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DC Current vs. AC Current There are numerous sources of DC and AC current and
voltage. However:

 Direct current (DC) flows in one direction the circuit. Sources of DC are commonly shown as a cell or
 Alternating current (AC) flows first in one direction then in the
opposite direction.

battery:
The same definitions apply to alternating voltage (AC voltage):

Sources of AC are commonly shown as an AC

 DC voltage has a fixed polarity.
 AC voltage switches polarity back and forth.
generator:

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The Sinusoidal AC Waveform

The most common AC waveform is a sine (or sinusoidal) waveform.

The sine waveform is accurately represented by

the sine function of plane trigonometry:

y = rsin

where:

y = the instantaneous amplitude

r = the maximum amplitude
The vertical axis represents the amplitude of the AC current or = the horizontal displacement
voltage, in amperes or volts.

The horizontal axis represents the angular displacement of the

waveform. The units can be degrees or radians.

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Instantaneous Current and Voltage

i = Ipsin

where

i = instantaneous current in amperes

Ip = the maximum, or peak, current in amperes
 = the angular displacement in degrees or radians

v = Vpsin

where

v = instantaneous voltage in volts

Vp = the maximum, or peak, voltage in volts
 = the angular displacement in degrees or radians
Topic 1-2.1 Peak and Peak-to-Peak Voltage

Peak and Peak-to-Peak Voltage

Peak voltage is the For a typical sinusoidal
voltage measured from the waveform, the positive
baseline of an ac waveform peak voltage is equal to
the negative peak
to its maximum, or peak,
voltage.
level.
Peak voltages are
Unit: Volts peak (Vp) expressed without a + or
- sign.
Symbol: Vp

Peak and peak-to-peak values are most often used when

measuring the amplitude of ac waveforms directly from an Peak-to-peak voltage is
the voltage measured from
oscilloscope display.
the maximum positive level
to the maximum negative
level.
For a typical sinusoidal
waveform, the peak-to-
peak voltage is equal to
2 times the peak
voltage.

Unit: Volts peak-to-peak Peak-to-peak voltages

are expressed without a
(Vp-p) + or - sign .
Symbol: Vp-p

Convert Vp to Vp-p: What is the peak-to-peak value of a sinusoidal waveform that has a peak value
of 12 V?
Vp-p = 2 Vp
Ans: 24 Vp-p
Convert Vp-p to Vp:
What is the peak value of a sine wave that has a peak-to-peak value of 440
Vp =0.5Vp- V?
p

Ans: 220 Vp

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Topic 1-2.2 RMS Voltage

Root-Mean-Square (RMS) Voltage RMS voltage is the amount of In a dc circuit, applying 2

V to a 1 resistance
dc voltage that is required for
producing the same amount of produces 4 W of power.

power as the ac waveform.

In an ac circuit, applying
2 Vrms to a 1 
Unit: Volts (V) resistance produces 4 W
of power.
Symbol: Vrms
RMS voltages are
The RMS voltage of a sinusoidal expressed without a + or
waveform is equal to 0.707 - sign.
times its peak value.

AC levels are assumed to be expressed as RMS values Vrms = 0.707Vp

unless clearly specified otherwise.

Convert Vp to Vrms:

Determine the RMS value of a waveform that measures 15 Vp.

Vrms = 0.707Vp
Ans: 10.6 V
Convert Vrms to Vp : Determine the peak value of 120 V. (Hint: Assume 120 V is in RMS)

Vp =1.414Vrms Ans: 170 Vp

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Topic 1-2.3 Average Voltage

Average Voltage Average voltage is the

average value of all the
values for one half-cycle
of the waveform. The average voltage is
determined from just one
Unit: Volts average half-cycle of the waveform
because the average
(Vave) value of a full cycle is
Symbol: Vave zero.

The average voltage of Average voltages are

a sinusoidal waveform expressed without a + or -
is equal to 0.637 times sign
its peak value.

Vave = 0.637Vp

Convert Vp to Vave:
Determine the average value of a waveform that measured 16 Vp.
Vave =
0.637Vp Ans: 10.2 Vave
What is the peak value of a waveform that has an average value of 22.4 V?
Convert Vave to Vp:
Ans: 35.1 Vp
Vp =1.57Vave
 One period occupies exactly 360º of a
Period of a Waveform sine waveform.
The period of a waveform is the time required
The usual units of measure are:
for completing one full cycle.
seconds (s)
milliseconds (ms)
microseconds (ms)

Math symbol: T
Unit of measure: seconds (s)

The usual units of

Frequency of a Waveform
measure are:

hertz (Hz)
The frequency of a waveform is the
number of cycles that is completed
kilohertz (kHz),
each second.
103 Hz

Math symbol: f megahertz

Unit of measure: hertz (Hz)
(MHz), 106 Hz
This example shows four cycles per second, or a
waveform that has a frequency of 4 Hz. gigahertz
(GHz), 109 Hz

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Period to Frequency f = 1/T Frequency (f) is in hertz (Hz)

Period (T) is in seconds (s)

Frequency to Period T = 1/f

A certain sine waveform has a frequency of 100 Hz. What is the period of this waveform?

Ans: 10 ms

What is the frequency of a waveform that has a period of 200 s?

Ans: 5 kHz
Phase Angle
The phase angle of a waveform is angular
difference between two waveforms of the same
frequency.
 Math symbol:  (theta)
 Unit of measure: degrees or radians
Two waveforms are said to be in phase when they have the same
frequency and there is no phase difference between them.
Two waveforms are said to be out of phase when they have the
same frequency and there is some amount of phase shift between
them.

Leading and Lagging Phase Angles

Keeping straight whether
A leading waveform is one that is ahead of a reference waveform of the same one waveform is leading
frequency. or lagging another is
commonly a confusing
point for students of AC
In this example, the blue waveform is taken as electricity (and no small
thereference because it begins at 0 degrees on the number of practicing
horizontal axis. technicians as well). So it
pays to keep in mind
The red waveform is said to be leading because it is whatever pictures or
already at about 90 degrees when the reference gimmicks that are
waveform begins at 0 degrees. required for helping you
specify which of two out-
of-phase waveforms is
leading and which is
lagging.
A lagging waveform is one that is behind a reference waveform of the same
frequency.

In this example, the blue waveform is taken as

thereference because it begins at 0 degrees on the
horizontal axis.

The red waveform is said to be lagging because it has

not yet completed its cycle while the reference
waveform is beginning a new one at 0 degrees.

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  Use the formula for instantaneous sine voltage and
current to sketch an accurate sinusoidal waveform.
 Cite the basic equations and units of measure for DC
power.
Note: User the BACK feature of your browswer to return to this
page.
 Sketch voltage, current, and power sine waveforms
on the same axis.
 Explain why the power waveform is always positive as
long as current and voltage are in phase.
 Cite the fact that average power is equal to the
product of RMS current and RMS voltage.

AC Power Waveform Notice that the power waveform is

always positive.

 A positive value of power

The current and voltagewaveforms are
shown in phase. This is typical for a resistive
load. The shaded green areas represent the
corresponding levels ofpower.
indicates that the source is
giving power to the load.
 A negative value of power
would indicate that the circuit is
returning power to the source
(which will not happen in a
resistor circuit).

The power waveform is always positive

because the values of current and
voltage always have the same sign--
both negative or both positive. In
algebra, this means that the product of
The instantaneous value of power is equal to the instantaneous current times the two values is always a positive
the instantaneous voltage. value.
p = ie where:

p = instantaneous value of power in watts

i = instantaneous value of current in amperes
v = instantaneous value of voltage in volts

Average AC Power It would seem more natural to say that the

average power dissipation of a circuit is the
product of the average values of current and
voltage. But some simple math can show that it is
When the current and voltage waveforms not.
are in phase, the average power is equal to
the RMS voltage times the RMS
current: Pave = IRMS x ERMS
Variations of the AC power equation include:

Conventional use allows us to write this equation more simply as: P I = P/E P = I2R
= IE E=P/I P = E2 / R

It is then assumed that P is an average value and the other two terms
are RMS values.

Before starting this module, you should be able to: When you complete this module, you should be able to:
  Describe the difference between period and frequency  Describe the features of
for a sinusoidal waveform. a rectangular or squarewaveform.
 Calculate the total period and frequency of a
rectangular waveform.
 Define duty cycle and average voltage as the terms
apply to a rectangular waveform.
 Describe the features of
a triangular or sawtoothwaveform.

Topic 1-6.1 Rectangular Waveform

Amplitude and Period Rectangular

waveforms are the
A rectangular waveform is characterized by flat maximum and minimum levels, fast- heart of digital
rising and fast-falling edges, and squared-off corners. Because of the squared corners, a electronics. Virtually
rectangular waveform is also called a square waveform. all digital waveforms
have the characteristic
on/off appearance.

The frequency of a
rectangular waveform
is usually called
itsrepetition
rate rather than
frequency.

The amplitude of a rectangular waveform is a measure of the distance between the

minimum and maximum levels--the peak-to-peak value. Amplitude is most often
expressed in units of volts, although units of current and power can be useful at times.

The period of a rectangular waveform is the time required to complete one full cycle.
The period is measured in units of seconds.

Period and Duty Cycle  The duty cycle of a waveform has no units -- it simply
The period of a rectangular expresses the ratio of 'on' time to the total time. It is
waveform can be further often expressed as a percentage where:
broken down into two phases:
duty cycle (%) = (TH / T ) x 100
Time High, TH -- The
amount of time for the  Rectangular waveforms are sometimes used for
higher amplitude regulating the amount of power applied to a load (such
level. as a motor or lamp). The higher the duty cycle, the
Time Low, TL--The greater the amount of power applied to the load.
amount of time for the
lower amplitude level.  The frequency of a rectangular waveform is given
by:
In these terms, the period of
the waveform can be give by: f = 1 / T or f = 1/ (TH + TL)
 T = TH + TL However, there is no relationship between frequency and
duty cycle of a rectangular waveform.
T = total period of the
waveform
TH = time high
TL = time low Average Voltage

The duty cycle of a square waveform is the ratio of time The average voltage of a square waveform is given by:
high to the total period: duty cycle = TH / T
Eave = Epeak x duty cycle

For a rectangual waveform, TL = 15 ms and Step 1: To find the total period: T = TH + TL

TH= 10 ms. Calculate:
Step 2: To find the frequency: f = 1 / T
(a) The total period of the
waveform. Step 3: To find the duty cycle: duty cycle = TH / T
(b) The frequency of the waveform.
(c) The duty cycle of the waveform.

Ans: (a) 25 ms, (b) 40 Hz, (c) 0.4 or 40%

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Topic 1-6.2 Sawtooth Waveform

Sawtooth Waveform The slope of a sawtooth

waveform is specified in
A sawtooth waveform is characterized by one sloping edge and one that terms of volts per second
instantaneously returns to the baseline. (V/s).

If Vp is the amplitude and T

is the period of sawtooth
waveform, the slope is give
by:

slope = Vp / T

Or since T = 1 / f:

slope = Vpf
The amplitude of a sawtooth waveform is 12 V. If the frequency is 100 Hz, slope = Vpf
what is the slope? slope 12 V x 100 Hz
slope = 1200 V/s
Lesson 2-1 Introduction to Inductance

Before starting this module, you should be able to: When you complete this module, you should be able to:

 Describe a magnet field in terms of field strength,
magnetic polarity, and flux density.
 Describe the characteristics of a magnetic field
that are produced by electrons flowing through a
conductor.
 Express in words Faraday's Law for a straight wire.
 Cite the meaning of each term in the mathematical
expression of Faraday's Law for a straight wire and for
acoil of wire.
 Express Lenz's Law in a single sentence.

Faraday's Law for a Straight Wire The faster the rate of change of flux, the
larger the amount of induced voltage.
The amount of induced voltage is proportional to the rate of change of flux
lines cutting the conductor. When there is no change in flux, there is no
induced voltage.

where:

Vind = the amount of induced voltage in volts (V)

= the rate of change of flux cutting the conductor in

webers/second (Wb/sec)

Faraday's Law for a Coil of Wire

The amount of induced voltage is proportional to the rate of

change of flux and the number of turns of wire.

Increasing the number of turns or the rate of change of

flux increases the amount of induced voltage.
Where:

Vind = the amount of induced voltage in volts (V)

N = the number of turns of wire

= the rate of change of flux cutting the conductor in

webers/second (Wb/sec)
Lenz's Law

The voltage induced in a conductor will oppose

the change in voltage that is causing the flux to When an increasing voltage is applied to a conductor, the resulting
change. increase in flux lines will induce a voltage that opposes the increase.

When a decreasing voltage is applied to a conductor, the resulting

decrease in flux lines will induce a voltage that opposes the decrease.

 Cite the meaning of each term in the  Explain self-inductance.

mathematical expression of Faraday's Law.  Define inductance in terms of induced voltage.
 Cite the meaning of each term in the  Cite the units of measure for inductance.
mathematical expression of Lenz's Law.  Describe the voltage waveform across an inductor when a
sine waveform of current is being applied.

Self-Inductance The amount of induced voltage (VL) is proportional to the rate

Self-inductance is the property of a circuit whereby
a change in current causes a change in voltage.
where:
VL = the induced voltage in volts, V
L = the value of self-inductance in henries,
H The self-induction effect is multiplied by the value of
di / dt = the rate of change in current in
amperes per second, A/T
of change of current flow (di/dt).
 When there is no change in current, di /dt = 0 and VL =
0.
 When the current is changing very rapidly, di/dt is a
large value and so is the amount of VL.
 When the current is changing very slowly, di/dt is a
small value and so is the amount of VL.
Self-inductance is also more simply known as inductance.
inductance, L.
 Increasing the value of L increases the amount of
voltage that is induced in response to a change in
current.
 Decreasing the value of L decreases the amount of
voltage that is induced in response to a change in
current.
 Inductance and Inductors One henry is the amount of inductance that is required for
generating one volt of induced voltage when the current is
Inductance is measured in units of Henries changing at the rate of one ampere per second.
(H).

The math symbol for inductance is L.

The graphical symbol for an inductor VL = 1 V when L = 1 H and di /dt = 1 A / sec

resembles a coil of wire:

Commonly used engineering units for

inductance are:

 1 H = 1 henry
 1 x 10-3 H = 1 mH or millihenry
 1 x 10-6 H = 1 H or microhenry

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Inductive Sine Waveforms

 The amount of induced voltage is proportional to the rate of

R change of current through an inductor.
E  The value of a sine waveform is constantly changing.
A  Therefore, when a sinusoidal current flows through an inductor
S (IL), the induced voltage (VL) changes constantly.
O
N
I
N
G

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efore starting this module, you should be able to: When you complete this module, you should be able to:
 Explain self-inductance.  Define the term mutual inductance.
 Define inductance in terms of induced voltage.  Explain the meaning of coefficient of coupling.
 Cite the units of measure for inductance.
 Describe the voltage waveform across an inductor
when a sine waveform of current is being applied.
MUTUAL INDUCTANCE
Mutual inductance takes place between two coils. The amount of
mutual inductance between these two coils depends on their
respective values of inductance (L1 and L2) and the "strength" of the
magnetic coupling between them (k).
Mutual inductance is the electrical property
of circuits that enables a current flowing in one
conductor (or coil) to induce a current in a
nearby conductor (or coil).

where:

M = mutual inductance in henries

k = coefficient of coupling between two inductances
L1 and L2 = values of the two inductances

Unit of measure: henries (H)

Math Symbol: LM or M

Coefficient of Coupling

Two conductors, or coils, are said to be coupled when the are arranged so that a changing magnetic field created by
one of the coils can induce a current in the other coil.

The coefficient of coupling (k) between two coils indicates the degree of coupling between them.

When k = 0, there is no coupling at all between coils This condition can occur, for
example, when the coils are too far apart to interact or are separated by a
The values of k are between 0 and 1 magnetic shield.
-- the larger the value, the better the
coupling. When k = 1, there is perfect coupling between the conductors or coils. There is no
such thing as perfect coupling; however, a good transformer with an iron core will
have a value of k that is close to 1.

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 Lesson 3-2 Series Inductor Circuits

efore starting this module, you should be able to:
 Describe how inductors oppose any change in
current flowing through them.
 Cite the units of measure for inductance.
When you complete this module, you should be able to:
 Cite the equation for calculating the total inductance of a
series circuit.
 Explain how total inductance increases with each inductor that
is added in series.
 Calculate the total inductance of a series circuit, given the
values of individual inductors.
 Describe how inductor voltage drops are distributed among
inductors that are connected in series.
 Describe how changes in source voltage affect the current
flowing through the circuit.

Topic 3-2.1 Equation for Total Series Inductance

Total Inductance of a Series Inductor A series inductor circuit consists of two or more inductors
connected so that the total amount of circuit current flows through
each inductor.

The total inductance of a series inductor circuit is proportional to

the values of the individual inductances.

Circuit

The total inductance of a series inductor circuit is equal

to the sum of the individual inductances:

LT = L1 + L2 + L3 + ... + Ln

where:

LT = the total inductance in henries (H)

L1, L2, L3, Ln = the value of the individual
inductances in henries (H)

Determine the total inductance of this circuit when:

L1 = 1 H
L2 = 1.5 H

Ans: 2.5 H
Determine the total inductance of this circuit when:

L1 = 1 mH
L2 = 150 H

Ans: 1.15 mH

Determine the total inductance of this circuit when:

L1 = 10 mH
L2 = 15 mH
L2= 7.5 mH

Ans: 32.5 mH
 Before starting this module, you should be able to: When you complete this module, you should be able to:
 Describe how inductors oppose any change in current
flowing through them.
 Cite the units of measure for inductance.
Topic 3-3.1 Formula for Total Inductance in a Parallel Circuit
The total inductance of a parallel inductor circuit is found by
applying one of the reciprocal
formulas:
or
where:
LT = the total inductance in henries (H)
L1, L2, L3, Ln = the value of the individual inductances in
henries (H)
Determine the total inductance of this circuit when L1 = 30 mH and L2 = 40 mH.
 Cite the inverse formulas for total inductance of a
parallel circuit.
 Explain how total inductance decreases with each
inductor that is added in parallel.
 Calculate the total inductance of a parallel circuit,
given the values of individual inductors.
 Describe how the voltage is the same across each
inductor.
 Describe how the current in each branch reponds to
changes in applied voltage.
A parallel inductor circuit consists of two or
more inductors connected so that each one is in a
separate branch.
The total inductance of a parallel inductor circuit is
less than the value of the smallest inductor.
The total inductance of exactly two inductors
connected in parallel can be determined by using
the product-over-sum rule:
Ans: 17.1 mH
Calculate the total inductance of this circuit when:

L1 = 750 mH
L2 = 1.5 mH

Ans: 500 mH

Determine the total inductance of this circuit when:

L1 =750 mH
L2 = 1.0 mH
L3 = 2.2 mH

Ans: 359 mH
 Unit 4 Direct-Current RL Circuits

Lesson 4-2 RL Time Constant

\Before starting this module, you should be able to:
 Explain self-inductance.
 Define inductance in terms of induced voltage.
 Cite the units of measure for inductance.
Note: User your browser's BACK feature to return to this point.
When you complete this module, you should be able to:
 Describe the equation for determining the time
constant of a series RL circuit.
 Calculate the L/R time constant of a circuit.
 Explain the significance of the percentage
value 63.2% while current is building through an RL
circuit.
 Explain why the build-up current of an inductor
reaches its steady state the end of 5 time constants.
 Calculate the build-up current through an inductor
after a given number of time constants.
 Explain the significance of the percentage
value 63.2% while current is decaying through an RL
circuit.
 Explain why the decaying current of an inductor
reaches a steady state at the end of 5 time
constants.
 Calculate the amount of decay current through an
inductor after a given number of time constants.

L/R Time Constant The time constant for an RL circuit is nothing

The time constant of a series RL circuit
equal to the value of inductance divided by
the resistance:
more than the value of the inductor divided by the
value of the resistor..
You will also find the Greek letter  (tau) used as
the math symbol for time constant. For instance:

T=L/R
 =L/R

where

T = time constant in seconds

L = inductance in henries
R = resistance in ohms
What is the time constant of a series RL circuit where R = 1 k and L = 1 mH?

Ans: 1 ms

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RL Build-Up Curve RL Current Build-Up Table

Current through the inductor in an T iL

RL circuit does not increase at a
steady rate. Rather, the rate of 0 0
increase is rapid at first, but then
slows as it reaches the maximum 1 0.632 x Vs/R
level.
2 0.865 x Vs/R

3 0.950 x Vs/R

4 0.981 x Vs/R

5 0.992 x Vs/R

During each time

This table shows how to calculate the build-up
constant, the current
current through an inductor at the end of each
builds 63.2% of the
time constant.
remaining distance to the
maximum current level.
T = number of time constants that have passed
in seconds
Vs = voltage of the DC source in volts
R = value of the series resistor in ohms

Inductor current build-up is considered complete at the end of 5 time

constants. The ratio Vs / R is actually an expression of
Ohm's Law for maximum current through the
circuit. You can always replace the ratio Vs / R
with Imax.

Vs / R = Imax

Step 1

T=L/R
Vs = 6 V
T = 100 mH / 100 
R = 100 
T = 1 ms
L = 100 mH
Step 2
At the end of two time constants:

Ans: T = 1 ms, iL = 51.9 mA

iL = 0.865 x Vs/R
 iL = 51.9 mA

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RL Decay Curve RL Current Decay Table

Inductor current does not drop off at a
steady rate. Rather, the rate of current T iL
decay is discharge is rapid at first, but
slows considerably as the charge 0 Vs/R
approaches zero.
1 0.368 x Vs/R

2 0.135 x Vs/R

3 0.05 x Vs/R

4 0.019 x Vs/R

During each time constant, the 5 0.008 x Vs/R

current decays 63.2% of the
remaining distance to the
minimum current level. This table shows how to calculate the
decay current through an inductor at the
end of each time constant.

T = number of time constants that have

passed in seconds
Inductor current decay is considered complete at the end of 5 time Vs = voltage of the DC source in volts
constants. R = value of the series resistor in ohms

Step 1

T=L/R
T = 1.2 s
The steady-state maximum current through a 1.2 H inductor is 12 A. When this inductor is
switched from the power source to a 1 W resistor, what is the current at the end of 3 time Step 2
constants. At the end of 3 time
constants:
Ans: iL = 600 mA iL = 0.05 x Vs / R, but
remember that Vs / R = Imax:

iL = 0.05 x 12 A
iL = 600 mA
 Lesson 5-2 Transformer Ratios

Before starting this module, you should be

When you complete this module, you should be able to:
able to:

  Cite the equation for the voltage-turns ratio of a transformer.

 Describe exactly how the turns ratio of a transformer is related to its voltage
ratio.
 Explain the meaning of the terms step-up transformer and step-down
transformer.
 Cite the equation for the current-turns ratio of a transformer.
 Describe exactly how the turns ratio of a transformer is rlated to its current
ratio.
 Cite the equation for the current-voltage ratio of a transformer.
 Describe exactly how the current ratio of a transformer is related to its
voltage ratio.

Voltage-Turns Ratio The voltage ratio of a transformer is directly related to the turns ratio.

A step-up transformer is one whose secondary voltage (VS) is greater than its
primary voltage (VP). This kind of transformer "steps up" the voltage applied to it.

where:
A step-down transformer is one whose secondary voltage (VS) is less than its
primary voltage (VP). This kind of transformer "steps down" the voltage applied to it.
VS = secondary voltage
VP = primary voltage
NS = number of turns in the
secondary winding
NP = number of turns in the
primary winding

The RMS voltage on the primary of a

transformer is 120 V, and the RMS voltage
on the secondary is 12 V.

What is the turns ratio of this The situation portrayed in this example is a realistic one. It is usually very easy
transformer? to use a voltmeter to determine the primary and secondary voltages of a
Is it a step-up or a step-down transformer. Otherwise, you usually have to consult the manufacturer's data
transformer? sheets to determine the turns ratio.

Ans: The turns ratio is 10:1.

It is a step-down transformer.
 What is the secondary voltage of a 6.5:1 step-up This type of question can be easily handled by this
transformer when 48 V is applied to the primary version of the voltage/turns-ratio equation:
winding?

Ans: 312 V

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Voltage-Turns Ratio

The current ratio of a transformer is inversely related to the turns

where:
ratio.
IP = primary current
IS = secondary current
NS = number of turns in the secondary
winding
NP = number of turns in the primary winding

The RMS current on the primary of a transformer is

120 mA, and the RMS current on the secondary is 2.4
A.
It is usually easier to determine the turns ratio of a transformer by
What is the turns ratio (NS/NP) of this transformer? measuring and comparing the primary and secondary voltages than
by the currents.
Ans: 20:1

A certain transformer has a turns ratio (NS:NP) of 2.5:1. This type of question can be easily handled by this version of
What is the primary current when the secondary current the voltage/turns-ratio equation:
is 55 mA?

Ans: 1.38 A

Or if the situation calls for determining secondary current,

given the turns ratio and primary current, use this form of the
equation:
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Voltage-Current Ratio This equation clearly shows the inverse relationship between the voltages and currents of a
transformer:

 A transformer that steps up voltage will step down current.

 A transformer that steps down voltage will step up current.

where: The voltage-current transformer ratio is derived directly from the fact that the power dissipated in
the primary of a transformer is (in theory) equal to the power dissipated in the secondary:
VS = secondary
voltage PS = PP
VP = primary voltage
IP = primary current
IS = secondary current

A certain step-down transformer has a Vs / Vp ratio of 10. What is the amount of primary current when the secondary current
is 100 mA?

Ans: 1 A

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 Unit 6 Inductive Reactance

Lesson 6-1 Introduction to Inductive Reactance

Before starting this module, you should be able to: When you complete this module, you should be able to:
 Define inductance and describe its schematic  Define inductive reactance.
symbol.  Describe the effect that inductive reactance has upon
 Cite the units of measure for inductance. the amount of current flowing in an AC circuit.

Note: Use the BACK function of your browser to return to this

page.

Inductive Reactance The amount of inductive reactance in a

circuit is proportional to:

 Applied frequency, f
Inductive reactance is the opposition to AC  Value of the inductor, L
current flow that is caused by the presence of
an inductor in the circuit.

Inductive reactance is an AC version of

resistance. In fact, you can use Ohm's Law
 The symbol for inductive reactance is XL. by substituding XL for R:
 The units of measure for inductive reactance is ohms, W.
VL = ILXL where:

VL is the voltage across the inductor

in volts
IL is the current through the inductor
in amperes
XL is the amount of inductive
reactance in ohms

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 Lesson 6-2 The Inductive Reactance Formula

Before starting this module, you should be able to:
 Define inductive reactance.
 Describe the effect that inductive reactance has upon
the amount of current flowing in an AC circuit.
Note: Use the BACK function of your browser to return to this
page.
When you complete this module, you should be able to:
 Cite the equation for determining the value of inductive
reactance, given the values of applied frequency and
inductance.
 Solve the equation, given two of the three variables.

The equation for calculating the The equation, XL = 2fL , demonstrates the relationship between inductive reactance
amount of inductive reactance in an (XL), the frequency (f) of the waveform applied to the circuit, and the value of the
ac circuit is given by: inductance (L).

XL = 2fL
The amount of inductive reactance (XL) changes proportionally with the applied
where: frequency (f):

XL = inductive reactance ohms

(W)
f = frequency in hertz (Hz)  Increasing the value of f causes XL to increase.
L = inductance in henries (H)  Decreasing the value of f causes XL to decrease.

The amount of inductive reactance (XL) changes proportionally with the value of
inductance (L):

 Increasing the value of L causes XL to increase.

 Decreasing the value of L causes XL to decrease.

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 Use the basic equation:

What is the value of inductive reactance for an 0.1 H coil that is operating at 1 XL = 2fL
kHz?

Ans: 628 

Use this form of the basic equation:

What value inductor is required for producing an inductive reactance of 10  at 1.8 L = XL / (2f )
kHz?

Ans: 88.5 H

Use this form of the basic equation:

At what frequency will a 150 mH inductor have an inductive reactance of f = XL / (2L)

150?

Ans: 159 Hz
 Lesson 6-3 Series and Parallel XL

Before starting this module, you should be able to:
 Define inductive reactance.
 Describe the effect that inductive reactance has upon
the amount of current flowing in an AC circuit.
 Cite the equation for determining the value of inductive
reactance, given the values of applied frequency and
inductance.
Note: Use the BACK function of your browser to return to this
page.
When you complete this module, you should be able to:
 Explain the meaning of each term in the equation for
total inductive reactance in a series circuit.
 Calculate the total inductive reactance of a series
circuit, given the values of the individual reactanaces.
 Explain the meaning of each term in the equation for
total inductive reactance in a parallel circuit.
 Calculate the total inductive reactance of a parallel
circuit, given the values of the individual reactanaces.

Topic 6-3.1 Inductive Reactances in Series

Series Inductive Reactances The total inductive reactance of a series XL circuit is equal to the sum
of the individual reactances.
XLT = XL1 + XL2 + XL3 + ... + XLn

where:

XLT = total inductive reactance

XL1 , XL2 , XL3 , XLn = values of the
individual reactances

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What is the total inductive reactance of this circuit when X L1 = 150  and XL2 = 75 ?

Ans: 225 

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Topic 6-3.2 Inductive Reactances in Parallel

Parallel Inductive Reactances The procedure for finding the total inductive
reactance of a parallel inductor circuit is
identical to finding the total resistance of a
parallel resistor circuit.

The total reactace of two inductors in parallel

can be found by applying the product-over-
sum formula:

Use one of these inverse equations to determine the total inductive

reactance of a parallel inductor circuit:

or

Where:

XLT = total inductive reactance

XL1 , XL2 , XL3 , XLn = values of the individual reactances

What is the total inductive reactance of this circuit when X L1 = 150  and XL2 = 200 ?

Ans: 85.7 

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 Lesson 6-4 XL and Ohm’s Law

Before starting this module, you should be able to:
 Describe Ohm's Law for resistance, and explain how the
value of resistance affects the amount of current flowing
through a DC circuit.
 Cite the equation for determining the value of inductive
reactance, given the values of applied frequency and
inductance.
 Note: Use the BACK function of your browser to return
to this page.
When you complete this module, you should be able to:
 Cite Ohm's Law for inductive reactance.
 Explain how Ohm's Law for XL is similar to Ohm's Law
for R.
 Use Ohm's Law to solve for voltage, current, or inductive
reactance for an inductor.
 Solve Ohm's Law for inductance, given values of f and L
rather than XL.

Topic 6-4.1 Basic Application of Ohm's Law for XL

Just as resistance opposes the Ohm's Law for a resistor:

flow of current through a resistor,
inductive reactance opposes the V = IR
flow of current through an inductor.
Ohms' Law for an inductor:

VL = ILXL
Ohm's Law applies directly to an inductor:

VL = ILXL

where:

VL = voltage across the inductor

IL = current through the inductor
XL = inductive reactance

Solution:
For a certain inductor, IL = 20 mA and XL = 420 . What is the
voltage across this inductor? This is a straightforward application of Ohm's Law
for XL.
Ans: 8.4 V
VL = ILXL
 Solution:
What is the current through an inductive reactance of 12 kW
when the voltage across it is 12.6 V? Given the values for XL and VL, use this form of Ohm's
Law to solve for IL:
Ans: 1.05 mA
IL= VL / XL

Solution:
The current through an inductor is 250 mA when 16 V is dropped
across it. What is the value of XL? Given the values for IL and VL, use this form of
Ohm's Law to solve for XL:
Ans: 64 W
XL= VL / IL

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Topic 6-4.2 Ohm's Law when XL is Not Known

There aren't many electronics labs that are equipped to measure the X L of an inductor
R directly. Instead, XL is usually calculated from the value of the inductor and the frequency of
XL = Basic definition of
E 2fL inductive reactance. the sine waveform applied to it.
A
S VL = Ohm's Law for inductive So when you want to use Ohm's Law to determine the current of voltage across an inductor,
O ILXL reactance. you must first calculate the value of X L, then solve for the current or voltage.
N
I It follows that: Step 1: Calculate XL = 2fL
Step 2: Substitute the calculated value of XL into Ohm's Law, VL = ILXL.
N
G VL =2fL IL
Or you can combine the two equations to produce the single equation as shown on the left.
 Lesson 6-5 Current and Voltage in XL Circuits

Before starting this module, you should be able to:
 Explain how Ohm's Law for XL is similar to Ohm's Law
for R.
 Use Ohm's Law to solve for voltage, current, or
inductive reactance for an inductor.
 Solve Ohm's Law for inductance, given values of f and
L rather than XL.
When you complete this module, you should be able to:
 Describe the fact that the current through an inductor
always lags the voltage across the inductor by 90
degrees.
 Sketch a vector diagram showing how the current lags
the voltage.

 Changing the amount of voltage applied to an inductor causes a

R corresponding change in current through the inductor.
E  Due to the property of self-inductance, however, changes in
A inductor current always lag behind the changes in applied voltage.
S  When the applied voltage is a sinusoidal waveform, the voltage is
O changing constantly and the current is constantly lagging behind.
N
I Note:
N
Unless stated otherwise, discussions of inductive reactance in AC circuits
G assume a sinusoidal voltage source.

The current through an inductor lags the voltage It is also correct to say that the voltage applied to an inductor leads the
applied to the inductor by 90° current through the inductor by 90°

The 90° phase difference between current and voltage of an inductor

applies only to ideal inductors—inductors that have no internal resistance.
The internal resistance of real-world inductors causes the phase
difference to be something less than 90°.

The phase difference between inductor current

and voltage can also be shown with a vector
diagram:
 Lesson 6-6 Power in XL Circuits

Before starting this module, you should be able to:
 Sketch voltage, current, and power sine waveforms on
the same axis.
 Explain why the power waveform is always positive as
long as current and voltage are in phase.
 Describe the fact that the current through an inductor
always lags the voltage across the inductor by 90
degrees.
When you complete this module, you should be able to:
 Describe how AC power is absorbed by an inductor for
one-quarter cycle, then returned to the circuit during the
next quarter cycle.
 Explain the meaning of each term in the equation
for instantaneous power in an AC inductor circuit.
 Describe the differences between power in a resistor
circuit and apparent power in an inductor circuit.

Note: Use the BACK function of your browser to return to this

page.

In an AC circuit, an inductor alternately absorbs and returns power to the In a purely inductive circuit, the amount
circuit. AC power that is used for building up the magnetic lines of force is of power absorbed by building up the
subsequently returned to the circuit as the magnetic lines of force collapse. inductor's magnet field is exactly equal
to the amount of power returned to the
circuit when the field collapses.
The shaded green areas in this diagram
show how power is absorbed and The average power dissipation in a
returned to the circuit. purely inductive circuit is zero.

The inductor absorbs power for one-

 The green areas above the
quarter of the applied AC cycle and
baseline ( + levels)
returns it to the circuit during the next
represent power that is
quarter cycle.
absorbed by the inductor.
 The green areas below the
baseline (- levels)
representpower that is
returned to the circuit.

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INSTANTANEOUS POWER

The equation for determining the power at any given instant is:

p = -½Ppsin2

where

p = instantaneous power
Pp = peak power in watts
 = angle in radians
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APPARENT POWER

Power in a purely resistive circuit is found by

multiplying the RMS voltage times the RMS current: It is important to remain aware of the differences in terminology,
symbols, and units for power in purely resistive and purely
P = VI inductive circuits.

Apparent power in a purely inductive circuit is found the Resistor Circuit Inductor Circuit
same way, but the name, symbol, and units of measure
are slightly different. Name: power Name: apparent power
Symbol: P Symbol: S
S = VI Unit: watt, W Unit: volt-ampere reactive, VAR
Equation: P = VI Equation: S = VI
where

S = apparent power in volt-ampere reactive,

VAR
V = voltage across the inductor
I = current through the inductor