AP Notes = bonding chapter 8 G.

Hunt

VIIII. Bonding = bonds form because the energy of the system is lower than if bonds did not form.
There are 3 types of bonds: ionic, covalent and metallic
A. Ionic bonding = due to electrostatic attraction. It results in loss of an electron from a metal to
a nonmetal
1. Energy of Interaction = stated by Coulomb's Law = defined as the energy of an ion
pair
E = 2.31 x 10 -19 J ∙nm ( Q1 + Q2 ─)
R
r = distance between ion centers (nm)
Q = numerical ion charge
** note: 10 9 nm = 1 m
1 Å = 10 -1 nm or .1 nm

a) A negative sign indicates an attractive force and more stable

b) A positive sign is a repulsion force
c) Example of Coulomb's Law
Calculate the energy of interaction in KJ/mol between Mg +2 and O-2 if the distance between the centers of
the atom is 0.205 nm.

2. Binary Ionic Compounds

a) To determine how strong the ionic attraction is between the atoms in a
solid, you determine the lattice energy.

b) Lattice energy = this is the change in energy that results when an ionic
solid is formed from its gaseous ions.
c) Look at lattice energy changes!
d) Example:
Given the following information, determine the ∆H f0 (remember this is delta H of
formation) for LiBr(s) You must use thermodynamic data tables.
Li (s) + 1/2 Br2(g) → LiBr(s)

Please note : Ionization energies are endothermic and requires energy . When a nonmetal gains an
electron, the process is generally exothermic like electron affinities. If electron transfer were the only
factor in forming an ionic bond, the overall process would probably always be exothermic. The principle
reason that ionic compounds are stable is the attraction between ions of unlike charge. This attraction
draws the ions together, releasing energy and causing the ions to form a solid lattice. Hence the term
lattice energy which is the energy required to completely separate a mole of solid ionic compound into its
gaseous ions.

1
AP Notes = bonding chapter 8 G. Hunt
B. Covalent bonding = occurs when bonds form between similar kinds of atoms and electrons
are shared. The lowest possible energy of the system is achieved by this arrangement

1. Equal sharing - usually atoms are same size Ex. Brinclhof

2. Unequal sharing = atoms of unequal size and one of the atoms tend to become positive
or negative. This is indicated by  + and  - sign. Called polar covalent
3. The nature of the bond depends upon the ability of each atom in the bond to attract an
electron to itself. This property is called electronegativity.
C. Bond types are determined by differences in electronegativity. The greater the difference in
electronegativity (called ∆EN), the more ionic the character of the bond.
1. There is no precise cut off but if the difference is 0, then the bond is a perfect covalent
bond.

2. All bonds have some ionic and some covalent character. (Usually a difference of
electronegativity of over 1.7 is ionic)
Ex. Look at the periodic table. Based on the positions, place the following atoms in order of increasing
electronegativity.
Sr, Cs, Se, O, Ba
3. Bond Polarity = happens in covalent bonds. We use an arrow to point to the negative
charge, and the tail of the arrow is at the center of the positive charge.
a) Dipole moment = molecule has 2 poles

b) If a dipole moment exists, then the ends can line up in an electrical field

c) Examples (give at least 3 examples)

d) Some molecular shapes cancel out the polarity by lining up in a field

(1) Linear shape = CO2

(2) Planar shape = SO3

(3) Tetrahedral shape= CCl 4

e) Practice with dipole moments. Follow these steps

(1) Look up electronegativity of each atom
(2) Draw molecule in 3 dimensional space
(3) Determine the polarity of each bond
(4) Draw the dipoles
2
AP Notes = bonding chapter 8 G. Hunt
(5) Example 1 = CHCl 3

(6) You practice HI, N 2, CCl2F2 (C is always central atom if present)

D. Review ion size, and size of atoms

1. Isoelectric ion = ions containing the same number of electrons.
Ex S-2 and K +1 both have 18 electrons
2. The size of the isoelectric ions decreases as Zeff (effective nuclear charge) increases
3. Practice: Order the following ions from smallest to largest.

O-2, Na +1, Mg +2, F-1

Se-2, Te-2, Rb+1, Mg+2

3
AP Notes = bonding chapter 8 G. Hunt

E. ****Lewis Structures**** = used to depict bonding pairs and lone pairs of electrons. This is
concerned only with the valence electrons.
1. Individual atoms are represented with Lewis structures by putting valence electrons
around the atomic symbol. (Review your dot configurations from Chem. 1)
a) Practice: Draw the Lewis dot structures for the following atoms or ions.
N N-3 I Ba Ba+2

b) Every period 2 element (except B and Be because they tend to have

fewer electrons) can form compounds of the lowest energy if their highest
energy levels are filled ( s 2 p6). This is called the OCTET RULE.
The second row should never exceed 8 electrons.

2. Hunt strategy for writing Lewis structures = use both methods and you will never fail
to get the structure correct!

a. Method 1 is used to find the number of covalent bonds to central atom This works until
level 4

= total number of electrons for happiness ─ total number of valence electrons = total and
divide by 2 = total number of bonds around the central atom

b. Method 2 is used to find the number of domains around the central atom ( always works
= a domain is a bond, lone pair of electrons, double bonds etc count as 1 domain.

= total number of valence electrons ─ 3( atoms bonded to = # domains

2 central atom excluding hydrogen)
Ex. CO3 -2
Method 1

a) Total the number of valence electrons in the system

C has 4 valence electrons x1 = 4
O has 6 valence electron x3 = 18
Charge on the ion is -2 so add 2 electrons = 2

Total electrons in system 24

b) Electrons for happiness

C needs 8 electrons = 8
O needs 8 electrons x 3 atoms = 24
Total electrons for happiness 32

c) The number of bonds in the system is calculated as follows. Remember

that covalent bonds are made by sharing a pair of electrons.
 32 - 24 = 4 bonds around central atom
2

4
AP Notes = bonding chapter 8 G. Hunt
Method 2
Number of valence electrons + 2 extra for ion charge = 24/ 2 = 12
Minus 3(3) = 3 domains
Soooooooooooo?????? NOW YOU KNOW HOW TO DRAW CO32─ !

d) Draw the structure of CO3-2. The central atom is carbon.( always the
least electronegative atom) The oxygen atoms surround the carbon.
Because there are 4 bonds, there will be 2 single bonds and one double
bond. Each bond accounts for two electrons. Next, complete the octets by
putting electrons around each atom. Double check your results by counting
total electrons in the system

More examples!!! You try the following ( we will do in class)

3. Exceptions to the octet rule. ( usually on AP test – are you surprised???) These
exceptions usually happen because there are empty d orbitals that shared electrons can
occupy. This can only start to happen in the third period of elements.
a) To determine if you have an exception to the rule, proceed as if your
molecule obeys the octet rule.
b) Example ICl3
METHOD 1
a. Total valence electrons c. # bonds = 32-28 = 2 BONDS

7 for I =7 2
7 per Cl x 3 =21
valence electrons 28

b. Total if happy d. 2 bonds for 3 Cl atoms, there are

8 for I = 8 not enough bonds!!!!!!
8 for Cl x 3 = 24
Electrons to be happy = 32
5
AP Notes = bonding chapter 8 G. Hunt

METHOD 2 FOR DOMAINS 24/2 = 12 – 9 = 3 DOMAINS MUST HAVE 2 BONDS AND A LONE PAIR
OF ELECTRONS

To write the Lewis structure for this compound, draw the structure with one bond to each
ligand ( ions or molecules that bind to central atom). Add any extra electrons to the central atom.

Draw the compound of ICl3

Practice
IF 2 -1

XeF4

F. Resonance= if a molecule has multiple bonds to a central atom (double or triple bonds etc), the
actual structure is a time average between the possible structures and is called resonance

CO3-2

4. Formal charge can only be determined after you have determined the Lewis Structure.

a) *******Formal charge is the difference between the number of valence

electrons of the free atom and the number of valence electrons assigned to the
atom in a molecule.*********

b) This is a computational device and is based on a localized electron (LE)

model and is not perfectly correct.

c) How to determine formal charge ####Learn This####

(1) Determine how many electrons an atom "owns" (free valence + # bonds (this
equals to1/2 shared electrons)

(2) Formal charge = # valence electrons - electrons owned.

(3) Example CO3-2

Carbon owns 4 electrons= Formal charge = 4 valence electrons - 4 bonds(or total 8 shared/2) = 0
Oxygen A has 6 valence electrons + 1 bond = 6 electrons - 7 electrons owned = -1
Oxygen B has same as A = -1
Oxygen C has 4 valence electrons and 2 bonds = 6 valence electrons - 6 electrons owned= 0

6
AP Notes = bonding chapter 8 G. Hunt
Total formal charge = -2
You try !
Assign the formal charges to each atom in the following resonance structures of CO
a) O = C = O b) O  C ─ O

Which would be more stable?

Draw all the resonance structures for (SCN) -1 and select the most stable structure

There are 3 theories = we learn two here well and another in chapter 9 called the MO Theory
F. ***********Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion Theory********** = VSEPR = assumes
that atoms will orient themselves so as to minimize electron pair repulsions around the central
atom.
1. Memorize the information handed to you##### You will need it####
Build some models with the atom model sets provided for you! Listen to the classical music and watch on your
ipod or IPAD the structures dancing before your eyes!!! ( do in class)

2. Each lone pair or bond around the central atom occupies a position in space.
a) The effect of the lone pair is to squeeze the bonded pairs closer together.
None bonding electrons take up more space than bonding electrons
b) Multiple bonds are counted as “one bonding pair”in the VSPER model
because the double bonds are constrained in space
c) Only concerned with the central atom!!!!
3. Shortcoming of VSEPR
a) Good job predicting compound with typical metal or non metal as a
central atom
b) Frequently incorrect if central atom is a transition metal

4. Examples

a) H2CO (formaldehyde)

b) IBr2 1

Worksheet with Resonance and Molecular Geometry