a strong
potential for amplitude correlation.
Types of Small Scale Fading
3. Fading due to Multipath Time Delay Spread

a) Flat fading
4. Fading due to Doppler spread
a) Fast fading
b) Slow fading
c) Flat fading
If the bandwidth of the channel is greater than the bandwidth of the transmitted signal,
the received signal will undergo flat fading. The response of the channel will be flat. The
strength of the received signal changes with time, due to fluctuations in the gain of the
channel caused by multipath signals.Flat fading is explained using Rayleigh distribution.
The Rayleigh flat fading channel model assumes that the channel induces an amplitude
which varies in time.
Condition for flat fading
BS << BC and Ts>>στ
Where BS = bandwidth of signal
BS = 1 / Ts
BC =Coherence bandwidth ,στ= rms delay spread
d) Frequency selective fading

If the bandwidth of the channel is smaller than the bandwidth of the transmitted signal,
the received signal will undergo Frequency selective fading. Frequency selective fading
is due to time dispersion of the transmitted symbols within the channel. Thus the channel
induces intersymbol interference (ISI).The received signal has multiple versions of the
transmitted waveform which are faded and delayed in time. The 2-ray Rayleigh fading
model or computer generated impulse responses are generally used for analyzing
frequency selective small-scale fading.For frequency selective small-scale fading
BS>BC ;Ts<<στ
12.(a) Summarize the features of various multiple access techniques used in wireless mobile
communication. State the advantages and disadvantages of each technique. (16)
Multiple Access Techniques
The available spectrum bandwidth for our wireless communication is limited. Multiple
access techniques enable multiple signals to occupy a single communications channel. Major
Types
1. Frequency division multiple access (FDMA)

2. Time division multiple access (TDMA)
3. Code division multiple access (CDMA)
FDMA assigns individual frequency to individual users. (i.e ) accommodates one user at
a time. Each user is separated by Guard Bands. The complexity of FDMA mobile systems is
lower when compared to TDMA systems. A guard band is a narrow frequency band between
adjacent frequency channels to avoid interference from the adjacent channels
The number of channels that can be simultaneously supported in a FDMA system is given by
Bt - 2 BGua r d
N=
Bc
B -> total spectrum allocation, B ->the guard band

T GUARD
B -> the channel bandwidth
C
Key Features
If an FDMA channel is not in use, then it sits idle and cannot be used by other users The
bandwidths of FDMA channels are narrow (30 kHz)
Inter symbol interference is low. It needs only a few synchronization bits
De Merits
FDMA systems are costlier because of the single channel per carrier design,
It needs to use costly bandpass filters to eliminate spurious radiation at the base station.
The FDMA mobile unit uses duplexers since both the transmitter and receiver operate at the
same time. This results in an increase in the cost of FDMA subscriber units and base stations.
FDMA requires tight RF filtering to minimize adjacent channel interference.
Time Division Multiple Access
TDMA vs. FDMA
TDMA FDMA
Time division multiple access (TDMA) systems divide the radio spectrum into time slots
.Each user occupies a cyclically repeating time slot A set of ‘N’ slots form a Frame. Each
frame is made up of a preamble, an information message, and tail bits
TDMA systems transmit data in a buffer-and-burst method. TDMA shares a single carrier
frequency with several users, where each user makes use of non-overlapping time slots.
TDMA uses different time slots for transmission and reception
Adaptive equalization is usually necessary in TDMA systems, since the transmission

rates are generally very high as compared to FDMA channels. High synchronization
overhead is required in TDMA systems because of burst transmissions. Guard Bands are
necessary to ensure that users at the edge of the band do not "bleed over" into an adjacent
radio service.Frame Structure
The preamble contains the address and synchronization information that both the base station
and the subscribers use to identify each other. Trial bits specify the start of a data.
Synchronization bits will intimate the receiver about the data transfer. Guard Bits are used for
data isolation. Efficiency of TDMA
The efficiency of a TDMA system is a measure of the percentage of transmitted data that
contains information as opposed to providing overhead for the access scheme
where
b – no over head bits per frame
0H
b - no of overhead bits per
r
b - no overhead bits per preamble in each slot
p
b - no equivalent bits in each guard time interval
g
N - reference bursts per frame,
r
N - traffic bursts per frame
t
The total number of bits per frame, b , is
T
b =TR
T f
T is the frame duration, and R is the channel bit rate
f
Then the frame efficiency is
And the no of frames
m - Maximum number of TDMA users supported on each radio channel

Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA)
In this the narrowband message signal is multiplied by a very large bandwidth signal
called the spreading signal (pseudo-noise code). The chip rate of the pseudo-noise code is
much more than message signal. Each user has its own pseudorandom codeword.
CDMA uses CO-Channel Cells; all the users use the same carrier frequency and may
transmit simultaneously without any knowledge of others. The receiver performs a time
correlation operation to detect only the specific desired codeword. All other code words
appear as noise. Multipath fading may be substantially reduced because the signal is spread
over a large spectrum. Channel data rates are very high in CDMA systems. CDMA supports
Soft handoff MSC can simultaneously monitor a particular user from two or more base
stations. The MSC may choose the best version of the signal at any time without switching
frequencies. In CDMA, the power of multiple users at a receiver determines the noise floor.
In CDMA, stronger received signal levels raise the noise floor at the base station
demodulators for the weaker signals, thereby decreasing the probability that weaker signals
will be received. This is called Near- Far problem. To combat the Near- Far problem, power
control is used in most CDMA
Or
(b) Explain in detail how to improve coverage and channel capacity in cellular systems. (16)
Improving Coverage and Capacity

Need:
The no of users are getting increased drastically.
But the available channels are limited.
So it is necessary to find some new channels for them.
Methods:
1. Cell Splitting
2. Sectoring
3. A Microcell Zone Concept
4. Repeaters
Cell Splitting
In urban areas the user density will be more, So the possibility of call blocking will be
more.Cell splitting is the process of subdividing a congested cell into smaller microcells.
And each microcell will have its own base station.
It is possible by reducing the antenna height and transmitter power.
All the cells are not split , only the congested cells are divided.
While allocating frequency for microcells, we should avoid Co-Channel interference , even
though the coverage of microcells are small.
Disadvantage
Will lead to more number of handoffs.
More burden for MSCs
Sectoring
In this the cells are not divided into microcells.
Instead by using directional antennas we will create multiple sectors in a single cell.
And the total allotted channels are divided among the sectors.
Types
1. 60o sectoring
2. 120o sectoring
Co-channel interference can be decreased by replacing a single Omni-directional antenna

by several directional antennas, each radiating within a specified sector alone. Since a sector has
only a fraction of the available co-channels.
Disadvantage
The available channels must be subdivided and dedicated to a specific antenna.
So at a given point of time, some sectors may be busy and others will be free.
Since the channels are dedicated to a particular antenna we cannot transfer them for the
congested sector.So the efficiency of the system is reduced.
A handoff is required when user moves between Sectors.
A Microcell Zone Concept
A Microcell Zone is an advancement of Sectoring.In this channels are not dedicated to
any antennas.When the user moves from zone to zone, base station switches the channel to a
different zone.A handoff is not required when the mobile travels between zones within the cell.
13.(a) Explain in detail Offset QPSK and π/4 QPSK linear digital modulation techniques
employed in wireless communication. (16)
Quadrature Phase Shift Keying

In this 2 bits are combined in a single symbol. It is represented by carriers with 4
different phases. QPSK has twice the bandwidth efficiency of BPSK.
Es – Amplitude of digital symbol

Ts- duration of symbol,Tb- duration of a single bit, For QPSK Ts= 2 Tb
Phasor diagram
00 -135(225)
1 +135
10 -45 (315)
11 +45
QPSK Transmitter Block
The input to the system is a binary message stream has bit rate Rb. The NRZ Encoder
will convert the unipolar message to bipolar bit sequence. The serial to parallel convertor will
split the stream of bits into two separate data streams. They are provided to the I-channel and
Q-Channel. The bit stream ml (t) is called the "even" stream and mQ (t) is called the "odd"
stream
The oscillator produces a high frequency carrier. The 90o phase shifter will produce an exactly
out of phase signal to that of the carrier. The two binary sequences are separately modulated by
two carriers. The two modulated signals are summed to produce a QPSK signal. The filter at
the output of the modulator confines the power spectrum of the QPSK signal within the allocated
band. This prevents spill-over of signal energy into adjacent channels and also removes out-of-
band spurious signals generated during the modulation process.
Receiver
A carrier recovery is used to estimate the frequency and phase of a received

signal's carrier. The incoming signal is split into two parts, and each part is coherently
demodulated using the in-phase and quadrature carriers. The decision making device is used to
regenerate digital signals. It uses a threshold level to distinguish between “0” & “1”
Offset QPSK
In QPSK phase shift of π radians will cause the amplitude to fluctuations. This will lead
to generation of side lobes and spectral widening. To reduce this 180o phase shift we use O-
QPSK. In this we have only 90o shifts. This is achieved by delaying one channel by Tb sec. In
QPSK the even and odd bit streams occur at the same time instants. But in OQPSK signaling,
the even and odd bit streams, mI (t) and mQ(t) are offset in their relative alignment by one bit
period (half-symbol period). Because of this at any given time only one of the two bit streams
can change values. So the maximum phase shift of the transmitted signal at any given time is
limited to ±90° .
QPSK
O-QPSK
/4 QPSK
In π/4 QPSK the maximum phase change is limited to ±135°. So it has less
amplitude fluctuations than QPSK. It can be detected non coherently .The phase shift between
successive symbols is an integer multiple of π /4 radians
/4 QPSK Generator
p(t-kTs-Ts/2) represents pulse shape
Or
(b)Explain in detail Gaussian Minimum Shift Keying (GMSK) transmission and reception with
necessary diagrams. (16)
GAUSSIAN MINIMUM SHIFT KEYING

In GMSK the side lobe levels of the spectrum are further reduced. GMSK will minimize
bandwidth, improve spectral performance, and easy for detection. GMSK has excellent power
efficiency , so it is used for GSM applications. But GMSK is affected by ISI.
GMSK Transmitter
FM
Transm
An unfiltered binary data stream willitter
produce an RF spectrum of considerable bandwidth.
A Gaussian pulse-shaping filter smoothes the phase trajectory of input NRZ code.
Gaussian Filter response
The impulse response of the filter is
BT- bandwidth-bit duration product is

f 3dB
BT 
BitRate
As the BT value decreases the GMSK spectrum becomes more compact and the ISI
increases .
– For BT=0.3 the adjacent symbols will interfere with each other more than for
BT=0.5
Pulse Shaping
Input NRZ Output from filter
Input: Binary NRZ Signal, Each binary pulse goes through a Gaussian LPF
The filter smoothes the phase trajectory of the binary pulses and stabilizes the instantaneous
frequency variations. The power spectrum of MSK & GMSK are equivalent.
Bit Error Rate

It is a normalized signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) measure, also known as the "SNR per bit“
MSK Vs GMSK
Receiver
14.(a)Explain in detail linear and Non- linear equalizer. (16)
• A linear equalizer can be implemented as an FIR filter or transversal filter.The current
and past values of the received signal are linearly weighted by the filter coefficient and
summed to produce the output. The output of this transversal filter
• where cn* represents the complex filter coefficients or tap weights, dk is the output at
time index k, yk is the input received signal, N is the number of taps
• The minimum mean square error is
• is the frequency response of the channel, and N0 is the noise spectral

density
Equalizer is actually an inverse filter of the channel. If the channel is frequency selective, the
equalizer enhances the frequency components with small amplitudes and attenuates the strong
frequencies in the received frequency spectrum in order to provide a fiat, composite, received
frequency response and linear phase response.
Non linear ‐fed back to change the subsequent outputs of the equalizer, the equalization is
nonlinear. Types are Decision Feedback Equalization (DFE),Maximum Likelihood Symbol
Detection and Maximum Likelihood Sequence Estimation (MLSE).
DFE consists of a feed forward filter (FFF) and a feedback filter (FBF). The basic idea behind
decision feedback equalization is that once an information symbol has been detected, the ISI that
it induces on future symbols can be estimated and subtracted out before detection of subsequent
symbols.The FBF is driven by decisions on the output of the detector, and its coefficients can be
adjusted to cancel the ISI on the current symbol from past detected symbols
MLSE - Using a channel impulse response the MLSE tests all possible data sequences and
chooses the data sequence with the maximum probability as the output.The MLSE requires
knowledge of the channel characteristics in order to compute the metrics for making decisions.
The MLSE also requires knowledge of the statistical distribution of the noise corrupting the
signal.
Or
(b) Write short notes on: (16)
(i) Spatial Diversity (ii) Frequency Diversity
(iii)Polarization Diversity (iv) Time Diversity
Diversity is a method for improving the reliability of a message signal by

using two or more communication channels with different characteristics. It is based on the fact
that individual channels experience different levels of fading and interference.
The main concept of diversity is that if one radio path undergoes a deep fade, another
independent path may have a strong signal.
Diversity is usually implemented by using two or more receiving antennas. Multiple versions
of the same signal may be received and combined in the receiver. Diversity plays an important
role in combating fading, co-channel interference and avoiding error bursts.
Types
5. Space or Antenna diversity
6. Polarization diversity
7. Frequency diversity
8. Time diversity
It uses two or more antennas to improve the quality. Antenna diversity is effective at
negating the multipath loss. Each antenna will experience a different level of interference.
Thus, if one antenna is experiencing a deep fade, another antenna will have sufficient signal.
Collectively such a system can provide an efficient signal
e) Selection diversity
f) Feedback or Scanning
g) Maximal ratio combining
h) Equal gain diversity
b) Selection diversity
Here mantennas are used to provide “m” diversity branches. At any particular instant the
receiver branch having the highest instantaneous SNR is connected to the demodulator.
Disadvantage:
It is hard to switch between antennas in real time because the signal strength will vary very
quickly. At any point of time only one of the “m” antenna outputs will be connected across
the demodulator hence wasting the energy of remaining m-1 antenna elements.
Feedback or Scanning Diversity
In this instead of always using the best of “m” signals, the “m” signals are scanned and
one signal is found to be above a predetermined threshold. This signal is then locked to the
receiver until it falls below threshold. And after this a new scanning process is initiated.
Merit & Demerit
The number of switching is reduced, but we are still considering only one of “m” antenna
outputs.
Maximal ratio combining
In this the all the co phased signals of the “m” branches are weighted according to their
individual signal voltage to noise power ratios and then summed.
Maximal ratio combining produces an output SNR equal to the sum of the individual SNRs
Merits
MRC eliminates the switching problem and it also considers the output of most antennas,
hence it produces a better output than other techniques.
Equal gain diversity
In certain cases, it is not convenient to provide for the variable weighting capability as
used in Maximal ratio combining.
For such cases the branch weights are all set to unity.
Polarization diversity
Space diversity is less practical since large antenna spacing was required to have enough
angle of incident. Polarization diversity allows us to have the antenna elements to be co-located.
This provides diversity by orthogonal (horizontal and vertical) polarization
Circular and linear polarized antennas are used to characterize multipath inside
buildings. When the path was obstructed, polarization diversity was found to reduce the multi
path delay spread without decreasing the received power .Polarization diversity is used to
support two simultaneous users on the same radio channel. Since the channel does not change
much in such a link, there is little likelihood of cross polarization interference.
It is assumed that the signal is transmitted from a mobile with vertical (or horizontal)
polarization.
The base station polarization diversity antenna has 2 branches A and A
1 2
α = polarization angle
β = offset angle of mobile
The two received signals at the base station when β = 0
x = r cos(ωt + φ )
1 1
y = r cos(ωt + φ )
2 2
• At A1 and A2
where a = sin α cos β & b= cos α
Correlation coefficient ρ is
Reflection Coefficient
Loss function
Frequency Diversity
Frequency diversity transmits information on more than one carrier frequency.
Frequency diversity is implemented using frequency division multiplex mode (FDM). Normally
1 frequency will be held as a backup for performing diversity. When diversity is needed, the
appropriate traffic is simply switched to the backup frequency
Disadvantage
It requires additional bandwidth
Many receivers are necessary to record Frequency diversity
Time Diversity
Time diversity repeatedly transmits information at time spacing
E.g Rake Receiver
15. (a) (i)Explain in detail how inherent delay in a multiuser system is over-come by beam
forming. (8)
(ii)Explain in detail spatial multiplexing of a MIMO system. (8)
 MIMO systems are defined as point-to-point communication links with multiple antennas
at both the transmitter and receiver.
 The use of multiple antennas at both transmitter and receiver clearly provide enhanced
performance
 The cost of deploying multiple antennas, the space requirements of these extra antennas
(especially on small handheld units), and the added complexity required for multi-
dimensional signal processing are the challenges faced by MIMO Systems
one time.
A narrowband point to point communication system employing n transmit and m receive
antennas is shown in figure.
It can be represented by the following discrete time model
Where
x represents the n-dimensional transmitted symbol,
N is the m dimensional additive white Gaussian noise (AWGN) vector,
H consists of zero mean (Rayleigh Fading) complex circular Gaussian random variables
hij representing the channel gain from transmit antenna j to receive antenna i
 x, y, N and H are all stochastic processes.
 We assume that the receiver is able to estimate the channel state H perfectly. So at each
instant H is known at the receiver
 The transmit power is given as
Spatial multiplexing is a transmission technique in MIMO wireless communication to
transmit independent and separately encoded data signals, from each of the multiple transmit
antennas. Therefore, the space dimension is reused, or multiplexed, more than one time.

one time.
The Multiple Input Multiple Output (MIMO) channel is transformed into r ( min(m, n))
parallel non-interfering Single Input Single Output (SISO) channels:
transmitter chooses M = V† and the receiver chooses F = U†.
Hence
Beamforming or spatial filtering is a signal processing technique used in sensor arrays for
This is achieved by combining elements in a phased array in such a way that signals at
interference Adaptive beamforming is used to detect and estimate the signal-of-interest at the
output of a sensor array by means of optimal spatial filtering and interference rejection.
Transmitter does not know the instantaneous channel

It is no longer possible to transform the MIMO channel into non-interfering SISO
channels.
Since the decoding complexity is exponential in r, we can keep the complexity low by
keeping r small.
When r = 1, the input covariance matrix has unit rank and the process is called
beamforming
MIMO Channel Capacity
This section focuses on the Shannon capacity of a MIMO channel, which equals the maximum
data rate that can be transmitted over the channel with arbitrarily small error probability.
Capacity versus outage defines the maximum rate that can be transmitted over the channel with
some nonzero outage probability. Channel capacity depends on what is known about the channel
gain matrix or its distribution at the transmitter and/or receiver. First the static channel capacity
under different assumptions about this channel knowledge will be given, which forms the basis
for the subsequent section on capacity of fading channels.
Static Channels
The capacity of a MIMO channel is an extension of the mutual information formula for a SISO
channel given by equation to a matrix channel. For static channels a good estimate of H can be
obtained fairly easily at the receiver, so we assume CSIR throughout this section. Under this
assumption, the capacity is given in terms of the mutual information between the channel input
vector x and output vector y as
forH(Y) and H(Y | X) the entropy in y and y | x, as defined in Section. The definition of entropy
yields that H(Y | X) = H(n), the entropy in the noise. Since this noise n has fixed entropy
independent of the channel input, maximizing mutual information is equivalent to maximizing
the entropy in y.Given covariance matrix Rx on the input vector x, the output covariance matrix
Ry associated with MIMO channel output y is given by
It turns out that, for all random vectors with a given covariance matrix Ry, the entropy of y is
maximized when y is a zero-mean, circularly symmetric complex Gaussian (ZMCSCG) random
vector. But y is ZMCSCG only if the input x is ZMCSCG, and hence this is the optimal
distribution on x in , subject to the power
constraint Tr(Rx) = ρ. Thus we have H(Y) = B log2 det[πeRy] and H(n) = B log2 det[πeIMr ],
resulting in the mutual information
This formula was derived in for the mutual information of a multiantenna system, and it also
appeared in earlier works on MIMO systems [7; 8] and matrix models for ISI channels. The
MIMO capacity is achieved by maximizing the mutual information over all input covariance
matrices Rx satisfying the power constraint:
where det[A] denotes the determinant of the matrix A. Clearly the optimization relative to Rx
will depend on whether or not H is known at th the transmitter CSI.
Or
(b)Explain with relevant diagrams the layered space time structure with respect to MIMO
systems. (16)
Spatial multiplexing is a transmission technique in MIMO wireless communication to
transmit independent and separately encoded data signals, from each of the multiple transmit
antennas. Therefore, the space dimension is reused, or multiplexed, more than one time
(ii) Define Beamforming, Pre-coding and briefly explain MIMO diversity gain.
(8)
 Transmitter does not know the instantaneous channel
 It is no longer possible to transform the MIMO channel into non-interfering SISO
channels.
 Since the decoding complexity is exponential in r, we can keep the complexity low by
keeping r small.
 When r = 1, the input covariance matrix has unit rank and the process is called
beamforming
 Beamforming or spatial filtering is a signal processing technique used in sensor arrays for
 This is achieved by combining elements in a phased array in such a way that signals at
interference
Adaptive beamforming is used to detect and estimate the signal-of-interest at the output
of a sensor array by means of optimal spatial filtering and interference rejection.
Advantages of MIMO systems
Multiple-input multiple-output systems can significantly enhance performance of wireless
systems through multiplexing or diversity gain.
For a given transmit energy per bit, multiplexing gain provides a higher data rate whereas
diversity gain provides a lower BER in fading.
Support a higher data rate for a given energy per bit, so it transmits the bits more quickly and
can then shut down to save energy.
Disadvantages of MIMO systems.
i. MIMO systems entail significantly more circuit energy consumption than their
single antenna counterparts, because separate circuitry is required for each antenna
signal path.
ii. Signal processing associated with MIMO can be highly complex.
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Agni College of Technology Department of Ece: University Questions Ec 6801 Wireless Communication

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AGNI COLLEGE OF TECHNOLOGY

ec 6801 wireless communication

ACADEMIC YEAR: 2017-2018 (ODD SEMESTER)

Electronics and Communication Engineering

Time: Three hours Maximum: 100 Marks

Answer ALL questions.

PART A-(10X2=20 marks)

1. What is multipath propagation?

2. What is flat fading?

3. What do you mean by forward and reverse channel?

4. Define frequency reuse.

5. Define offset QPSK and 𝜋/4 differential QPSK.

7. Define spatial diversity.

9. Define spatial multiplexing.

10.Define receiver diversity.

PART B-(5X13=65 marks)

PATH LOSS MODE:

LOG DISTANCE PATH LOSS MODEL:

PL (dB) = 10 log P - 10 log P

If the antennas are assumed to have unity gain

Fading due to Doppler spread

Ts= 1 / BS (time period)

Tc= Coherence time

Time Division Multiple Access

Adaptive equalization is usually necessary in TDMA systems, since the transmission

Then the frame efficiency is

m - Maximum number of TDMA users supported on each radio channel

b)Write short notes on i)Trunking ii)Grade of service of cell system.

In telecommunication engineering, and in particular teletraffic engineering, the quality of voice

13.ai)Describe with neat diagram, the modulation technique of QPSK.

Quadrature Phase Shift Keying

In this 2 bits are combined in a single symbol. It is represented by carriers with 4

Es – Amplitude of digital symbol

Ts- duration of symbol

Tb- duration of a single bit

For QPSK Ts= 2 Tb

QPSK Transmitter Block

ii)List the advantages and applications of BFSK.

Advantage of BFSK produce constant envelope carrier signalswith no amplitute variaTons.

MINIMUM SHIFT KEYING

The carrier frequency is choose to be the multiple of 1/4T

fc - 1/4T & fc + 1/4T.

SMSK(t) = aI(t)cos(/2T)t. cos2fct + aQ(t)sin( /2T)t . sin2fct

aI(t) = In-phase bit sequence (Even)

aQ(t) = Qudrature sequence (odd)

letbk(t) = aI(t) . aQ(t)

SMSK(t) = cos[2 fct + bk(t)  t/2T+ φk]

aI(t) &aQ(t) = +1 for Binary “1” &Φk = 0

aI(t) &aQ(t) = -1 for Binary “0” &Φk = π

Also bk(t) = 0 if aI(t) &aQ(t) are opposite

bk(t) = 1 if aI(t) &aQ(t) are same

Linear vs. Nonlinear Equalization Techniques

 Linear‐No feedback path to adapt the equalizer, the equalization is linear

 A linear equalizer can be implemented as an FIR filter or transversal filter.

 The output of this transversal filter

 where cn* represents the complex filter coefficients or tap weights,

 dk is the output at time index k,

 yk is the input received signal

 N is the number of taps

1. Decision Feedback Equalization (DFE)

2. Maximum Likelihood Symbol Detection

3. Maximum Likelihood Sequence Estimation (MLSE)