HBMT1103

Faculty of Education and Languages
HBMT1103
Introduction to Mathematics
Education
Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

HBMT1103
INTRODUCTION TO
MATHEMATICS
EDUCATION
Sharipah Ab Rahman
Nor Hawan Misran
Rubaidah Ismail
Murugiah Velayutham
Dr Yeoh Poh Choo

Project Directors: Prof Dato’ Dr Mansor Fadzil
Assoc Prof Dr Chung Han Tek
Open University Malaysia
Module Writers: Sharipah Ab Rahman

Nor Hawan Misran
Rubaidah Ismail
Murugiah Velayutham
Institut Perguruan Islam
Dr Yeoh Poh Choo

Institut Perguruan Pulau Pinang
Moderators: Prof Dr Abd Razak Habib

Assoc Prof Dr Lim Tick Meng
Developed by: Centre for Instructional Design and Technology

First Edition, September 2006

Second Edition, November 2011
Third Edition, April 2013 (rs)
Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM), April 2013, HBMT1103

All rights reserved. No part of this work may be reproduced in any form or by any means
without the written permission of the President, Open University Malaysia (OUM).

Table of Contents
Course Guide xi-xvi
Topic 1 Teacher and Mathematics Education 1

1.1 Meaning and Role of Mathematics 2
1.1.1 Definition of Mathematics 2
1.1.2 Role and Importance of Mathematics 4
1.2 Development of Mathematics Education in Malaysia 6
1.2.1 Development of the Primary School
Mathematics Curriculum 6
1.2.2 Development of the Secondary School
Mathematics Curriculum 11
1.2.3 Mathematics in Smart School 13
1.3 Influence of Other CountriesÊ Mathematics Curriculums
on The Malaysian Mathematics Curriculum 15
Summary 16
They Terms 17
Self-Test 17
Appendix 1.1 18
Appendix 1.2 20
Topic 2 Thnowledge in Mathematics 22

2.1 Types of Thnowledge 23
2.1.1 Concepts 24
2.1.2 Doing Mathematics 25
2.2 Computational Tools 27
2.2.1 Mental Computation 27
2.2.2 Estimation 32
2.2.3 Written Computation 36
2.2.4 Calculator 38
Summary 39
They Terms 40
Self-Test 40

iv TABLE OF CONTENTS
Topic 3 Teaching Mathematics 41

3.1 Cooperative Learning 42
3.1.3 Types of Cooperative Learning Groups 44
3.1.4 Elements of Cooperative Learning in Classroom 44
3.1.5 Teaching Mathematics in the Classroom
Using the Cooperative Learning Model 48
3.1.6 Benefits of Cooperative Learning 50
3.2 Questioning Method 51
3.2.1 Roles of Question 51
3.2.2 Cognitive Level of Mathematics Questions 52
3.2.3 Guidelines for Questioning in Teaching Mathematics 55
3.3 Discovery and Inquiry Methods 58
3.3.1 Discovery Method 58
3.3.2 Inquiry Method 58
3.3.3 Inquiry Discovery Method 59
3.4 Induction and Deduction Method 61
3.4.1 Induction Method 61
3.4.2 Deduction Method 63
Summary 64
They Terms 65
Self-Test 65
Topic 4 Teaching Approaches in Mathematics 66

4.1 Constructivist Approach 67
4.1.1 Definition of Constructivism 67
4.2 Advantages of Constructivism 71
4.3 Strategies for Implementing a Constructivist Lesson 74
4.4 Comparison of Learning through Two Approaches 77
4.4.1 Example of Constructivist Learning 78
4.4.2 Constructivist Learning Design 81
4.5 Contextual Approach 83
4.6 Contextual Learning Strategy 84
4.7 Problem-Based Learning 91
4.8 Mastery Learning 93
Summary 95
They Terms 96
Self-Test 96

TABLE OF CONTENTS v
Topic 5 Problem Solving 97

5.1 Mathematics and Problem Solving 98
5.1.1 Problem Solving and Problem-Solving Skills 99
5.1.2 PolyaÊs Model of Problem Solving 101
5.2 Teaching of Problem Solving 104
5.2.1 Strategies of Problem Solving In Mathematics 104
5.3 NewmanÊs Error Analysis 124
Summary 128
They Terms 128
Self-Test 128
Topic 6 Planning Mathematics Lessons 130

6.1 Planning of Mathematics Lessons 131
6.1.1 The Importance of Planning 131
6.1.2 Overall Planning 132
6.1.3 Other Important Planning Elements 133
6.1.4 Main Components of a Lesson Plan 133
6.2 Yearly Plan 134
6.2.1 Guidelines for Preparing a Yearly Plan 134
6.2.2 Semester Plan 137
6.3 Daily Lesson Plan 137
6.3.1 Elements of Lesson Plan 137
6.3.2 Example of a Daily Lesson Plan 139
Summary 140
They Terms 141
Self-Test 141
Topic 7 Theory and Practice of ICT in Primary Mathematics Education 142

7.1 Theory and Practice of ICT in Primary Mathematics
Education 143
7.1.1 Use of Computer Technology in School 143
7.1.2 Learning Theories Related to ICT 145
7.2 Innovative and Creative Use of ICT in Primary
Mathematics Education 146
7.3 Implications of the Internet in Primary Mathematics
Education 147
7.4 Electronic Resources in Primary Mathematics Education 148
7.4.1 Evaluating Web-Based Resources 149
7.4.2 Web-Based Resources for Primary Mathematics 150
Summary 153
They Terms 153
Self-Test 154

vi TABLE OF CONTENTS
Topic 8 ICT in Mathematics Instruction 155

8.1 Technology and Mathematics Instruction 156
8.1.1 Planning for the Use of Technology In
Mathematics Instruction 157
8.2 Thnowledge through Mathematical Investigations 158
8.2.1 GeometerÊs Sketchpad 159
8.2.2 Interpretation of Data 167
8.2.3 Internet in Education 169
Summary 171
They Terms 172
Self-Test 172
Topic 9 Remedial and Enrichment 173

9.1 Concept and Objectives of Remedial Programmes 174
9.1.1 Objectives of Remedial Activities 175
9.1.2 Factors that Affect Learning among Students 176
9.2 Identifying Remedial Students 177
9.3 Planning a Remedial Activity 181
9.3.1 Screening and Diagnostic Tests 182
9.3.2 Planning Remedial Activity 184
9.3.3 Evaluating Achievement 186
9.3.4 Making Decision 186
9.4 Concept and Objectives of Enrichment Programme 186
9.4.1 Objectives of Enrichment Programme 187
9.4.2 Principles in Conducting Enrichment Activities 188
9.5 Types of Enrichment Activities 189
9.6 Conducting Enrichment Activities 190
Summary 191
They Terms 192
Self-Test 192
Topic 10 Action Research in Mathematics 193

10.1 What is Action Research? 194
10.1.1 Definitions of Action Research 195
10.1.2 Aims of Action Research 197
10.1.3 Characteristics of Action Research 197
10.2 Development of Action Research 199
10.2.1 Historical Development 199
10.2.2 Culture of the Mathematics Classroom 200
10.2.3 Practice of Teaching and Learning Mathematics 201
10.2.4 Issues Related to Mathematics Instruction 202
10.2.5 Challenges in Conducting Action Research 203

TABLE OF CONTENTS vii
10.3 Implementing Action Research in a Classroom 205

10.3.1 Identify Your Concerns 206
10.3.2 Plan Your Actions 207
10.3.3 Implement Your Actions 209
10.3.4 Observe Effects of actions 210
10.3.5 Reflect on the Effects 211
10.4 Reflective Thinking in Action Research 212
10.5 Preparation of an Action Research Report 214
Summary 215
They Terms 215
Self-Test 216
Answers 217
References 240

viii TABLE OF CONTENTS

COURSE GUIDE

COURSE GUIDE xi
COURSE GUIDE DESCRIPTION

You must read this Course Guide carefully from the beginning to the end. It tells
you briefly what the course is about and how you can work your way through the
course material. It also suggests the amount of time you are likely to spend in order
to complete the course successfully. Please keep on referring to Course Guide as
you go through the course material as it will help you to clarify important study
components or points that you might miss or overlook.
INTRODUCTION
HBMT1103 Introduction to Mathematics Education is one of the courses offered
by Faculty of Education and Languages at Open University Malaysia (OUM). This
course is worth 3 credit hours and should be covered over 8 to 15 weeks.
COURSE AUDIENCE
This is a core course which is compulsory for all learners registered for Bachelor
of Teaching (Mathematics Education) with Honours. Before you begin the course,
please read through the course content, the requirements and how the course is
conducted. You have to read the course guide carefully from the beginning to the
end.
As an open and distance learner, you should be acquainted with learning

independently and being able to optimise the learning modes and environment
available to you. Before you begin this course, please confirm the course material,
the course requirements and how the course is conducted.
STUDY SCHEDULE
It is a standard OUM practice that learners accumulate 40 study hours for every
credit hour. As such, for a three-credit hour course, you are expected to spend 120
study hours. Table 1 gives an estimation of how the 120 study hours could be
accumulated.

xii COURSE GUIDE
Table 1: Estimation of Time Accumulation of Study Hours
Study Activities Hours

Reading the module and completing the exercise 60
Attending 3 to 5 tutorials 10
Engage in online discussion 15
Completing one (1) assignment 20
Revision 15
TOTAL STUDY HOURS 120
COURSE OUTCOMES
By the end of this course, you should be able to:
1. Explain the development of the mathematics curriculum in Malaysia;
2. Use computational tools to gain knowledge in mathematics classroom;
3. Plan and implement teaching and learning activities using appropriate
types of methods and approaches in teaching;
4. State the importance of lesson planning and the main components of a
lesson plan;
5. Prepare a yearly plan and daily lesson plan for teaching mathematics;
6. Differentiate the various problem-solving strategies used in solving
problems;
7. Integrate various resources such as interactive multimedia, the Internet,
calculator, graphic calculator and GeometerÊs Sketchpad to enhance
teaching and learning process in the classrooms;
8. Plan suitable activities for remedial and enrichment programme; and
9. Implement action research in the classroom.

COURSE GUIDE xiii
COURSE SYNOPSIS
The aim of teaching mathematics is to build up the mathematical power among
students. They are encouraged to think mathematically. The exposure to the
wonders of mathematics will make the students appreciate its beauty and utility.
Teaching mathematics is a complex endeavour and there is no one effective method
that can be prescribed for all students at any one time.
Various approaches, strategies and techniques in mathematics which are proven to

be effective need to be practised by teachers in delivering their teaching and
learning sessions. The constructivist view focuses on the importance of students
building their own scheme of knowledge into existing internal structures. In
cooperative learning methods and techniques, teachers take on the additional role
of facilitators by orchestrating the lessons to get the students to be actively involved
in the learning process. Constructivist and contextual learning approach promotes
learning in a meaningful way. A well-blended lesson will provide maximum
advantage for students to make up their concepts and acquire skills in an integrated
and systematic way.
Topic 1 will introduce the meaning and roles of mathematics, and the importance
of mathematics in our daily life including in science and technology. It also
describes the development of the mathematics curriculum in Malaysia and the
influence of other countriesÊ curriculums on the Malaysian mathematics education
curriculum.
Topic 2 will determine types of knowledge in mathematics. i.e. the concept,

algorithm, and „doing mathematics‰. It will also discuss the computational tools
such as mental computation, estimation and written computations. In addition, this
module also discusses the important and the purpose of abacus, calculators, base-
10 blocks, and Cuisenaire rod in the teaching and learning process.
Topic 3 will discuss the important approaches and techniques in teaching

mathematics such as inquiry discovery method, inductive and deductive method,
cooperative learning and questioning method.
Topic 4 will describe the approaches of teaching mathematics such as

constructivist approach, contextual learning, problem-based learning and mastery
learning. You can see by following this module step by step. It will help you to
recognise the main characteristics of these approaches.
Topic 5 will help you to understand the meaning and types of problem solving in
mathematics. It will also discuss problem-solving models and general methods
used in problem solving.

xiv COURSE GUIDE
Topic 6 will describe the main component of a scheme of work, i.e. yearly or
semester plan, weekly plan, and daily lesson plan. It will also guide you to prepare
a good scheme work so as to carry out teaching accordingly and effectively in the
classroom.
Topic 7 will describe the theory and practice of ICT, innovative and creative use
of ICT, implications of the Internet and electronic resources in primary
mathematics education.
Topic 8 will allow you to be familiarised with the knowledge through

mathematical investigations such as graphic calculator and GeometerÊs
Sketchpad. It will also look into the applicaion software and support materials, and
the importance of the Internet in education.
Topic 9 will help you to understand the concept and objectives of remedial and
enrichment programmes in mathematics. By following this module step by step,
you will be guided to conduct remedial and enrichment activities in mathematics.
Topic 10 will provide you with some important pointers that will help you to
understand the concept, definition, characteristics, and principle of action research
in mathematics. Models of action research are also shared in this topic so as to help
you in preparing an action research in the process of teaching and learning of
mathematics.
TEXT ARRANGEMENT GUIDE

Before you go through this module, it is important that you note the text
arrangement. Understanding the text arrangement will help you to organise your
study of this course in a more objective and effective way. Generally, the text
arrangement for each topic is as follows:
Learning Outcomes: This section refers to what you should achieve after you have
completely covered a topic. As you go through each topic, you should frequently
refer to these learning outcomes. By doing this, you can continuously gauge your
understanding of the topic.
Self-Check: This component of the module is inserted at strategic locations

throughout the module. It may be inserted after one sub-section or a few sub-
sections. It usually comes in the form of a question. When you come across this
component, try to reflect on what you have already learnt thus far. By attempting
to answer the question, you should be able to gauge how well you have

COURSE GUIDE xv
understood the sub-section(s). Most of the time, the answers to the questions can
be found directly from the module itself.
Activity: Like Self-Check, the Activity component is also placed at various

locations or junctures throughout the module. This component may require you to
solve questions, explore short case studies, or conduct an observation or research.
It may even require you to evaluate a given scenario. When you come across an
Activity, you should try to reflect on what you have gathered from the module and
apply it to real situations. You should, at the same time, engage yourself in higher
order thinking where you might be required to analyse, synthesise and evaluate
instead of only having to recall and define.
Summary: You will find this component at the end of each topic. This component
helps you to recap the whole topic. By going through the summary, you should
be able to gauge your knowledge retention level. Should you find points in the
summary that you do not fully understand, it would be a good idea for you to
revisit the details in the module.
They Terms: This component can be found at the end of each topic. You should go
through this component to remind yourself of important terms or jargon used
throughout the module. Should you find terms here that you are not able to explain,
you should look for the terms in the module.
References: The References section is where a list of relevant and useful

textbooks, journals, articles, electronic contents or sources can be found. The list
can appear in a few locations such as in the Course Guide (at the References
section), at the end of every topic or at the back of the module. You are encouraged
to read or refer to the suggested sources to obtain the additional information needed
and to enhance your overall understanding of the course.
PRIOR KNOWLEDGE
No prior knowledge required.
ASSESSMENT METHOD
Please refer myINSPIRE.

xvi COURSE GUIDE
REFERENCES
Baroody, A. J. (1998). Fostering childrenÊs mathematical power: An investigative
approach to k-8 mathematics instruction . Mahwah, N.J: Erlbaum Associates.
Booker, G., Bond, D. L., & Swan, P. (2004). Teaching primary mathematics (3rd
ed.). Sydney, Australia: Pearson Education Australia.
Bottle, G. (2005). Teaching mathematics in the primary school. London:
Continuum.
Cathcart, W. G., Pothier, Y. M., Vance, J. H., & Bezuk, N. S. (2006). Learning
mathematics in elementary and middle school: A learner centered approach.
(4th ed.). New Jersey: Pearson Education.
Fraenkel, J. R., & Wallen, N. E. (2010). How to design and evaluate research in
education (7th ed.). New York, NY: McGraw-Hill.
Haylock, D. (2006). Mathematics explained for primary teachers . London: Sage.
Musser, G. L., Burger, W. F., & Peterson, B. E. (2006). Mathematics for elementary
teachers: A contemporary approach (7th ed.). New Jersey: John Wiley and
Sons.
Reys, R. E., Lindquist, M. M., Lambdin, D. V., Smith, N. L., & Suydam, M. N.
(2001). Helping children learn mathematics . New Jersey: John Wiley & Sons.
Troutman, A. P., & Lichtenberg, B. Th. (2003). Mathematics. A good beginning .
Belmont, CA: Thomson Learning Inc.
TAN SRI DR ABDULLAH SANUSI (TSDAS)

DIGITAL LIBRARY
The TSDAS Digital Library has a wide range of print and online resources for the
use of its learners. This comprehensive digital library, which is accessible through
the OUM portal, provides access to more than 30 online databases comprising e-
journals, e-theses, e-books and more. Examples of databases available are
EBSCOhost, ProQuest, SpringerLink, Books24x7, InfoSci Books, Emerald
Management Plus and Ebrary Electronic Books. As an OUM learner, you are
encouraged to make full use of the resources available through this library.

€ Teacher and
Mathematics
Education
€ INTRODUCTION
The word „mathematics‰ comes from the Greek „máthēma‰, which means
science, knowledge or learning, and „mathēmatikós‰, which means fond of
learning. Since Gauss called mathematics „the queen of the sciences‰,
mathematics knowledge has advanced to more complex levels and the meaning of
mathematics has been defined in various ways.
In the first part of this topic, you will study the different meanings of mathematics,
as well as the role and importance of mathematics in our lives. The latter part will
provide you with the development of the mathematics curriculum in primary and
secondary schools in Malaysia. You will see how our mathematics curriculum has
advanced to its present sophisticated level.

2 € TOPIC 1 TEACHER AND MATHEMATICS EDUCATION
The Ministry of Education plays an important role in ensuring the reformation of the
mathematics curriculum from time to time to fulfil the 6th challenge of Vision 2020,
which is to establish a scientific and progressive society. Mathematics teachers play
a crucial role in the teaching and learning of mathematics in the classroom. They should
master relevant skills such as new teaching approaches, methods and techniques in
order to achieve the goals of several education programmes such as ThBSR, LINUS,
ThSSR, ThBSM, ThSSM and the Smart School project.
1.1 MEANING AND ROLE OF MATHEMATICS

This section will define mathematics and discuss the role and importance of
mathematics in learning as well as in our daily lives.
1.1.1 Definition of Mathematics

What is mathematics? This is a simple question which we may find rather difficult
to answer.
Many people have tried to address this question, but each of them tends to form
different answers. Most of them often equate mathematics with arithmetic, which
is related to numbers; that is, how to add, subtract, multiply and divide with regard
to whole numbers, fractions, decimals and percentages. It is logical since
mathematics began from the counting of numbers. Ancient people recorded their
properties using pieces of wood, tree trunks or shells, and drew on cave walls using
symbols. During ancient times, about 5,000 years ago, people began using symbols
to represent numbers for counting purposes.
Since the early human civilisations, along with the development of numbers,
mathematics has been further developed by mathematicians and philosophers. At
that time, they began observing patterns and appearances of things surrounding
them, especially geometry, and many phenomena on earth and the universe.

TOPIC 1 TEACHER AND MATHEMATICS EDUCATION E 3
ACTIVITY 1.1
Mathematics can be defined in various ways as shown in Figure 1.1:
Figure 1.1: Meaning of mathematics
Would you like to understand further the above statements? As a mathematics

teacher, it is important for you to have an in-depth understanding of mathematics.
For further information, read Appendix 1.1 at the end of this topic.
SELF-CHECK 1.1

1.1.2 Role and Importance of Mathematics

Mathematics, as explained earlier, is closely related to our daily lives. Mathematics
is everywhere as it relates to a lot of other disciplines such as science, art, music
and economics. Mathematics also relates to things we do in our everyday life such
as shopping, buying food, travelling and planning our work. Can you imagine what
would happen if mathematics were absent in our lives?
The National Council of Teachers of Mathematics (NCTM) has classified

mathematics into two categories or concepts, namely, content standard and
thinking standard (Table 1.1).
Table 1.1: Mathematics (as classified by the NCTM)
Content Standard Thinking Standard

 Estimation  Problem Solving
 Number Sense  Communication
 Geometry and Spatial Sense  Reasoning
 Measurement  Connections
 Statistics and Probability
 Fractions and Decimals
 Patterns and Relationships
One of the reasons for students to attend schooling is to learn how to solve
problems. As illustrated above, problem solving is one of the main topics in our
current mathematics curriculum. This is to enable students to solve mathematical
problems. It is referred as an organised process to achieve the goal of a problem.
In mathematics, solving problems refers to activities involving problems such as

word problems, puzzles, quizzes, and the use of mathematical skills in any
situation. As a mathematics teacher, you should know how the process of solving
problems can enhance studentsÊ understanding of the mathematical concepts.
According to PolyaÊs model of problem solving, there are four main steps in
solving a problem.

Generally, people who learn mathematics and are trained to solve their problems
using the above steps will be able to explore, think through an issue, and reason
logically to solve both common and uncommon problems.
Mathematics plays an important role in the development of science and technology

such as in the development of information and communication technology (ICT).
Since the development of a nation depends very much on the advancement of
science and technology, mathematics plays a significant role in the developed
country. People who are trained with good mathematical skills tend to think and
reason systematically and rationally. This will help them to carry out complex tasks
efficiently and effectively in management and administration, economy, social
aspects, etc.
The progress of mathematics is also important in achieving Vision 2020. One of

the nine challenges of Vision 2020 emphasises the need to establish a scientific
and progressive society, a society that is innovative and forward looking, one that
is not only a consumer of technology but also a contributor to the scientific and
technological civilisation of the future (Ahmad Sarji, 1993). This sixth challenge
of Vision 2020 has brought immeasurable impact, not only on the development of
a new mathematics syllabus, but also on the future roles of mathematics teachers.
ACTIVITY 1.2
For more information, refer to Appendix 1.2 at the end of this topic.

1.2 DEVELOPMENT OF MATHEMATICS

EDUCATION IN MALAYSIA
The mathematics syllabus in Malaysia was not standardised until the Second World
War. At that time, each school could choose any syllabus and textbook which they
deemed suitable for their students. In 1956, the Razak Report proposed that there
should be a common curriculum for all school subjects, including mathematics.
The mathematics syllabus in primary schools was significantly improved when the
Special Project was implemented in 1970. At the same time, the government
introduced the Modern Mathematics syllabus in secondary schools. The
mathematics curriculum, whether in primary or secondary level, was revised
several times in order to improve the standard of the mathematics curriculum in
secondary schools so as to be consistent with the education reform worldwide.
1.2.1 Development of the Primary School

Mathematics Curriculum
We shall now look at the development of the primary school mathematics
curriculum in detail.
(a) Special Project

This project was set up by the Ministry of Education (MOE) in 1968 and
launched in 1970 as a pilot project in 30 schools around Thuala Lumpur. The
objective of this project was to improve the standard of mathematics and
science at the primary school level.
Lecturers or mathematics teachers trained abroad were involved in designing

materials for the teaching and learning of mathematics, especially in rural
schools. New approaches, strategies and methods of teaching and learning
mathematics, such as student-centred strategies and inquiry discovery
methods were introduced to increase studentsÊ interest in learning
mathematics. This project was financed by Yayasan Asia (Asia Foundation)
and members of the American Peace Corporation.
(b) Compensatory Project

„Compensatory education‰ was only materialised after the Second World
War. The imbalanced educational opportunities between the lower and upper
classes forced the government to plan compensatory education. This project
was launched in 1975 and completed in 1980 for the primary school level.

The project provided specially trained teachers in order to achieve its

objectives. Teaching and learning materials, methods and strategies were
planned. The scope of study covered pedagogy, socio-economic and political
elements. In addition, this project also included subsidies in the form of food,
facilities and financial assistance to students as well as their parents. The aim
was to narrow the gap of learning opportunities between the rich and the poor.
(c) InSPIRE Project

The Integrated System of Programmed Instruction for the Rural Environment
was initiated in 1977 by Universiti Sains Malaysia. The main objective of
(InSPIRE) this project was to improve the effectiveness of teaching and learning
activities in primary schools, including the remedial and enrichment activities
in mathematics for rural primary schools based on the ThBSR curriculum.
(d) ThBSR (1983)

Thurikulum Baru Sekolah Rendah (ThBSR) was piloted to 305 selected
primary schools in 1982. It was fully implemented in other primary schools in
1983. ThBSR for Mathematics was aimed at helping students acquire the basic
skills in solving mathematics related problems, and the ability to estimate,
calculate approximations, interpret graphs and tabulate numerical data. In order
to achieve these goals, students have to:
(i) Master the skills in writing numbers, counting and stating place value;
(ii) Acquire the basic skills in basic operations (addition, subtraction,
multiplication and division);
(iii) Master the ability in measuring weight, length and time, and specify the
face value of money;
(iv) Identify and state the shapes of two- and three-dimensional objects, and
recognise the properties of squares, rectangles, triangles, cubes,
cuboids, cylinders, spheres and pyramids;
(v) Solve problems involving numbers, measurement, money, weight,
distance, space and time;
(vi) Make estimation and approximation; and
(vii) Record and read groups of data in the form of a simple table and
graph.
The teaching guidebooks published by the MOE highlighted that the

knowledge and skills with regard to the operation of numbers should start

from the basics and be taught in sequences. Moreover, the teaching guide
outlined the suggested activities that could be used for teaching the
appropriate skills. The activities started with the introduction of the skills
and were followed by activities that were real and concrete. Concrete
experiences were emphasised and gradually expanded as the students
progressed to a higher level.
(e) ThBSR (1993)

The National Education Philosophy focused on the overall and integrated
development of individuals such as their cognitive, affective and
psychomotor domains. Therefore, Thurikulum Baru Sekolah Rendah was
changed to Thurikulum Bersepadu Sekolah Rendah in 1993.
The objective of this integrated curriculum was to foster honesty and

responsibility, and develop calculation skills. This integrated curriculum was
first implemented to Year 1 and Year 4 students. However, the syllabus of
the integrated curriculum, especially the mathematics curriculum, did not
differ much from the curriculum implemented in 1983.
(f) The Primary School Mathematics Syllabus (2003)

The Primary School Mathematics Syllabus was revised again in 2003. This
curriculum allowed primary school students to acquire and use basic
mathematical skills in daily situations. The proposed learning outcomes were
grouped into nine main topics as follows:
(i) Whole numbers and their operations;
(ii) Fractions and their operations;
(iii) Decimals and their operations;
(iv) Money;
(v) Measurements of lengths and weights;
(vi) Space;
(vii) Average;
(viii) Percentage; and
(ix) Graphs.
All the skills were arranged in sequence and should be taught from simple to
complex level of dificulty.

(g) LINUS in NThRAs

The Literacy and Numeracy Screening (LINUS) was a remedial programme
introduced in 2010 as sub National They Result Areas. It was designed to
ensure that students acquire basic literacy in Bahasa Malaysia and numeracy
skills at the end of three years of primary education. This programme was
targeted at students who had difficulties in reading, writing and arithmetic.
Literacy and numeracy are important because these are the basic skills needed
to prepare students for the next level of education.
The basic numeracy under the LINUS programme focused on studentsÊ

ability to solve basic mathematical problems in their daily lives. The
implementation of the LINUS programme involved the following six
strategies:
(i) Screening of students in Year 1, Year 2 and Year 3;
(ii) Developing materials;
(iii) Enhancing teachersÊ pedagogical skills;
(iv) Creating awareness programmes for schools and the community;
(v) Monitoring, supervising and evaluating; and
(vi) Establishing FasiLINUS.
The targets for 2010 to 2012 were to:

(i) Increase the numeracy skills from 77% in 2009 to 90% by end of 2010;
(ii) Achieve 95% mastery of numeracy skills by 2011; and
(iii) Achieve 100% mastery of numeracy skills by the end of 2012.
The screenings were held in March, June and September each year in order
to achieve the above targets.

There are some differences in the LINUS programme compared to previous

efforts (Table 1.2).
Table 1.2: Differences between the LINUS Programme and Previous Effort
LINUS Previous Efforts

 Focused on early intervention  Focused either only on literacy skills
from Year 1 to Year 3 for both (ThIA2M) or Year 4 to Year 6
literacy and numeracy skills (Protim)
 The ratio of remedial teacher to  Only one remedial teacher in a
student was 1:15 school
 Nurses were introduced in
schools to identify students who
required tailored special needs
programmes
(Ministry of Education Malaysia, 2011)
(h) ThSSR
Thurikulum Standard Sekolah Rendah (ThSSR) was implemented in 2011. It
was designed to ensure that the curriculum is holistic and stay relevant in
producing a well balanced human capital who can overcome current and future
challenges. ThSSR was developed based on the National Education Philosophy
and ThBSR principles such as integrated approach, holistic individual
development, lifelong learning and equal opportunity and quality education
for all students.
ThSSR is the transformation of curriculum from the existing curriculum,

which focuses on changes in forms, organisation, content, time, pedagogy,
assessment, material and curriculum management in school. Its curriculum is
developed based on content standard and learning standard (Table 1.3).
Table 1.3: Content Standard and Learning Standard
Content Standard Learning Standard

Refers to the specific statement about Refers to a set of learning quality
what the students must know in the criteria or indicator and achievement
aspects of knowledge, skills and that can be measured for each content
values standard
The main rationales of using standards in ThSSR, among others, are to ensure
that all students cross the standard based on school based assessments as well
as to overcome dropouts.

The ThSSR curriculum comprises core and elective subjects, which include
value add elements such as creativity and innovation, entrepreneurship, and
the ICT.
The documents of ThSSR are curriculum materials (standard curriculum

document) and supporting curriculum materials such as textbooks, teaching
modules and creativity guidebook (Bahagian Perkembangan Thurikulum,
Thementerian Pelajaran Malaysia, 2011).
SELF-CHECK 1.2
1.2.2 Development of the Secondary School

Mathematics Curriculum
Before the Second World War, mathematics taught in secondary schools focused
on three main components, namely, arithmetic, algebra and geometry. This
curriculum was known as Elementary Mathematics (Alternative A). After the
Second World War, the Cambridge Examination Syndicate offered a new
mathematics curriculum known as Elementary Mathematics (Alternative B) for the
Overseas School Certificate Examination (OSC). At the same time, Additional
Mathematics was also introduced. Both were taught in secondary schools until
Modern Mathematics was launched in the 1970Ês.
(a) ThLSM
Thurikulum Lama Sekolah Menengah (ThLSM) known as Modern
Mathematics was implemented as a pilot project in 26 selected schools in
Peninsular Malaysia in 1970. In 1969, the Mathematics Curriculum
Committee decided to use the School Mathematics Project (SMP) syllabus.
However, the textbooks from the SMP were modified and published with the
title „Mathematics for Schools in Malaysia‰. The difference between this and
the previous syllabus was not merely the content, but more on the teaching
strategies. Many new teaching strategies such as inquiry discovery methods,
student-centred and material-centred strategies were emphasised.
In 1972, the Mathematics Curriculum Committee decided to choose topics

from the School Mathematics Project (SMP) to be used in Upper Secondary

Schools. Since 1971, all syllabuses from Form 1 to Form 5 were combined
and known as the syllabus for Modern Mathematics Form 1 to Form 5.
(b) ThBSM (1989)

Thurikulum Baru Sekolah Menengah (ThBSM) was implemented in 1989. It
was a continuation of ThBSR (1983 – 1988). Based on the National Education
Philosophy, the syllabus incorporated the elements of intellectual, physical and
spiritual aspects. Specifically, during the process of teaching and learning,
students were expected to gain the knowledge and master the mathematical skills
related to numbers, shapes and relations. The aims of the secondary school
mathematics curriculum are as follows:
(i) To develop studentsÊ abilities in logical, analytical, systematic and
critical thinking;
(ii) To develop studentsÊ abilities in problem solving; and
(iii) To apply mathematical knowledge.
Similar to ThBSR, new strategies of teaching and learning mathematics such

as inquiry discovery, student-centred and material-centred strategies were
emphasised in all activities. Through this curriculum, students were expected
to be able to function effectively and responsibly in their daily lives as well
as to appreciate the importance and beauty of mathematics.
(c) ThBSM (1999)

ThBSM (1989) was revised in 1999 and the new curriculum was known as
Thurikulum Bersepadu Sekolah Menengah (ThBSM), which was an integrated
curriculum. The syllabus was divided into two levels, namely, Lower Secondary
Level (Forms 1 – 3) and Upper Secondary Level (Forms 4
– 5). Through this curriculum, students were expected to be ready to enter
any higher level of technical or non-technical fields. The content was divided
into three main components:
(i) Operations of numbers;
(ii) Shapes and measurements; and
(iii) Relations.
At the same time, the syllabus of ThBSM Additional Mathematics was also
revised by the curriculum committee.

(d) ThSSM
Thurikulum Standard Sekolah Menengah (ThSSM) will be implemented in
2014. There will be a transformation of curriculum for all current secondary
school subjects. The focus of the transformation, among others, will be:
(i) The shift of the evaluation process from examination based to holistic
education;
(ii) The development of human capital; and
(iii) All educators should understand clearly the transformation and
ensure that the implementation is done accordingly.
Some of the changes in the evaluation process are the abolishment of the
Penilaian Menengah Rendah (PMR) and that the Sijil Pelajaran Malaysia
(SPM) will be based on school assessment and central examination.
SELF-CHECK 1.3
1.2.3 Mathematics in Smart School

Mathematics is one of the four subjects introduced in smart schools. This
programme was announced by then Prime Minister, Tun Dr Mahathir Mohamed,
in August 1995. Initially, four schools were selected (two primary and two
secondary schools). By the year 2000, about 90 schools had participated in the
programme.
ACTIVITY 1.3

Figure 1.2 illustrates the smart school as one of the flagships of the Multimedia
Super Corridor.
Figure 1.2: The Smart School is one of the Seven Flagship Applications in the Multimedia
Super Corridor (MSC)
The main objective of the smart school is to incorporate the latest technology in
teaching and learning activities. In order to ensure that the programme is
successfully implemented, selected teachers have been trained on the pedagogy.
Teaching and learning materials are developed in the form of multimedia materials
and computers are used extensively.
The goals are listed as follows:

(a) To produce intelligent students with advanced and sophisticated
knowledge, especially in ICT;
(b) To produce technocrats of world standard and with good moral values; and
(c) To produce students who possess creative and competitive abilities and to
make Malaysia an excellent education centre of world standard.

1.3 INFLUENCE OF OTHER COUNTRIES’

MATHEMATICS CURRICULUMS ON THE
MALAYSIAN MATHEMATICS
CURRICULUM
Let us now explore how various other curriculums have influenced our
mathematics curriculum.
(a) Nuffield Mathematics Project (NMP)

The Nuffield Mathematics Project (NMP) introduced a new approach and
method of teaching and learning mathematics, especially for primary
schools in Britain. According to the theory, children aged between 6 and 12
learn better through interaction with concrete materials. Teachers are
encouraged to use new strategies such as student-centred and material-
centred strategies, inquiry discovery methods, as well as project works.
In project works, students are guided to solve daily problems in small groups.
The Special Project launched in 1970 adopted most of the ideas from the
NMP. The philosophy of the NMP can be summarised as follows:
„I listen, I forget. I see, I remember. I do, I understand.‰
(b) Scottish Mathematics Group (SMG)

Scottish Mathematics Group (SMG) was first tried out in some secondary
schools in Scotland. This project comprised a group of mathematics writers
who produced a series of nine volumes of secondary school textbooks known
as „Modern Mathematics for Schools‰. Those books were published between
1965 and 1969. New topics were included in the curriculum, such as sets,
number system, number bases, modular mathematics, transformation,
inequalities, linear programming and matrices. As discussed earlier,
„Modern Mathematics‰ for lower secondary schools adopted most of the
materials from the SMG. The Modern Mathematics Project for lower
secondary schools was launched in Malaysia in 1970.
(c) School Mathematics Project (SMP)

The School Mathematics Project (SMP) was set up in 1961 to enhance the
preparation of a more progressive mathematics for secondary schools in
Britain. The new integrated approach for teaching and learning mathematics
was introduced in the curriculum. For example, a set theory was used in
teaching algebra and geometry, and the Euclid geometry was used in
transformation. Although the aim of this project to improve the

standard of mathematics in secondary schools was achieved, the SMP

syllabus was not suitable for weak students.
(d) School Mathematics Study Group (SMSG)

The School Mathematics Study Group (SMSG) project was initiated by a
group of mathematicians, teachers, psychologists and inspectorates in the
United States of America in 1958. The objective of this project was to
improve the existing primary school mathematics syllabus, as well as to
compete with other advanced countries, especially Russia. The SMSG
incorporated some of the secondary school mathematics topics, such as
geometry, negative numbers, set theory and trigonometry. In addition,
mathematical languages in understanding mathematical concepts and
activity-based approach were emphasised. This project provided many useful
ideas for Malaysian educators in improving the standard of school
mathematics at that time.
SELF-CHECK 1.4
• Mathematics can be defined in many ways, that is, as a way of thinking, a study
of patterns and relationships, a language and science of patterns, a tool in daily
life, etc.
• Mathematics plays an important role in ensuring the well-being of an

individual, the progress of a society, and the development of a nation.
• Our mathematics curriculum has been changed from time to time in accordance
to the needs of the nation, as well as to capture reforms of the mathematics
curriculum from other countries.
• The advancement in the mathematics curriculum also ensures the achievement

of Vision 2020.
• The latest changes in the teaching and learning of mathematics are the
implementation of LINUS, ThSSR and ThSSM.

Compensatory project ThSSR

InSPIRE project LINUS
ThBSM Modern mathematics
ThLSM NCTM
ThSSM Special project
1. What is the meaning of „integrated‰ in the Malaysian secondary school

mathematics curriculum?
2. What is the aim of the primary school mathematics curriculum?
3. Why has the Malaysian mathematics curriculum been changed many

times?
4. Explain how advancement in the mathematics curriculum can help in

achieving Vision 2020.

APPENDIX 1.1
Mathematics as a Language
Mathematics as a language is something we seldom teach explicitly. Students
pick it up without even thinking about it much. But this seems to be the really
important aspect of mathematics. When lack of mathematical education stands
in someone's way, whether they want to learn more physics, or electronics, or
economics, or basic statistics, it is almost never the ability to do calculations
that is the stumbling block. When someone picks up a book on, say,
thermodynamics, and realises that they do not know enough mathematics to
read it, it is not because reading the book involves doing a lot of calculations.
What one needs are the fundamental concepts and the ability to follow
mathematical reasoning. Now, it is important to realise here that the ability to
follow mathematical reasoning is not all that far removed from the ability to
calculate. Simply knowing what all the symbols in an equation mean for some
reason just is not enough to understand a book with lots of equations in it, just
as simply knowing the vocabulary of a foreign language is not enough to be
able to read books in that language. To some extent, one has to be able to follow
the derivations given in a mathematically oriented book in order to be able to
understand what is being said.
Mathematics as a Science
It is a very difficult idea for most students to understand that mathematics does
not consist simply of techniques, but that there is a subject matter to mathematics,
just as much as there is to physics or astronomy. Mathematicians are not people
who devote their lives to doing calculations. Mathematicians are, in fact, people
who devote their lives not to solving equations, but to trying to find the answers
to unanswered questions. These questions are just as legitimate as the ones that
physicists or biologists do research on.
Mathematics as a Way of Thinking
The process of learning mathematics necessarily involves learning certain ways of
thinking, and most people find it plausible that learning the kind of thinking one
does in mathematics has value outside the realm of mathematics. In any case, this
kind of thinking is certainly indispensable in order to be able to use mathematics
as a useful tool, and is closely related to the types of thinking involved in the other
physical sciences. Seeing connections is a big part of mathematical problem solving
and theorem proving. When you are trying to solve a problem or prove a theorem,
it is as if you see every formula, fact, or whatever, surrounded by lots of links to
other facts. One thing that is certainly important in mathematical thinking is the
ability to look beyond content and see the underlying logical structure, and to
realise when two situations which seem, on the basis of their surface content, very
dissimilar, are actually identical when one looks at the logical structure.

Mathematics as the Art of Calculation

This is how most of the world, and most mathematics students, see mathematics.
In this view, mathematics consists of techniques for getting answers to quantitative
problems. This is in fact a very important part of mathematics. Calculation is at
the very root of mathematics. One obtains a powerful new insight into a
mathematical theory when one sees how it relates to concrete calculations. And to
some extent, a mathematical theory which cannot prove its value in terms of
concrete calculations is not likely to stand the test of time.
Mathematics as a Language and Science of Patterns
As a language of patterns, mathematics is a means for describing the world in which
we live. In its symbols and vocabulary, the language of mathematics is a universal
means of communication about relationships and patterns. As a science of patterns,
mathematics is a mode of inquiry that reveals fundamental understanding about
order in our world. This mode of inquiry relies on logic and employs observation,
simulation, and experimentation as means of challenging and extending our current
understanding.
Mathematics as a Study of Patterns and Relationships
Patterns are things that repeat; relationships are things that are connected by some
kind of reason. They are important because they help us understand the underlying
structure of things; they help us feel confident and capable of knowing what will
come next, even when we cannot see it yet. Patterns and relationships are found in
music, art, and clothing, as well as in other aspects of math such as counting and
geometry. Understanding patterns and relationships means understanding rhythm
and repetition as well as ordering from shortest to longest, smallest to largest,
sorting, and categorising.
Mathematics as a Tool or an Instrument
Although you are not a mathematician, you still use mathematics in your daily
life. You can use mathematics to solve abstract problems in the mathematical
problems itself, and practical problems in your daily activities such as working,
business, travels, buying things, education, and so on. For example, the
development of your analytical reasoning skills in mathematics will enable
you to become a more effective problem solver in all areas of your life, not only
in mathematics.
Source:
Lee Lady. (1996). What is mathematics? Retrieved from
http://www/math.hawai.edu/~lee/ education/whatÊs.html

APPENDIX 1.2
Mathematics as problem solving

Although the definition of problem solving may differ to that of the NCTMÊs
(1992), it, nevertheless, became a significant element to be emphasised in the
teaching and learning of mathematics. Teachers are expected to intentionally
teach students the heuristics of problem solving. Although teachers are free to
choose the strategy suitable for their students, they are encouraged to follow
those recommended by Polya (1974). Teachers are also encouraged to simulate
mathematical problems based on their daily experiences. More specifically,
teachers are expected to provide varied experiences so that students can work
individually or in groups in tackling mathematical problems. The curriculum
places heavy emphasis on relationships between mathematics and real life
problems. Problem solving in real contexts is considered essential in helping
students appreciate mathematics. In short, problem solving becomes the focus
in the curriculum.
Mathematics as communication
The curriculum clearly states that one of the objectives in learning
mathematics is to acquire the ability to communicate ideas through the use of
mathematical symbols or ideas. An essential part of the curriculum is to help
students attain the ability to comprehend mathematical statements
encountered, such as in the mass media. For example, students are expected to
be able to interpret the statistics used in various reports they encounter in the
mass media. In mathematics lessons, students are encouraged to work in
groups on certain projects or problems.
Mathematics as reasoning
The main goal clearly states that the students need to develop the ability to
think logically, systematically, creatively and critically. Although this is not
clearly stated in the syllabus, teacher guide book and further elaboration on the
syllabus specially encourage teachers to use approaches that can simulate
mathematical thinking or reasoning. The use of statistics to critically examine
information as part of the lesson, for example, can be said to be in
correspondence with the aim of promoting the above thinking abilities.

Mathematical connections
There is a strong emphasis in making connections within mathematics itself
and across other subjects. In fact, the title of the curriculum suggests that
making mathematical connections within itself or across other areas of study
is strongly suggested. Making the connections between mathematics studied in
class and material from everyday life or the environment is explicitly stated in
the documents accompanying the syllabus. Through the introduction of certain
facts concerning the historical development in mathematics, it is hoped that
students will be able to see that mathematics has its origin in many cultures
and is developed as a response to human needs that are both utilitarian and
aesthetic.
Concluding remarks
The total framework of the intended curriculum places a heavy emphasis on
problem solving, communications, reasoning and connections in mathematics.
Other than these, another important feature that is being emphasised is to
present mathematics as enjoyable, and yet challenging studentsÊ their
intellectual development. The relationship of mathematics to the real world is the
basic theme used in all the topics of the syllabus. The curriculum is also
responsive to the development of the information age. This is clearly seen in the
„smart schools‰ programme currently planned and implemented. It is often
argued that the mathematics curriculum should not only provide students with
the relevant knowledge to function well in society, but also prepare them for
further study at the higher education level. The present mathematics curriculum
provides a broad-based mathematical knowledge, essential for students of
higher learning in non-mathematically related areas of study. The secondary
school curriculum provides the Additional Mathematics course for students
who intend to embark on studies related to scientific and technological areas.
The content of this curriculum is said to be sufficient for further studies in
mathematics related areas. Studies to look into the adequacy of this curriculum
in providing students with the necessary mathematical skills and understanding
for advanced scientific and technological studies have yet to be conducted.
Source:
Noor Azlan Ahmad Zanzali. (n.d.). Designing the mathematics curriculum in
Malaysia: Making mathematics more meaningful. Retrieved from
http://math.unipa.it/~ grim/Jzanzali.PDF

€ Thnowledge in
Mathematics
€ INTRODUCTION
Students build new knowledge through engagements with mathematical situations.
Mathematics has several types of knowledge, such as concepts algorithms.
Computational skill is critical for learners to be successful in learning mathematics.
Students need to be efficient and accurate in performing basic computation with
whole numbers. Furthermore, students must learn to use an algorithm for
computation with multi-digit numbers as it is an important part of developing
mathematical proficiency. Computational tools have always been used by students,
including mental computation, estimation, written computation, abacuses,
calculators, base-10 blocks and Cuisenaire rods.

TOPIC 2 KNOWLEDGE IN MATHEMATICS E 23
2.1 TYPES OF KNOWLEDGE

According to the National Research Council (2001), there are five strands of
mathematics proficiency (see Figure 2.1).
Figure 2.1: Five strands of mathematics proficiency
These five strands are interwoven and interdependent in the development of

mathematical proficiency. The following section explains what learning
mathematical concepts and doing mathematics involves.
ACTIVITY 2.1

24 € TOPIC 2 KNOWLEDGE IN MATHEMATICS
2.1.1 Concepts
Let us look at three mathematical concepts .
(a) Learning in the Mathematics Classroom

In many countries, students actively participate in the development of the
concepts they are studying. At each grade level, teachers will pose problems
and help students go through the development of major concepts and
principles. Teachers play the role as facilitators to faciltate the process of
teaching and learning mathematics.
The teacherÊs role shifts from being a source of new knowledge to one who
structures learning situations, effectively guides and assesses students, and
works alongside students as they learn. On the other hand, students build new
knowledge through engagements with mathematical situations. Teachers and
students work hand in hand; teachers observe, guide, question and assess
while students actively participate in the learning activities.
Problems and tasks play a central role in mathematics programmes. Students

are required to help in the construction of mathematics education.
Instructional activities in the classroom pivot around problems or statements
of situations that promote the learning of a concept. Such problems can and
should vary greatly in their nature, because students vary greatly in their
backgrounds, knowledge and experiences.
When students construct their knowledge, they have the opportunity for
social interaction with others as part of the problem solving activity.
Throughout these activities, the focus is on students to sharpen their problem-
solving abilities as well as their abilities to reason, communicate and connect
ideas, and shift among representations of mathematical concepts and ideas.
(b) Algorithms
Algorithms provide quick and efficient means for solving problems. In
general, an algorithm is a strategy for calculating a particular value.
Algorithms also describe processes for generating objects, like a fractal. The
fractal is the result of continually repeating a recursively defined algorithm.
Since mathematics is full of algorithms, students should experience using and

creating algorithms. They learn about algorithms in the earliest grades and,
without realising it, they frequently create algorithms. When students solve
similar problems frequently, they tend to modify a formula so that

they can use it in new situations. This is when they are actually developing
algorithms which help them to own the process of problem solving.
(c) Estimation and Algorithms

Estimation and algorithms have always been part of the mathematics
curricula. Students will have a better understanding if they use algorithms
they have developed themselves. Such algorithms will make more sense to
them and they will be less reliant on memorising formulas because they
will know how to think through the problems. Some of the algorithms
derived by the students are more efficient than others. The less efficient
ways of arriving at answers are still better than memorising formulas
without understanding.
Error analysis is a routine task for all types of problem-solving activities, not
only in basic computation. The teacher plays a role in helping students
identify, analyse and correct their errors. This student-driven analysis
encourages students to reflect on and analyse their computations and the
validity of the results. One of the tools that is particularly effective for
student-driven error analysis is estimation. Estimation is the strategy of
proposing an approximate answer to determine a range within which the
solution might fall. Estimation can be done on a daily basis in the classroom.
2.1.2 Doing Mathematics

What is the meaning of doing mathematics? What processes do we use as we do
and learn mathematics? What abilities do we want our students to develop as they
progress through primary and secondary schools?
There are five mathematical processes, which are:

(a) Problem solving;
(b) Reasoning and proof;
(c) Communication;
(d) Connection; and
(e) Representation.
Problem solving is the key process in doing mathematics. Reasoning and proof
represent another way we do and make sense of mathematics. Being able to
effectively communicate about mathematics such as sharing ideas, listening
carefully and comprehending information is essential to learning mathematics.

StudentsÊ understanding will be enhanced when they make connections within

mathematics problems and to the world around them. Mathematical
representations communicate ideas and concepts and provide a framework for
justification.
When we think about doing mathematics, among the first things that come to our
mind is a person working to solve a problem and find an answer to a particular
question. Indeed, problem solving is the main activity of doing mathematics. There
are many types of mathematical problems and the strategies used to solve them
depend on the personÊs problem solving skills. Mathematical instructional
programmes enable students to build new mathematical knowledge through
problem solving.
Mathematical reasoning and proof are mathematical activities. Reasoning and

justification should be part of learning mathematics. Making sense of the world
around us is empowering and mathematical reasoning is a key part of this process.
Thus, mathematics teachers need to be proactive in taking steps towards acheving
quality teaching as they are the ones who model doing mathematics and encourage
students to develop effective ways of doing mathematics. Developing
mathematical “habits of mind” is an important part of learning mathematics
(Cuoco, Goldenberg & Mark, 1996).
Students organise and consolidate their mathematical thinking through

communications. They communicate their mathematical thinking coherently and
clearly to their peers, teachers and other people around them. While doing
mathematics, students analyse and evaluate not only their own mathematical
thinking strategies but also of others. They also use the language of mathematics
to express mathematical ideas.
In doing mathematics, students recognise and use connections among

mathematical ideas. They understand how mathematical ideas interconnect and
build on one another to produce a coherent whole. They also recognise and apply
mathematics in contexts outside the mathematics itself.
Students create and use representations to organise, record and communicate

mathematical ideas. They select, apply and translate among mathematical
representations to solve problems. Students use representations to model and
interpret physical, social and mathematical phenomena.

2.2 COMPUTATIONAL TOOLS

This section deals with the importance of mental computation, estimation, written
computation and the use of calculator in teaching and learning mathematics.
2.2.1 Mental Computation

What is mental mathematics? Mental mathematics skills can be developed and
practised in guided mini lessons. Mental mathematics involves calculation done in
mind, with little or no use of paper and pencil or calculator. It is an essential
component of an effective instruction at the junior level.
Guided mini lessons will give the opportunities for students to work mentally on
various calculations or problems. Students may be writing some numbers to keep
track, but the goal is to have them work with numbers in a flexible way, using
mental mathematics. As students develop their ability to use mental mathematics
calculations, they often use the big ideas in mathematics.
Example 1
12  13 = (6  13) + (6  13)
All 12 groups of 13 are accounted for and the sum of the products of the parts is
the same.
(Students work through problems to construct the big idea that numbers can be
broken up into parts and multiplied, and the products of the parts can then be
added together to get the total product that is the distributive property.) Teachers
can encourage students to explore the essential structures of mathematics in this
way by working with related strings of calculations in mini lessons.
(a) A Mental Mathematics Mini Lesson to Develop the Distributive Property

 Most students know the mental answer for 5  6
 30  6 is similar to 3  6 = 18 (but 10 times bigger)
 35  6 (students will struggle to answer this)
 Most students double 35 to get 70 and then add that three times (35  6
is the same as 70  3)

(i) Shorter way

Add the products of the first calculations in the string, 30 and 180
(ii) Try mental mini lesson for:

 27
 40  7
 42  7
Mental mathematics is also sometimes used by students to communicate their

thinking or to explain how they solved a problem. The following is an example
of how some students in a class explain how they estimated the value to the
rest of the class. The question was: how many bags of marbles would probably
be in the jar by doubling the value mentally? „I doubled 23 to make 46 and
doubled 46 to make 92 and doubled 92 to make 184, and then I knew the next
one would be too big because 184 is close to 200‰.
Students will use their mental mathematics skills to estimate and check the
reason for their answers.
Mental mathematics means doing mathematics in your head. The following

are the pre-requisites for doing mental computation.
(b) Brain Food

What are the better ways to feed your brain? Research indicates that just like
you need to exercise your body, you also need to exercise your mind – stretch
it whenever you can with mathematics stumpers, puzzles, Sudoku, anything
that gets you thinking!

A message from your brain⁄⁄..
(i) Addition Strategies for 69 + 27

• Make a ten
69 + 27 is the same as 70 + 26
• Add the parts
69 + 27 is the same as 69 + 20 + 7
• Use place-value
69 + 27 is the same as 60 + 20 + 9 + 7
• Rounding or adjusting
69 + 27 is the same as 69 + 30 – 3
ACTIVITY 2.2
(ii) Subtraction Strategies for 75 – 29

• Use a ten
75 – 29 is the same as 76 – 30
• Rounding or adjusting
75 – 29 is the same as 75 – 30 + 1
• Subtract the parts
75 – 29 is the same as 75 – 20 – 9
• Count on
75 – 29 is the same as 29 + 1+ 40 + 5 – 29

(iii) Multiplication Strategies for 8  15

• Double and halve
8  15 is the same as 4  30
• Use doubles
8  15 is the same as
678 678 678 678 678 678
15  15  15  15  15  15  15  15  30  30  30  30
678 678
 60  60  60  60
 120
that is double, double, double
• Multiply the parts
8  15 is the same as (8  10) + (8  5)
• Use factors
8  15 is the same as 8  5  3
328
(iv) Division Strategies for
4
• Halve (related to double)
328
is the same as having 328, then halving that and halving
4
again
• Divide the parts

328  320   8 
is the same as     
4  4   4 

(c) Mental Mathematics Strategies
People invent their own ways of doing simple arithmetic without the aid of
pencil and paper. The following mental arithmetic strategies are typical.
Other ways are possible as well.
(i) Do and undo thinking

Suppose you wanted to calculate 66 + 9. One way to do the addition is
to think:
 Â66 + 9 is 66 + 10 less 1Ê
66 + 10 is 76, then less 1 gives the answer 75

Suppose you wanted to do 66 + 8. One way to do the addition is to

think:
 Â66 + 8 is 66 + 10 less 2Ê
66 + 10 is 76, then less 2 gives the answer of 74.
Do and undo thinking is not restricted to addition.

Suppose you wanted to do 66 – 9. One way to do the subtraction is to
think:
 Â66 – 9 is 66 – 10 add 1Ê
66 – 10 is 56, then add 1 gives the answer 57.
Suppose you wanted to do 9 x 8. One way to do the multiplication is

to think:
 Â9  8 is 10  8 less 1  8Ê
10  8 is 80, then less 8 gives the answer of 72.
(ii) Equal addends thinking

Mentally subtracting 1 from 2000 and 1 from 1495. Why do you need to
subtract one from both 2000 and 1495? The subtraction question then
becomes 1999 – 1494. So, no „borrowing‰ is needed.
(iii) „Store Theeper‰ thinking

Subtraction can be done by adding. Suppose you wanted to do
123 – 81. You can think of this as 81+ ? = 123.
Add 19 to 81 to reach 100.

Add 23 to 100 to reach 123.
The answer to the subtraction is 19 + 23 = 42
Try these using do and undo thinking:

 146 + 19
 357 – 28
 18  25
 99  55
Try these using equal addends thinking:

 4000 – 2059
 8001 – 2378

Try these using store keeper thinking:

 320 – 127
 345 – 249
 69 + 24 (try rounding)
 92 – 57 (try counting on)
 86 – 47 (try breaking it up)
 25 + 56 (try breaking it up)
 40
5 (try an inverse)
 12.7
10 (move the decimal point)
 14  100 (what do you reckon?)

5
 (youÊre on your own now!)
13
 45 + 8 (you can do it!)
 52 – 24 (yes you can!)
 54
6 (you know you can!)
 13  60 (your brain loves you!)
2.2.2 Estimation
Estimation has long been thought to be the appropriate subject matter for primary
school students. Estimation helps students in familiar computations, in gaining
insights into numbers and operations and attaining better problem- solving skills
(Trafton, 1978). Facility with estimation demonstrates facility in computation, but
it also indicates a studentÊs ability to think quantitatively and reason numerically.

Estimating has always been part of mathematics since ancient times. Archimedes
22
estimated the value of n as  . In his development of calculus, Newton used
7
successive estimates to approximate the area under a curve. In modern times,
estimation plays a key role in our statistics driven society, where statisticians use
small samples to estimate the responses of larger populations. All of us use
estimation on a daily basis, whether or not we realise it. For example, when we
want to decide whether we have enough money to buy one or two burgers, or when
we do shopping without a calculator in hand.
Where should estimation take place in school mathematics programmes? Students

typically use calculators to do their computations. Besides, isnÊt mathematics
about exactness and precision? The answer is: not always. There are many
situations that require estimates over exact calculations, and students need to know
when approximate answers are acceptable and when precision is needed.
Estimation is helpful for:
(a) Arriving at a „ball park‰ figure when information is needed in a short
amount of time and a calculator is not available;
(b) Checking an intermediate value when a long string of calculations depend
on the accuracy of earlier calculations;
(c) Approximating a value when an exact value is possible but unknown (e.g.
the age of a tree ); and
(d) Deriving a value when an exact value is impossible (e.g. life of a light bulb)
(Usiskin, 1986).
ACTIVITY 2.3
Strategies for Estimating

People use many strategies when they do estimation. Some of these can be taught
in the classroom by working on examples. The most common estimation strategy
is rounding. Mentally calculating the sum of a string of numbers can be quite
difficult, but students can quickly estimate the sum by rounding to the nearest
whole number, or to the nearest hundred or thousand, depending on the problem.
For example, 447 + 109 + 593 might cause students to pause if they are asked to
answer quickly. By rounding to the nearest hundred, they get 400 + 100
+ 600 = 1100.

A second common strategy is called „front-end‰ estimating (Trafton, 1978),

which is derived from an addition algorithm. To add the numbers 7.49, 2.15 and
3.78, start with the front end, or the digits 7, 2, and 3. This sum is 12. Now, move
to the second digit in each number, 4 + 1 + 7 = 12, or notice simply that the sum of
second digits is greater than 10. So, 7.49 + 2.15 + 3.78 > 12 + 1 or 7.49 + 2.15 +
3.78 > 13.
Example 2
At every level of development, students should be convinced by the reasonableness

of the correct responses. Teachers who emphasise estimation can help students
establish that arithmetic „makes sense‰. From estimating solutions to
computations, the process involves addition and subtraction of rational numbers.
Students must first know something about the relative sizes of the numbers.
Decisions about the relative size of rational numbers can also be made on the basis
of rather informal methods.

Example 3
3 15
We can decide where  by checking the following
8 28
3 4 3 1
8  8 , that is 8 2
15 15 15 1
 , that is 
28 30 28 2
3 15
Therefore 
8 28
Students should be encouraged to use reasoning procedures which are useful in

the arithmetic class, and also practical in the real world.
Try to estimate the answer:

1 1
3 4
3 4
The answer must be greater than 7, because 3 + 4 = 7

1 1
It must be less than 8, because 3+4=7 and   1
3 4
By rounding addends, we can estimate the sum. An estimated sum is appropriate

when an exact sum is not necessary. To estimate the sum shown, round each
number to the nearest hundred and then add.
768 rounds to 800

1952 rounds to 2000
225 rounds to 200
+ 149 rounds to + 100
3100
The estimated sum of 3100 is close to the exact sum of 3094

4725
– 2879
1846
4725 rounds to 4700

– 2879 rounds to - 2900
1800
ACTIVITY 2.4
2.2.3 Written Computation

Common Errors in Written Subtraction
The diagnosis of errors in arithmetic is an essential part of evaluation in any
mathematics programme. Mathematics teachers have to be careful not just to score
written work but to analyse it as well. A teacher needs to observe what a student
does and does not do. Diagnosis should then be followed by corrective and
remedial instruction (Ashlock, 1986). Errors may sometimes be:
(a) The result of carelessness, as in writing down the wrong numbers or
performing the wrong operation;
(b) Based on an error in recalling basic number facts;
(c) A result of not knowing how to proceed and providing random responses;
and
(d) Caused by applying a defective algorithm.
A student who has misunderstood an algorithm or invented a defective

algorithm tends to systematically use the same procedure in all of his/her work.

Sometimes, it will yield correct answers. Given below are the written responses
for subtraction questions from different students. Try to analyse the procedures
used in order to develop an understanding of the common error patterns of the
students.
Here are three subtractions which Arshad has done.
73 812 605
– 47 – 2 17 – 78
34 661 673
(i) Arshad get the correct answer for any suggestion? Diagnose and explain the
error in ArshadÊs method, then try to answer these questions in the way that
Arshad probably would:
82 318
–46 – 1 73
(ii) What can a teacher do to help Arshad?
(iii) Responses:
• None of ArshadÊs responses were correct.
• Arshad subtracts the ones, the tens, the hundreds, etc one at a time, but he
always subtracts the smaller digit from the larger one even when the
smaller digit belongs to the upper number (minuend).
ArshadÂs method gives the correct answers to questions which do not
require decomposition or „borrowing‰.
• With this error pattern, Arshad would have answered the questions as
follows:
82 318
–46 – 1 73
44 265
(iv) A teacher can reinforce the concept of place value using teaching aids like
blocks and an abacus or using money as a concrete example. Help Arshad to
see subtraction also as „take away‰ and not only as a difference.

Ask Arshad to make a number such as 74 with Multi-base Arithmetic Blocks.

He will have 7 longs and 4 minis. Then, ask him to take away 38. He will be
able to take away the 30 (3 longs) but he (MAB) will not be able to take away
the 8. He must understand the need for decomposition or borrowing before
he can be expected to do it.
2.2.4 Calculator
Calculators are common electronic devices. Hembree and DessartÊs seminal meta-
analysis of calculator use and its effect on studentsÊ learning (Hembree & Dessart,
1986) led to widespread use of calculators for computation and problem solving at
most grade levels. Consequently, they found that calculator use in the mathematics
classroom had a positive effect on studentsÊ attitudes towards mathematics,
and their problem solving and computation skills.
Students who rely heavily on calculators do not acquire proficiency in basic

computation. If students use calculators, one might argue that many standard
algorithms, such as adding fractions or even multiplying polynomials, do not need
to be taught. How can calculators improve studentsÊ ability to solve mathematics
problems? The answer is when students are freed from tedious hand calculations,
they have more time to focus on other aspects of mathematical problems and to
connect concepts.
Calculators and technology can significantly improve mathematics

comprehension, particularly for students who have difficulties with routine
calculations. Mental computation and estimation continue to be the important skills
that students should learn, but calculators can be effectively employed for time
consuming or difficult calculations such as problem solving, statistics and
probability. Certain important conventions and basic skills cannot be learned with
a calculator, but some conventions such as order of operations can be reinforced
by using a calculator.
We all rely on our calculators for difficult and simple calculations. But, when
should we encourage and discourage calculator use in mathematics class?
Appropriate uses can be encouraged as students learn to use calculators. Doing
multidigit multiplication with manipulatives or with the standard algorithm helps
students understand how our base 10 system works. Once students have a firm
grasp of the base 10 system, they can check the reasonableness of calculator
answers. Calculators provide quick results, but only users can determine the
validity of the results. Validity is never automatic because a calculatorÊs answer is
only as good as a userÊs input. Hence, estimation skills for checking for calculator
answers will always be important.

The Defective Calculator

How would parents feel if teachers did not teach their children how to add, subtract,
multiply and divide and if teachers just let them use a calculator? They would most
probably say that it is a bad idea because children need to understand the
mathematics they use. With the calculator, they need only push buttons. When
these parents were asked to calculate 36 x 28 on paper and explain how it works,
they would soon realise that they do not understand how this algorithm works
anymore than they understand how a calculator works.
We ask them to solve the following problem using a calculator.

Multiply 16 and 24 ........... but without using the number 2 key!
Parents quickly realise that calculators can involve much more than just pushing
buttons to get answers.
ACTIVITY 2.5
• Classroom strategies and approaches to encourage informal written

computation are most effective in developing studentsÊ number sense and
computational ability and to analyse critical features of these approaches.
• Students should learn the standard algorithms for the four operations of
addition, subtraction, multiplication and division.
• Students should develop strategies for calculating mentally and then acquire
and understand, but not necessarily standard, written computation methods.

Algorithm Mathematics
Distributive property Mental mathematics
Estimation
1. Thnowledge in mathematics is divided into concepts, algorithms, doing

mathematics and computational tools. List the computational tools that are
being used by students.
1 5
2. Estimate the answer for 5 –4 using the technique of „relative size of
6 8
rational numbers‰. Describe the process.
3. Technology should be used to enhance studentsÊ understanding of

mathematical concepts. How should we use calculators to meet this
objective?
4. A child who invented a defective algorithm tends to use the same algorithm
related to a particular concept. For example, 24 + 16 = 13 is a defective
algorithm invented by Siti.
(a) How did Siti add the number to get the value 13?
(b) What is SitiÊs misconception in this defective algorithm?
(c) Suggest what a teacher can do to help Siti overcome the above
misconception.

€ Teaching
Mathematics
LEARNING OUTCOMES
€ INTRODUCTION
The method of teaching is the organisation and application of teaching techniques,
teaching aids and other supplementary materials. It includes a series of actions or
steps taken by a teacher to achieve certain teaching and learning objectives. There
are various types of teaching methods which have been designed by educational
experts, such as cooperative and collaborative learning, inquiry discovery method,
inductive and deductive methods, questioning method, demonstration, practical
work and so on. Some of them can be modified and used as teaching methods in
mathematics.
What is the difference between method and technique of teaching? Sometimes,

teachers use certain methods of teaching just for certain parts of their teaching. For
example, they use cooperative learning as their method of teaching or they may
use induction method as a way to derive the formula or principle during group
activities. At the same time, they will ask a series of questions (questioning
method) to develop interest and to motivate students in the learning activities or
develop critical thinking skills and inquiring attitudes.

42 € TOPIC 3 TEACHING MATHEMATICS
In this respect, „induction‰ and „questioning‰ are important elements in a

teaching method and are known as techniques of teaching. In short, teaching
technique is a subset of teaching method. This topic introduces four types of
teaching method that are appropriate in teaching mathematics, namely:
(a) Cooperative and collaborative learning;
(b) Questioning method;
(c) Inquiry discovery method; and
(d) Induction and deduction methods.
COOPERATIVE LEARNING
Cooperative learning involves students of different levels of ability and a variety
of learning activities to improve their understanding of a subject. Each member of
a group is responsible for his or her learning and also to help other group members
to learn.
3.1.1 Concept of Cooperative Learning

Active learning is a process in which students are actively engaged in the learning
process, rather than passively receiving information. Active learning includes
reading, writing, discussing, engaging in problem-solving activities, analysing,
synthesising and evaluating. Active learning is also known as cooperative learning.
It is an effective teaching strategy conducted for a small group in which students
with different levels of ability use a variety of learning activities to improve their
understanding of a subject. Each group member is responsible, not only to learn
what is being taught, but also to help other group members to learn as well.
Students have to work through the task given by the teacher until all group
members understand and have successfully completed the task.
3.1.2 Collaborative Learning Versus Cooperative

Learning
What is the difference between collaborative and cooperative learning? It is
acceptable if the terms „collaborative learning‰ and „cooperative learning‰ are
used interchangeably, because both methodologies involve a small groupÊs active
participation. Each of them is given a specific task to be completed through a
discovery-based learning approach. However, some researchers viewed
cooperative learning as the methodology of choice for the traditional approach,

TOPIC 3 TEACHING MATHEMATICS E 43
while collaborative learning is based on the social constructivistÊs view (i.e.

knowledge is a social construct).
Table 3.1: Cooperative Learning vs Collaborative Learning
Cooperative Learning Collaborative Learning

 Teacher is the centre of authority in  Teacher reduces his/her authority
the class and empowers the small groups
 Group tasks are usually more closed-  Group tasks are usually more open-
ended and often have specific ended and more complex
answers
Panitz (1996) stated that collaboration is a philosophy of interaction and personal

lifestyle in which individuals are responsible for their actions, including learning
and respecting the abilities and contributions of their peers. On the other hand,
cooperation is a structure of interaction designed to facilitate the accomplishment
of a specific end product or goal through people working together in groups.
The key is the strategies used in the classrooms that will create an environment to
engage students to work together successfully in a team with a positive self-
esteem, social relations, attitudes, and race relations. As a result, the students will
highly likely get a higher academic achievement. In short, collaborative learning is
based upon consensus building through cooperation by group members.
Why cooperative learning? Several studies showed that the use of cooperative
learning has a positive impact on studentsÊ learning process. Students prefer
strategies that promote active learning rather than traditional learning. The
theoretical basis for the cooperative learning is society requires its members to
exhibit cooperative behaviours. In the context of teaching and learning process,
cooperative learning is aimed to fill this social need especially between the
teachers and their students. The goal of using cooperative learning in the
classroom is to provide an environment in which students are given the
opportunities to express their own ideas, listen to others explain their thoughts,
and explore various strategies in solving problems (Hoffman, 2002).

3.1.3 Types of Cooperative Learning Groups

There are three types of cooperative learning groups as illustrated in
Figure 3.1.
Figure 3.1: Types of cooperative learning groups
3.1.4 Elements of Cooperative Learning in Classroom

Teachers are encouraged to study all related knowledge before they start using
cooperative learning strategy in the classroom. Figure 3.2 shows five important
elements of cooperative learning.


Figure 3.2: Five elements of cooperative learning

Source: http:/edtech.kennesaw.edu/intech/cooperativelearning.htm

SELF-CHECK 3.1
Table 3.2: Comparison between Cooperative Learning Class Instruction and Traditional
Whole Class Instruction
Cooperative Learning Class Traditional Whole Class

Dimension
Instruction Instruction
Classroom Arrangement
 StudentÊs desk
arrangement
 TeacherÊs table
location
Classroom Instruction
 How do students
interact and
communicate?
 Student or teacher
centred?
Classroom Talk
 How do students talk
and discuss with each
other?
 How do students ask
and answer questions?
Classroom Activity
 How do students
work: in groups, pairs
or individually?
Classroom Climate
 Formal or informal?
 Enjoyable or serious?
 Friendly or
competitive?

ACTIVITY 3.1
3.1.5 Teaching Mathematics in the Classroom Using

the Cooperative Learning Model
A good and effective model of teaching mathematics using cooperative learning
should include all the five elements or principles illustrated earlier. The following
examples of classroom activities using cooperative learning can be implemented
in mathematics lessons.
(a) Think-Pair-Share
Step 1: Students think silently about a question posed by the teacher.
Step 2: Students pair up and exchange thoughts.
Step 3: The pairs share their responses with other pairs, or other groups.
(b) Three-Step Interview

Step 1: Students interview their partners by clarifying questions or
problems.
Step 2: Partners reverse the roles.
Step 3: Pairs share their partnerÊs response with the group.
(c) Round-Robin Brainstorming

Step 1: Class is divided into small groups (4 to 6); choose a student to be a
scriber to write down information.
Step 2: A question with many answers are posed to the students. Give
time to think.
Step 3: Each group member responds in round-robin style. Group
members share responses with one another. The scriber will
record the answer.

(d) Three-Minute Review

Step 1: Teacher stops at any point of time during a lecture or discussion.
Step 2: Ask groups to review what has been taught in about three
minutes.
(e) Numbered Heads

Step 1: Divide the class into groups of 4.
Step 2: Each group member is given a number (1, 2, 3, 4).
Step 3: Teacher asks questions and group members work together to
answer.
Step 4: Teacher asks students with number Â3Ê (or Â1Ê, Â2Ê, Â4Ê) of each
group to answer.
(f) Group-Pair-Solo Activities

Step 1: Students do the activities in groups.
Step 2: Students do the activities in pairs.
Step 3: Students do the activities individually.
(Students can do more with peers than they can do alone)
(g) Cooperative Projects

Students are given the freedom to decide and design a group project.
(h) Jigsaw
Step 1: Different groups of students learn various concepts.
Step 2: Groups are reassembled so that each new member is an expert of
each concept.
(i) Problem Solving

Group members share knowledge to solve a problem.
ACTIVITY 3.2

3.1.6 Benefits of Cooperative Learning

Both students and teachers will get some benefits when this strategy is applied in
the classroom. Let us find out what the benefits are.
(a) Benefits to the Students

Several studies found that students in cooperative learning settings perform
better than students in either competitive or individualistic settings. They are
also able to do higher-level reasoning, generate new ideas and solutions more
frequently, and transfer the knowledge into other situations better.
In short, cooperative learning is beneficial to students in order to:

(i) Promote a better learning and academic achievement among high-
and low-achieving students;
(ii) Give positive effects on studentsÊ self-esteem, social relations,
attitudes, and race relations;
(iii) Increase studentsÊ retention as well as reduce mathematics anxiety;
(v) Enhance studentsÊ satisfaction with their learning experience; and
(vi) Help students develop skills in oral communication; and practise social
skills that will help them to succeed in real-life situations that require
group collaboration.
(b) Benefits to the Teachers

Teachers who adopt cooperative learning will:
(i) Collaborate more with professional groups/individuals;
(ii) Collaborate more with their peers;
(iii) Feel that their time spent in school is more effective; and
(iv) Interact in a more personalised manner with students in a small
group.
Furthermore, teachers may feel excited when their students have the freedom to
generate their own ideas and make their own decisions in group activities. They
may be surprised at how well their students perform in collaborative group settings.
Slowly, teachers may begin to feel that teaching and classroom management
become easier.
However, cooperative learning may have some potential problems, especially

related to studentsÊ attitudes. For example, some students may not want to work
with certain students or prefer to work individually rather than in a group. There

is also a tendency for some students not to contribute to group activities and will
not give their cooperation or play their parts within the group.
As teachers, how do you handle such situations?
3.2 QUESTIONING METHOD

A question is a sentence with an interrogative form or function. In classroom
settings, the teacherÊs questions are defined as instructional cues or stimuli that
convey to students the content or elements to be learned. In this respect, teachers
are encouraged to ask a series of questions which require students to respond and
teachers to react to the responses.
Questioning is one of the useful and effective methods that can be used in
teaching mathematics. This method is often used in almost all stages of teaching,
i.e. from the beginning until the end of a lesson.
3.2.1 Roles of Question

What are the purposes of questioning? The purposes of questioning in learning
mathematics are to:
(a) Evaluate studentsÊ preparation, check their homework, and recall the
concept or skill learned through set induction;
(b) Develop interest and motivate students to participate actively in their
learning activities;
(c) Develop critical thinking skills and inquiring attitudes;
(d) Help students revise what they have learned during mathematics lessons;
and
(e) Assess whether the instructional goals and objectives have been achieved.
Some researchers found that instruction which includes questioning during lessons
is more effective in producing better studentsÊ achievement than instruction
carried out without questioning the students. The students also perform better on
the test items previously asked as recitation questions than on items they have not
been exposed to before. In addition, oral questions given during recitations are
more effective in fostering learning than written questions.

3.2.2 Cognitive Level of Mathematics Questions

According to BloomÊs Taxonomy of School Learning, the cognitive levels of
questions in ascending order of cognition are:
 Thnowledge;
 Understanding;
 Application;
 Analysis;
 Synthesis; and
 Evaluation.
Here are some examples of primary school mathematics questions constructed

according to the cognitive levels of BloomÊs Taxonomy:
(a) Thnowledge
(i) How many sides does a rectangle have?
(ii) What is the formula of the area of a triangle?
(b) Understanding
(i) What is the perimeter of the rectangle? Use the formula: p = 2 (l + w).
(c) Application
(i) What is the length of AD, given the area of the triangle ABC is
16 cm2?

(ii) The price of a T-shirt after 40% discount is RM 32.00. What is the
normal price of the T-shirt?
(d) Analysis
(i) Which of the following amounts is the smallest?

A. 30% of RM 40.00
B. 25% of RM 50.00
C. 60% of RM 60.00
D. 70% of RM 80.00
(ii) Describe the differences between these types of triangle according to

their common characteristics:
Characteristic Equilateral Isosceles Scalene

Shape (draw)
Length of sides
Size of angles
(e) Synthesis
(i)
Perimeter is the distance around the outside edge of a figure. Find the
formula of perimeter.
Perimeter = + + +
= + + +
= 2( ) + 2( )
= 2( + )

(ii)
MON
TUE
WED
Represents 30 eggs
The pictograph shows the amount of eggs sold in three days. If the
total price is RM 39.60, find the price of an egg.
(f) Evaluation
1
(i) Prove that the formula of the area of a triangle (Area =  b h ) can
2
be used for any type of triangles.
(ii) What happens to the area of a square if the length increases two
times?
ACTIVITY 3.3

3.2.3 Guidelines for Questioning in Teaching

Mathematics
Questioning has always been used as an important technique in the mathematics
classroom. As mathematics teachers, it is crucial for you to equip yourself with the
skill of asking questions effectively and efficiently. The following are
recommendations on how to master the technique of questioning:
(a) Use Suitable Mathematics Language

Use mathematics language that is suitable to the studentsÊ level of
understanding to help them understand what is being asked by the teacher.
For example, when in introducing the concept of addition, the teacher may
use common words such as „and‰ and „makes‰ instead of „plus‰ and
„equals‰ (e.g. two apples and four apples make how many apples?).
(b) Use Effective and Efficient Questions

Questions should be accurate, brief, clear, short and consist only one concept
or one type of facts. If a question comprises several concepts, divide it into
several short questions and arrange it in hierarchy, from real to abstract
concepts or facts. Start with an easy question to motivate students to respond.
The teacher may write on the board or manila card, use transparencies slide
or powerpoint presentation when asking long or abstract questions.
(c) Construct Questions Based on StudentsÊ Ability and Achievement Level

Construct questions according to BloomÊs cognitive levels. Starts with lower
level questions before proceeding with the higher level ones based on
studentsÊ ability and achievement level.
The teacher may use questions that fall under knowledge, understanding and
application levels for low ability students. On the other hand, for the high
ability students, the teacher may want to ask questions that fall under analysis,
synthesis and evaluation levels. In addition, close-ended questions are
suitable for low ability students, while open-ended questions are more
suitable for high ability students.

(d) Teach Appropriate Strategy to Answer Questions

Students should be taught the strategy of answering questions especially
when it comes to problematic types of questions. Teachers should introduce
PolyaÊs model to solve mathematical problems that are appropriate to the
primary school level. The PolyaÊs model comprises the following four
stages:
(i) Understand the problem;
(ii) Plan the problem-solving strategy;
(iii) Implement the problem-solving strategy; and
(iv) Check the solution.
(e) Follow General Procedures and Principles of Questioning
(i) Wait Time

Wait time refers to the amount of time teachers allow to elapse after
they pose a question and before students begin to answer. Researchers
found that by increasing the wait time beyond three seconds, it is
positively related to the studentsÊ and teachersÊ outcomes (refer to
Attachment 1).
Attachment 1

(ii) Posing Questions

Start with posing the question to all students in the class. Theep three
seconds (or more) wait time before choosing a student to respond.
Respond to a studentÊs response immediately after he/she has respond,
or respond at once after certain number of students have given their
answers.
(iii) TeachersÊ Responses

Good responses by teachers will help students to understand the lesson
better. In addition, it will develop studentsÊ interest and motivate them
to participate actively in the learning activities. Teachers may use
positive words such as „very good‰, „good try‰,
„try again‰, „congratulations‰, „well done‰, „letÊs check the answer‰,
etc. There will be times when teachers need to ask questions based on the
studentsÊ responses.

3.3 DISCOVERY AND INQUIRY METHODS

Now, we will discuss further on discovery and inquiry methods.
3.3.1 Discovery Method

Discovery method is also known as inductive method or learner-centred
instruction. It is a teaching technique that encourages students to take a more active
role in their learning process by answering a series of questions or solving
problems designed to introduce a general concept (Mayer, 2003). In this respect,
teachers guide the studentsÊ thinking processes by posing a series of questions
whose answers would lead to the understanding of a concept. The discovery
method also refers to how much guidance teachers should give to their students in
the classroom activities. The levels of guidance in learning can be classified into
three levels:
(a) Pure Discovery

Students receive representative problems to solve with minimal guidance
from teachers.
(b) Guided Discovery

Students receive problems to solve, but teachers will provide hints and
guide them on how to solve the problems in order to keep them on track.
(c) Expository
The final answer or rule is presented to the students.
3.3.2 Inquiry Method

From a science perspective, inquiry oriented instruction engages students in the
investigative nature of science. Inquiry involves activities and skills that focus on
the active search for knowledge or understanding to satisfy a curiosity. Inquiry is
also central to mathematics because mathematics education today is a diverse
discipline that involves data, measurements and recognition of patterns. By doing
mathematics, it involves observation of patterns, testing of conjectures and
estimation of results. Thus, inquiry is an effective and efficient teaching method.

3.3.3 Inquiry Discovery Method

The inquiry discovery method is actually an integration of the inquiry method and
discovery method. This integrated method is suitable in teaching mathematics,
especially in discovering a formula, describing the characteristics of objects or
patterns, solving problems, analysing data, and so on.
Similar to inquiry and discovery methods, the inquiry discovery model covers
activities such as planning, investigating, analysing and discovering. Learning by
means of this method needs skills, such as making comparison and looking for
similar characteristics to formulate a certain generalisation (Mok, 2003). Mok
(2003) summarises the learning process by using the inquiry discovery method as
shown in Figure 3.3.
Figure 3.3: Learning process via the inquiry discovery method
ACTIVITY 3.4

Teaching Mathematics using the Inquiry Discovery Model

Many concepts in mathematics, laws, theorems and formulas can be discovered
and learned through the inquiry discovery method. For example, teachers can plan
a procedure which students can follow to construct a formula, investigate, collect
and analyse information, and so on.
Example 1: Find the Formula to Calculate Average
(a) Identify the research topic

(i) Each group of students is given about 30 marbles and 5 boxes.
(ii) They are also given the following table.
(iii) They are asked to put a certain number of marbles in each box as stated
in the table. Then, they have to make the number of marbles in each
box become equal. After several rounds, they are asked to construct the
formula of average.
Number of Number of Marbles in

Average Formula
Boxes Each Box
2 4,6
3 4, 8,6
4 5,2,6,3
4 3,6,6,5
5 2,5,3,4,6
(b) Plan strategy for solving the problem

Students are guided to solve the problem using the trial-error technique and
„equal distribution‰ process.
(c) Collect related information

Students are asked to study the pattern in the process of finding the
average.
(d) Study and analyse the information

Based on the activities above, students are guided to find the average by
using the method of addition and division.

Number of box = 2
Total number of marbles = 10
total number of marbles
Average =
number of groups
= 10 /2
=5
Repeat with other examples.
(e) Derive generalisation or conclusion

Finally, guide them to derive the formula to calculate the average:
ACTIVITY 3.5
3.4 INDUCTION AND DEDUCTION METHOD

We will discuss the induction and deduction methods in this sub-topic.
3.4.1 Induction Method

As illustrated earlier in Section 3.3.1, the induction method is also synonymous to
the discovery method. It is generally used to derive certain mathematical rules,
such as principles, formulas, theorems or laws. In the induction method, students
are asked to learn through mathematics examples related to these rules. By making
some comparisons and analyses, students are required to derive a generalisation as
shown in Figure 3.4.

Figure 3.4: Learning process via the induction method
The following examples illustrate the teaching and learning process using the
induction method.
Example 1

Example 2
In the traditional method, teachers write the mathematical laws on the white board,
give some examples and do the calculation with their students. After several
exercises, they hope that their students have successfully mastered the skill in
applying the mathematical laws.
ACTIVITY 3.6
3.4.2 Deduction Method

The deduction method is referred as a method in deriving a new mathematics
principle, formula, law, theorem or solution to problems using the existing
mathematics principles, formulas, laws or theorems. Students learn by using their
experiences and prior knowledge. This method is generally more complex than the
induction method as shown in Figure 3.5.
Figure 3.5: Teaching and learning processes using the deduction method

The following example illustrates the teaching and learning process using the
deduction method.
Example 3
Derive the formula of the area of a trapezium from the concept or formula of the
area of a rectangle:
1 1
Area of trapezium = 1 w  h(a  b)  (a  b)h
2 2
• In preparing a lesson, teachers should study the relevant syllabus in detail.
• Teachers have to master all concepts and skills to be taught.
• Teachers have to identify the appropriate teaching method to be used for a

particular concept or skill.

• The appropriate teaching method is important to help students achieve

learning objectives optimally.
• There are various teaching methods, other than the four methods described
in this topic.
• Mathematics teachers are encouraged to study other teaching methods or

techniques such as experiment, project, expository, etc.
Cooperative learning Induction method

Deduction method Inquiry method
Discovery method Questioning method
1. Describe the importance of teaching methods in mathematics.
2. What is the difference between induction and deduction methods in teaching

mathematics? Give some examples by deriving any formula, principle,
theorem or law using the deduction method.
3. Plan a group activity on how to derive the formula of the rectangle area using
the inquiry discovery method and other suitable techniques of teaching.

€ Teaching
Approaches in
Mathematics
€ INTRODUCTION
This topic will focus on approaches in teaching and learning mathematics, namely,
the constructivist approach, contextual approach, contextual learning strategy,
problem-based learning and mastery learning. The constructivist view focuses on
the importance of students building their own scheme of knowledge by integrating
new knowledge into existing internal structures. You will be exposed to the
characteristics of a constructivist classroom that differs vastly from the traditional
approach. Some strategies for implementing a constructivist lesson will also be
discussed. On the other hand, contextual approach, contextual learning strategy,
problem-based learning and mastery learning will promote learning in a
meaningful way. A well-blended lesson would provide maximum

TOPIC 4 TEACHING APPROACHES IN MATHEMATICS E 67
advantage for students to construct their concepts and acquire skills in an integrated
and systematic way. This type of learning will help students to make connections
between what they learn and how it will be used.
4.1 CONSTRUCTIVIST APPROACH

What is constructivism? Constructivists view learning as an active process in
which students actively construct knowledge as they try to comprehend the real
world. Each of us generates our own mental models or schemas through which we
make sense of our experiences. These mental models are constructed by our prior
knowledge, current mental structures and existing beliefs. Learning is simply the
process of adjusting our mental models to accommodate new experiences. In the
context of mathematics, students need to construct their own understanding of each
mathematical concept.
Constructivism has been described as consisting two hypotheses (see Figure 4.1)
Figure 4.1: Two hyphotheses of constructivism
4.1.1 Definition of Constructivism

Constructivism is one of the major learning theories that provides teachers with
insight concerning how students learn mathematics and guides them to use
instructional strategies that begin with students rather than with themselves (Van
de Walle, 2001). According to this theory, students must participate actively in the
process of understanding mathematical concepts.

68 € TOPIC 4 TEACHING APPROACHES IN MATHEMATICS
How many of the ideas you wrote down are consistent with the suggestion of
constructivism? As mathematics teachers, it is essential for you to understand and
apply constructivism in your classroom teaching. Thus, you need to know what
constructivism is all about.
(a) Constructivists Hold the Following Views

(i) The mind is seen as an inner representation of an outer reality.
(ii) Thnowledge resides in the mind; thus, learning results from a personal
interpretation of the world.
(iii) Thought is grounded in perception and bodily experience.
(iv) Meaning is internally constructed and developed on the basis of
experience.
(v) Meaning requires understanding wholes as well as parts.
(vi) Learning is the search for meaning.
Figure 4.2 shows the shift from passive to active teaching and learning.

Figure 4.2: Constructivism - shift to active teaching and learning
(b) Implications from the Constructivist Theory

(i) Student-centred teaching and learning.
(ii) Teachers as designers of learning materials have the opportunity to
prepare students for new knowledge constructed.
(iii) Teachers will recognise students’ prior knowledge and plan teaching
method based on this basic knowledge.
(iv) Prior knowledge resulted from activity and not from passive learning.
(v) Teachers as facilitators should help students to construct knowledge
and solve problem.

ACTIVITY 4.1
(c) Characteristics of Constructivist Learning Event

(i) Content is not specified beforehand, and must be constructed by
studentsÊ own knowledge. This knowledge must be integrated across
curriculum and relevant fields of expertise.
(ii) Content involves multi-sensory participation.
(iii) Students are presented with a specific problem to solve. The learning
should occur in realistic contexts.
(iv) Problem solving skills developed during the learning event is unique
to each student.
(v) Learning takes place through discovery, experience and modelling.
(vi) Students are actively involved, interact with the learning materials
and have control of learning.
(vii) Problems are solved holistically.
(viii) Students must set their own pace and be intrinsically motivated.
(ix) Communication among students is encouraged. Meaning is
negotiated from multiple perspectives.
(x) Teachers are active leaders and play the role of facilitators.
(xi) Teachers support students to construct conceptual and functional
schemas of the event.
(xii) Assessment becomes part of the learning process. Students are
evaluated universally and play a larger role in judging their own
progress.
(xiii) Failure means students need help.

The characteristics of the constructivist approach are illustrated in Figure 4.3.
Figure 4.3: Characteristics of the constructivist approach
4.2 ADVANTAGES OF CONSTRUCTIVISM

The advantages of the constructivism approach are given below and shown in
Figure 4.4.
(a) Meaningful learning

(i) Cross field or cross curricular integration.
(ii) Learning occurs in real life situations.
(b) Problem-Solving Skill

(i) Students are internally motivated to solve problems through
discovery and experience.
(ii) Students develop holistic problem-solving skills that can be
transferred to other situations.

(c) Motivated
Internal motivation leads to the development of long-term memory.
(d) Independent
(i) Students are in control of their own learning, that is, learning to
organise and manage themselves.
(ii) Students learn to accommodate various perspectives on an issue.
(e) Cooperative
(i) Social and communication skills are developed.
(ii) Requires teamwork or cooperation among students and teachers.
(f) Higher order thinking skill

(i) Higher cognitive levels such as analysis, synthesis and evaluation are
developed.
(ii) Reflective and metacognition abilities of students are developed.
(iii) Students use active mental processes to develop meaning and
knowledge.

Figure 4.4: Advantages of the constructivist approach
ACTIVITY 4.2

4.3 STRATEGIES FOR IMPLEMENTING A

CONSTRUCTIVIST LESSON
Yager (1991) had outlined the implementation of a constructivist lesson,
consisting of four steps:
These steps are further explained here.
(a) Starting the Lesson

(i) Observe the surroundings for points to question
(ii) Ask questions
(iii) Consider possible responses to questions
(iv) Note unexpected phenomena
(v) Identify situations in which studentsÊ perceptions vary
(b) Continuing the Lesson

(i) Engage in focused play
(ii) Brainstorm possible alternatives
(iii) Look for information
(iv) Experiment with materials
(v) Observe a specific phenomenon
(vi) Design a model
(vii) Collect and organise data
(viii) Employ problem-solving strategies
(ix) Select appropriate resources
(x) Students discuss solutions with others
(xi) Students design and conduct experiments
(xii) Students evaluate and debate choices

(xiii) Students identify risks and consequences

(xiv) Define parameters of an investigation
(c) Proposing Explanations and Solutions

(i) Communicate information and ideas
(ii) Construct and explain a model
(iii) Construct a new explanation
(iv) Review and critique solutions
(v) Utilise peer evaluation
(vi) Assemble appropriate closure
(vii) Integrate a solution with existing knowledge and experiences
(d) Taking Action

(i) Make decisions
(ii) Apply knowledge and skills
(iii) Transfer knowledge and skills
(iv) Share information and ideas
(v) Ask new questions
(vi) Develop products and promote ideas. Use models and ideas to elicit
discussions and acceptance by others.
Table 4.1 gives the checklist that can be used by teachers to determine the degree
of the constructivist approach, traditional or objectivist approach of a lesson
(Yager, 1991, p. 56).

Table 4.1: Checklist to Determine the Degree of Approaches
Traditional Constructivist
Criteria
Approach Approach
Teachers Identify the issue or topic. Students
No Issue is seen as relevant. Yes
Teachers Ask questions. Students
Teachers Identify written and human resources. Students
Teachers Locate written resources. Students
Teachers Contact relevant human resources. Students
Teachers Plan investigation and activities. Students
No Varied evaluation techniques used. Yes
No Students practice self-evaluation. Yes
No Concepts and skills applied to new situations. Yes
No Students take action(s). Yes
Science concepts and principles emerge because
No Yes
they are needed.
Extensions of learning outside the school is
No Yes
evidence of learning.

4.4 COMPARISON OF LEARNING THROUGH

TWO APPROACHES
See Figure 4.5 for the comparison of learning through two approaches.
Figure 4.5: Learning through traditional and constructivist approaches

4.4.1 Example of Constructivist Learning

An example of constructivist learning for a particular learning outcome is
illustrated in Table 4.2.
Table 4.2: To Generalise Quantity of Squares in a Grid
Procedures/
Teaching-Learning Activities Remarks
Allocation of Time
Introduction  Teacher shows Figure A and asks students to
(5 minutes) count how many squares in it and how they get
the answer.
 Students respond by giving the total number of
squares in the figure with their own reason(s).
Figure A: 2  2
Lesson Development  Teacher says: „Here are Figures B and C. Can you
(45 minutes) identify how many squares in each figure?‰
 „What about if I have grid 5  5 and grid 10  10?‰
 Students discuss in groups for Figures A to C.
Figure B: 3  3
Teacher facilitates the discussion.
 „What is a square?‰
(A four-sided polygon with all four sides equal).
 „How did you count Figure A has five squares?‰
(Four small squares plus one large square).
 „Can a square be three blocks across and two Figure C: 4  4
blocks down?.‰
(No, all sides have to be equal).
 Figure B has nine small squares in the larger
square.
„Does Figure B have any squares in the larger
square that are 2 blocks  2 blocks?.‰
„Yes‰.
 „How many?‰
They have four squares.
 „Does it have a larger square counted as one
square?‰
„Yes‰.
 How many squares can Figure B contain?
(3  3 = 9, 2  2 = 4, 1  1 = 1, 9 + 4 + 1 = 14 )

Closure Demonstration
(10 minutes)
9 small squares
4 squares
22
1 large square
Figure 4  4:
Number of
„Could you make a table and look for a pattern based squares =
on figures given above?‰ (1 + 4 + 9 + 16)
= 30
Number of Number of
Pattern
blocks squares
11 1 12 = 1
22 5 22 = 4
33 14 32 = 9
44 30 42 = 16

55 55 52 = 25
66 91 62 = 36
77 140 72 = 49
88 204 82 = 64
99 285 92 = 81
10  10 385 102 = 100
Pattern: the number of

squares increases by the
square of the number of
blocks on one side.
= 55 )
Combination of
numbers is referred
to as „pattern‰.
For figure 5  5, the number of squares = 1 + 4 + 9 + 16

+ 25
From their exploration, guide students to formulate
the formula:
Number of square for figure n  n = total of number
of squares from 12 to n2
To prove that the formula constructed is true, check
the number of squares for a 10  10 figure:
Number of squares for figure 10  10:
= 12 + 22 + 32 +........+102 = 1 + 4 + 9 + ............+ 100 =
385.
You may want to try using a smaller number of sides.
ACTIVITY 4.3

4.4.2 Constructivist Learning Design

The „Constructive Learning Design‰ that we are using now has gone through
various revisions in the past seven years. Now, the design emphasises six important
elements: Situation, Grouping, Bridge, Question, Exhibit and Reflection (see
Figure 4.6). These elements are designed to help teachers in planning and reflecting
about the process of learning.
Figure 4.6: Six elements of the constructivist learning design
Figure 4.6 indicates how these six elements integrate and work as a whole. Let us
now look at the detailed explanation.
(a) Situation
What situation are you going to arrange for students to explain? Give this
situation a title and describe a process of solving problems, answering
questions, creating metaphors, making decisions, drawing conclusions, or
setting goals. This situation should include what you expect the students to
do and how students will make their own meaning.

(b) Grouping
There are two categories of grouping:
(i) How are you going to group the students? Are you going to group them
as a whole class, individuals, in collaborative thinking groups of two,
three, four, five, six or more? What process will you use to group them?
Are you going to use the method of counting off, choosing a colour or
similar clothing? This depends upon the situation you design and
materials available to you.
(ii) How are you going to arrange groups of materials that students will use
to explain the situation? Are you going to arrange them by physical
modelling, graphically representing, numerically describing, or
individually writing about their collective experiences? The number of
sets of materials you have will determine the number of groups you will
form.
(c) Bridge
This is an initial activity intended to determine studentsÊ prior knowledge
and to build a bridge between what they already know and what they are
expected to learn. This might involve giving them a simple problem to
solve, having a whole class discussion, or playing a game. Sometimes, this
is best done before they are in groups, and sometimes, after they are
assigned to groups. You need to think about what is appropriate.
(d) Question
Questions can be used in each element of the Learning Design. What guiding
questions will you use to introduce the situation, arrange the grouping, set up
the bridge, keep active learning going, prompt exhibits, and encourage
reflections? You should anticipate questions from students and frame other
questions to encourage them to explain their thinking and support them to
think by themselves.
(e) Exhibit
This involves students exhibiting whatever record they had on their thinking
about the situation given to them. This can include writing a description on
cards and giving a verbal presentation, making a graph, chart, or other visual
representation, acting out or role playing their impression, constructing a
physical representation with models, and making a video tape, photographs,
or audio tape for display.
(f) Reflection
This is what students discover after explaining the situation to other students
and viewing the exhibits. This would include what students

remember from their thinking process, images in their imagination, and

languages in their internal dialogue. What attitudes, skills and concepts will
students take out of the door? What did students learn today that they wonÊt
forget tomorrow? What did they know before; what did they want to know;
and what did they learn?
The major goal of the constructivist approach is for students to play an active role
in assimilating knowledge onto their existing mental framework. The ability of
students to apply their school-learned knowledge to the real world is an added value
over memorising bits and pieces of knowledge that may seem unrelated to them.
Perhaps the best quality for a constructivist teacher to have is the
„instantaneous and intuitive vision of the studentsÊ mind as it gropes and fumble
to grasp a new idea‰ (Brooks & Brooks, 1993, p. 20). Clearly, the constructivist
approach opens new avenues for learning as well as challenges for the teachers
who are trying to implement it.
4.5 CONTEXTUAL APPROACH

What is the best way to convey the many concepts that are taught in a particular
course so that students can use and retain that information? How can teachers
communicate effectively with students who wonder about the reason for, the
meaning of, and the relevance of what they study? How can teachers open the
minds of a diverse student population so that they can learn concepts and
techniques that will open doors of opportunity for them throughout their lives?
These are the challenges teachers face every day in which the challenges that a
curriculum and an instructional approach based on contextual learning can help
them face successfully.
The majority of students in schools are unable to make connections between what
they are learning and how that knowledge will be used in the daily lives. This is
because the way they process information and their motivation for learning are not
touched by the traditional classroom teaching method. Students have a difficult
time understanding academic concepts (such as mathematics concepts) as they are
commonly taught (that is, using an abstract, lecture method), but they desperately
need to understand the concepts as they relate to the workplace and to the larger
society in which they will live and work.
Traditionally, students are expected to make these connections on their own,

outside the classroom, on why they are learning the concepts and how those
concepts can be used in the real world. Most students learn more efficiently when
they are allowed to work with other students in groups.

According to the contextual learning theory, learning occurs only when students
process new information or knowledge in such a way that it makes sense to them
in their own frames of reference (their own inner worlds of memory, experience,
and response). This approach to learning and teaching assumes that the mind
naturally seeks meaning in context, that is, in relation to the personÊs current
environment, and that it does so by searching for relationships that make sense and
appear useful.
Building upon this understanding, the contextual learning theory focuses on the
multiple aspects of any learning environment, whether a classroom, a laboratory,
a computer lab, or at a worksite. It encourages teachers to choose and/or design
learning environments that incorporate as many different forms of experiences as
possible (social, cultural, physical and psychological) in working towards the
desired learning outcomes. In such an environment, students discover
meaningful relationships between abstract ideas and practical applications in the
context of the real world; concepts are internalised through the process of
discovering, reinforcing and relating.
4.6 CONTEXTUAL LEARNING STRATEGY

Contextual learning strategy should be structured to encourage five essential
forms of learning:
(a) Relating;
(b) Experiencing;
(c) Applying;
(d) Cooperating; and
(e) Transferring.
The above when put together form a strategy called REACT (see Figure 4.7).

Figure 4.7: REACT
ACTIVITY 4.4
The following is an example of a simple lesson of real number system which is

designed according to the REACT strategy.

UNIT 2: REAL NUMBER SYSTEM

LESSON 2: THE CONCEPT OF OPPOSITES
TIME: One session

SETTING: This session can be done in the classroom
OBJECTIVES: – Describe opposite quantities in real life using
integers.
– Illustrate integers on the number line
– Use integers to describe positive or negative
quantities
PREREQUISITE: StudentsÊ basic knowledge of whole numbers
RESOURCES/MATERIALS: Straightedge, ruler, pencil
INSTRUCTIONAL PROCEDURE:
Opening Activity: The Human Number Line
(a) Relate this session to the concept of whole numbers. Our discussion in Lesson
1 was limited to positive whole numbers, which are also called positive
integers. This lesson will include the set of negative integers. We shall call
the union of all positive and negative integers including zero as the set of
integers.
(b) Illustrate the concept of opposites through a simulation exercise. Call seven
volunteer students to be in front of the class.
(c) Instruct them to form a line in such that their positions are of equal distance
from each other.
(d) The line formed illustrates a number line where the student at the centre
serves as the origin. Students to the left of the origin will serve as points with
negative coordinates, while students to the right of the origin will serve as
points with positive coordinates.

(e) Using the human number line, ask students to:

(i) Identify which point on the line is the opposite of the other.
(ii) Give the opposite quantities of the following:
 Deposit of RM3,000.00
 Decrease in oil price
 Losing a game
 Moving forward
 15C below zero
(f) Close and synthesise the activity by saying:
Main Activity: The Opposite Zones
(a) To enhance the studentsÊ understanding of opposite integers, allow them to

work in eight groups. Draw a sample number line on the board and let them
identify the integers describing these quantities.
–20 –18 –16 –14 –12 –10 –8 –6 –4 –2 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20

(b) Distribute the student activity sheet and read the instruction clearly.
(c) Allow five minutes for students to work on it. Ask them to present their
outputs.
(d) Facilitate the presentation of outputs by each group.
(e) Summarise the key learning points and studentsÊ collective insights.
Discussion Ideas
A number line represents the set of integers which is seen as the union of points.
Extension Ideas: The Magic Wand

Give the students an improvised magic wand. Ask them to do the following:
You have just found a magic wand that allows you to change three real world activities.
You can change anything you want. How would you change yourself as a student, your
parents, your classmates, your community, an important project, etc. Cite three wishes
or changes that are opposites of the current situation.
Closing Activity: The Magic Square

Study this magic square. Magic squares are square arrays of numbers. The sum
of the numbers in each row, column and diagonal is the same.
1 2 –3
–4 0 4
3 –2 –1

The sum of the numbers in each row, column and diagonal of this magic square is 0.
The magic square is also a representation of the set of integers in which whole
numbers are indicated with signed numbers. You can form a new magic square by
adding the same number to each entry in the magic square above. In the square
below, how was each entry obtained? Find the new magic square.
–1 0 –5
The sum of the numbers in each row, column and diagonal of this magic square
is –6.
Answer They
–1 0 –5
–6 -2 2
1 –4 –3
ASSESSMENT
On a piece of paper, ask students to list out six real life situations that are opposites
in nature; then, represent these situations as integers and illustrate on the number
line.
FOLLOW-UP ACTIVITY
State the opposites of the quantities described in the following statements and
represent each with integers.
(a) An increase of RM10 in weekly allowance
(b) A drop of 10 degree Celsius in temperature
(c) Climbing a mountain 7200 metres high
(d) 675 metres below sea level
(e) Accelerating by 3 metres per second
(f) A mass increase of 2 kilogrammes
(g) Pushing a crate 5 metres to the left
(h) Raising the flag 12 metres high

(i) Marching 14 steps to the right

(j) Travelling 25 kilometres north
Read the following and respond to the questionnaire to evaluate how far you or
your teacher had used the REACT strategy in classroom teaching.

ACTIVITY 4.5
4.7 PROBLEM-BASED LEARNING

Problems exist in our daily activities. Mathematics teachers need to help students
explore mathematical problems related to their daily lives. This will help them to
learn through experience and relate new learning to their existing knowledge.
Problem-based learning (PBL) began at McMaster University Medical School over 25

years ago. It has since been implemented in various undergraduate and graduate
programmes around the world. The PBL approach is now being introduced and used
in education (Maricopa Center for Learning and Instruction, 2011).
PBL is a teaching and learning approach based on the ideals of constructivism and
student-centred learning. When using PBL, teachers help students to focus on
solving problems within a real-life context, encouraging them to consider the
situation in which the problem exists when trying to find solutions (Nasir, Hand,
& Taylor, 2008). Lambros (2010) presented the characteristics, philosophy, aims
and advantages of PBL as follows.
Characteristics of PBL
(a) Problems are real world in nature for students so that they can see the need
to know the information in their future.
(b) Problems activate prior knowledge; students are able to „hook‰ new
content on some existing experience or information.
(c) Problems mimic ways in which new information will be applied later either
in assessment or practice.
Philosophy of PBL
(a) Students prefer to participate in decision-making about their learning.
(b) Students bring lots of information to new learning.
(c) PBL reinforces existing knowledge and creates a starting point for acquiring
new content.
(d) PBL problems enhance the integration of new information.

Aims of PBL
To create students who:
(a) Thnow what they know and do not know with confidence.
(b) Can effectively and efficiently access new information and integrate it with
existing knowledge.
(c) Can apply the new information to problem resolution.
Advantages of PBL
(a) Learning is relevant, long-term and embedded, emphasises meaning, more
exciting and retrievable.
(b) Students can apply learning in similar situations.
(c) In-depth understanding of learning.
(d) Development of interpersonal, collaboration, negotiation skills and life-long
learning skills.
In PBL, students are presented with a problem and work in small groups to arrive
at some resolutions to the problem. Teachers play a crucial role in selecting the
problem and facilitating student groups. Students determine the kind of content
learning required to move forward, the resources to use, and how new information
is synthesised towards resolution (Lambros, 2002).

Let us now look at two classroom examples.
CLASSROOM EXAMPLES
Addition, Multiplication and Estimation:

Teacher designs a multifaceted problem around shopping in a grocery store
and distributes grocery store flyers to each group of students. Each group
calculates how much money they would need to buy enough food to feed their
group for the day. Students must calculate amounts of each food item and the
total. The teacher conducts a contest to determine which group has the lowest
budgeted cost.
Ratios:
Students use their knowledge of ratios to design a model roller-skating rink.
In groups of four or five, students carry out the task of building a roller skating
rink to scale. Students can surf the Internet to look up the actual dimensions
of the rink. The teacher provides materials such as styrofoam, paint, popsicle
sticks and glue guns. The teacher monitors the groups as they construct their
roller-skating rinks. The teacher needs to watch for common errors such as
only scaling one measurement or confusing the idea of scaling with changing
units of measure (e.g., switching from metres to centimetres without realising
that they are dividing by 100).
MacMath, Wallace & Chi (2009)
4.8 MASTERY LEARNING

Every student has the ability to master whatever he/she learns. The level of mastery
depends on the effectiveness of the teaching and learning processes. One of the
teaching approaches that can be used by mathematics teachers to help students to
master learning outcomes is through the mastery learning approach.
Benjamin Bloom explored mastery learning in the 1950s. He stressed that mastery
learning is an optimistic approach to the realisation of educational goals. Students
should be helped to achieve the goals of the curriculum. Goal attainment is more
important than comparison of studentsÊ academic achievement. The process
of teaching needed to be geared towards the design of tasks that would help
students to progress towards the realisation of learning objectives that defined the
goals of the curriculum. Different students need different amount of time to achieve
the same learning objectives (Eisner, 2000).

Mastery learning is based on the idea of giving students more than one chance to
demonstrate mastery of content and skills. Students receive instruction on a topic
and then take a test to determine their level of understanding. The teacher scores
that assessment and determines who has mastered the content and who needs more
help. Students who have mastered the material are given enrichment opportunities,
while those who have not mastered, receive additional instruction on the topic. The
new instruction is presented in a different way such as using manipulatives and or
other hands-on approaches. A re-test is administered to the group who did not
demonstrate mastery. The highlight of mastery learning is that all students can
learn and grow, and no one is left behind. In the mathematics classroom, mastery
learning will help students to develop a solid foundation of mathematical
understanding, which is critical in solving problems involving a higher level of
thinking and reasoning (Candler, 2011).
The characteristics and teaching steps of mastery learning are as follows (Pusat
Perkembangan Thurikulum, Thementerian Pendidikan Malaysia, 2001):
Characteristics of Mastery Learning

(a) Learning outcomes need to be identified;
(b) Learning outcomes are arranged according to hierarchy or learning units;
(c) Teaching and learning activities have to be meaningful, effective and
interesting;
(d) Evaluation is based on criterion-referenced test;
(e) Effective teaching and learning materials;
(f) Students need to master 80% of the mastery level stated for each learning
unit before proceeding to the new learning unit;
(g) Remedial activity is carried out for students who have not achieved the
mastery level; and
(h) Enrichment activity is carried out for students who have achieved the
mastery level.
Teaching Steps of Mastery Learning

(a) Identification of learning outcomes;
(b) Teaching and learning activities;
(c) Assessment: Use of a test to identify the level of mastery among students;
and
(d) Follow-up action: Remedial activity or enrichment activity.

ACTIVITY 4.6
 According to the contructivist theory, students should participate actively in

the process of understanding mathematical concepts and in assimilating
knowledge onto their existing mental framework.
 Learning occurs only when students process new information (knowledge) in

such a way that it makes sense to them in their own frames of reference (their
own inner worlds of memory, experience, and response).
 There are six important elements (Situation, Grouping, Bridge, Question,

Exhibit and Reflection) that are to be integrated for constructivist learning
design.
 Contextual learning enables most students to improve drastically when they

can make connections between new information (knowledge) and experiences
that they had, or with other knowledge they have already mastered.
 Contextual-learning strategy should be structured to encourage five essential

forms of learning (Relating, Experiencing, Applying, Cooperating and
Transferring).
 Problem-based learning is a teaching and learning approach which helps

students to focus on solving problems within a real-life context and, encourages
them to consider the situation in which the problem exists when trying to find
solutions.
 Mastery learning is a teaching and learning approach in which students are

given opportunity to progress according to their ability and learning pace in
order to enhance their mastery of learning.

Active Thnowledge
Construct Mastery learning
Constructivism Problem-based learning (PBL)
Contextual Learning Reflection
1. Briefly discuss the role of a classroom teacher according to the

constructivist approach.
2. How does contextual learning help students increase their proficiency in

tests?
3. Explain briefly the meaning of „cooperation‰ in the REACT strategy.
4. What are the advantages and disadvantages of problem-based learning?
5. Briefly discuss the implications of Mastery Learning.
6. The contextual learning strategy should be structured to encourage five

REACT forms of learning. Answer the following questions:
(a) Explain the meaning of „contextual learning‰.
(b) What are the five essential elements represented by REACT?
(c) Read the attachment on „The Concept of Opposites‰ and list out the
REACT elements found in the lesson plan.

€ Problem
Solving
€ INTRODUCTION
It is essential to understand problem-solving principles especially when it comes
to dealing with real life problems. These problems can be very complex such as
problems in economics, sciences, medicine and social sciences which can be
translated into mathematical problems. Early exposure to problem-solving
processes to young students will promote critical thinking at an early age.
Introduction to different strategies in problem solving will give ideas and
encourage them to acquire skills in solving mathematical problems, and later to
apply the acquired skills to solve real life problems.
This topic is tailored to expose the strategies to help mathematics teachers in

teaching problem solving in primary schools. A good mathematics classroom is
reflected by a situation where students enjoy the activities which are meaningful in
their context and promote mental processing.

98 € TOPIC 5 PROBLEM SOLVING
5.1 MATHEMATICS AND PROBLEM SOLVING

How do students learn mathematics? How do teachers teach mathematics? As
primary school mathematics teachers, we should ask these questions before we
even start teaching the subject.
What is mathematics? According to Catania, Dalrymple and Gadanidis (2003),

mathematics has three dimensions, namely, facts and procedures, understanding
and problem solving (refer Figure 5.1). Lots of practices on facts and procedures
but without understanding them will result in making learning mathematics
difficult and boring.
Students will lose interest in mathematics if they simply memorise facts and follow
teachersÊ instructions. Students do not only have to learn about mathematical
concepts but they should also understand facts and procedures. It adds value and
meaning to mathematics if they understand facts and procedures. In addition,
making connections and seeing relationships will help students understand
concepts and make sense of the whole structure of mathematics.
Figure 5.1: Components of teaching mathematics
In the era of technology and rapid expansion of knowledge, the importance of

problem solving in the mathematics curriculum should be given more emphasis.
Problem solving is the heart of mathematics. It does not only teach mathematical
concepts, but also involves making decisions, thinking and doing reflection.
Recently, problem solving has become the core of the mathematics curriculum in
most developed or developing countries, such as Japan and Singapore. In fact, it
becomes the major focus in most mathematics curriculum worldwide.
Problem solving should be taught as early as students enter their primary school
level. An early age exposure to problem solving will equip them with adequate
knowledge and skills to solve problems including mathematical problems in
mathematics classrooms.

TOPIC 5 PROBLEM SOLVING E 99
The goals of learning problem solving in mathematics are to:

(a) Promote critical thinking, that is, the ability to synthesise and do analysis of
higher order thinking;
(b) Promote creative thinking, that is, the ability to apply information, facts and
strategies in the process of solving problems;
(c) Promote mental process and enhance understanding of concepts and
procedures;
(d) Narrow the gap between mathematical and real life problems; and
(e) Promote students to challenge real life problems.
ACTIVITY 5.1
5.1.1 Problem Solving and Problem-Solving Skills

Problem solving is a process that requires an individual to have prior and recent
knowledge, thinking skills, relevant strategies and understanding to reach the
demand or the goal of the unfamiliar situation. It involves a situation in which an
individual or a group of individuals is required to carry out the working solution.
Mathematical problems should come from various contexts: real life contexts,
mathematical contexts, imaginary contexts or physical contexts. Therefore,
students should understand mathematical concepts first, before acquiring the
problem-solving skills.
According to Smith (2001), problem-solving skills can only be developed after

students have gone through different levels of problems. The levels of problem are
illustrated in Table 5.1. In schools, students are exposed to different types and
levels of problems. This enables students to develop different levels of problem-
solving skills before they are able to solve non-routine problems. Problems can be
posed according to type and level as follows:

(a) Puzzles;
(b) Quizzes;
(c) Drill exercises;
(d) Simple translation;
(e) Multiple-step translation;
(f) Applied problems;
(g) Routine problems; and
(h) Non-routine problems.
Table 5.1: Levels of Problem
Level Criteria
Own Word The problems require students to discuss or rephrase main

Problems ideas or procedures using their own words.
Level 1 Problems These are mechanical and drill problems, and are directly
related to examples in the book.
Level 2 Problems These problems require an understanding of the concept and
are closely related to examples in the book.
Level 3 Problems These problems are the extension of the examples, but
generally do not have corresponding examples in the book.
Problem Solving These problems require problem-solving skills or original
thinking and generally do not have direct examples in the book.
Research Problems These problems require Internet research or library work. Most
are intended for individual research but a few are group
research projects.

5.1.2 Polya’s Model of Problem Solving

George Polya (1887 – 1985) was a famous mathematician and was the first person
to look at the processes involved in solving problems. He always said this to his
students:
„Yes, I see that your proof is correct, but how did you discover it‰?
He had a deep insight into the psychology of problem solving and had published
the well-known book: ‰How to Solve it: A New Aspect of Mathematical
Method‰, which is widely used as a major reference for problem solving.
Polya (1957) emphasised on the processes and the thrill experienced when solving
mathematical problems. A great discovery solves a great problem, but there is a
grain of discovery in the solution of any problem. The problem may be modest, but
if it challenges your curiosity, brings into play your inventive faculties, and if you
solve it by your own means, you may experience the tension and enjoy the triumph
of discovery.
Included in the four-step principle are the general principles or processes that Polya
suggested in his book and it is known as the four-step PolyaÊs model. There is no
fast rule in solving non-routine or applied problems; however, the four-step model
is useful as a guide in finding solution(s) to a problem. The non- routine problem
is not really simple; apart from analysing bits and pieces of the problem, it requires
certain skills, strategies and experiences, before finding the solution(s) to the
problem.
The schematic diagram of PolyaÊs model of problem solving is shown in Figure

5.2. It is followed by a detailed explanation of each step.

Figure 5.2: Schematic diagram of PolyaÊs problem-solving model
(a) Step 1: Understand the Problem

Understanding the problem is the most important step before we can
devise a plan to work on its solution. The problem cannot be solved until
we fully understand what we are looking for. We need to look for clues and
information, and then identify quantities and the unknowns.
We need to analyse the problem and ask ourselves the following questions:
(i) What must we look for?
(ii) What are the data?
(iii) What are the given conditions?

(iv) What are the given quantities?

(v) What are the unknowns?
(b) Step 2: Devise a Plan

There are several ways to solve a problem. Think of all possible methods or
strategies to solve the problem and then choose the best method or strategy
that fits the problem. Decide what plan is appropriate to solve the problem.
Try to relate ready and available information to past experience and consider
auxiliary or smaller problems if an intermediate connection cannot be found.
Find the connections between the given data or information to the unknowns
and choose the best strategy to solve the problem (refer Strategies for
Problem Solving in Section 5.2.1).
(c) Step 3: Carry Out the Plan

After understanding the problem and devising a plan to solve it, we are in a
better position to carry out the selected plan or strategy. Be persistent to
overcome any obstacle until we manage to solve the problem. Make sure
we get the best solution for the problem so that we can feel the thrill and
enjoy the triumph of a discovery.
(d) Step 4: Check the Answer

The final solution or answer to the problem has to be counterchecked or
validated, whether it is reasonable and acceptable. Does the solution answer
all questions and satisfy all conditions of the problem? Is there any other way
that can solve the problem better?
ACTIVITY 5.2

5.2 TEACHING OF PROBLEM SOLVING

According to ancient Egyptians and Babylonians, some problems could be solved
through inductive reasoning. They believed that specific methods worked for
certain types of problems; thus, those same methods could be used to solve similar
types of problems.
5.2.1 Strategies of Problem Solving in Mathematics

The following are some examples of problem-solving strategies in mathematics.
(a) Strategy 1: Guess and Check the Number

Problem 1
There are nine steel balls of similar size. They are almost of the same weight,
except that one is slightly heavier than others. Using a double-pan balance,
what is the minimum number of weights necessary to find the heavier balls?
Nine steel balls, similar size Double-pan balance
Step 1: Understand the Problem

Clues or information (asking question)
 9 red balls
 Same size, similar weight
 One slightly heavier, looks similar
 Find the heavier balls by using the double-pan balance
 Use the least number of weights (trials)
Step 2: Devise a Plan

The possible strategy:
 Guess, check and demonstrate
 Grouping: groups of three or groups of two
Step 3: Carry Out the Plan

 Groups of three, there will be three groups (groups A, B, C)
 Weigh 1: groups A and B; if balanced, then the heavier ball is in
group C
 Separate the ball in group C; label as x, y, z
 Weigh 2: x and y; if balanced, the heavier ball is z

(b) Strategy 2: Draw Diagram
Problem 2
Amin was sitting by the jetty at a pier on a bright Sunday afternoon. If every
yacht in the bay had three flags, how many yachts were there when he saw
there were 18 flags? What are the answers to the above problem? Think of the
best strategy to solve the problem.
Create another ‰post posing problem‰ or the follow-up problems:

 How many yachts were there at the pier?
 How many yachts were there, if he saw 20 flags? (post posing
problems)

 Each yacht has 3 flags
 There were 18 flags
 Yacht at the pier, sun shone brightly on the clear sea water

 Drawing diagram or sketch
 Common sense
Step 3: Carry out the Plan

Drawing diagram or sketch
There are many possible answers to the problem:

(i) Strategy (a) (number operation) : 6 yachts – without reflection
(ii) Strategy (b) (draw diagram) : 3 yachts – with reflection
(a) Number operation (division)

18 flags divided by 3 flags/yachts = 6 yachts

Step 4: Check the Answer

(c) Strategy 3: Simulation
Problem 3
Step 2: Devise a plan

Step 3: Carry out the plan
Orchid Farm
Trip Trip 1 Trip 2 Trip 3 Trip 4 Trip 5 Trip 6 Trip 7

Orchard cat, cat, orchids orchids rabbit rabbit –
orchids orchids
Boat rabbit – cat rabbit orchids – rabbit
Long – rabbit rabbit cat cat orchids cat
house cat orchids
rabbit
ACTIVITY 5.3

(d) Strategy 4: Working Backwards
Problem 4
A flock of 108 geese migrated from Siberia to Thuala Gula, Malaysia. As night
fell, the geese decided to land randomly on coconut, mango and durian trees.
A few birds flew from coconut trees to mango trees; then, the number of birds
on mango tree doubled. Later, a few birds flew from mango to durian trees;
then, the number of birds on the durian trees doubled. As a result, the number
of birds on each tree became equal. Find out how many birds landed on each
tree at first and how many birds flew from coconut to mango and mango to
durian trees.

108 birds and three trees (coconut, mango, durian)
First landing: coconut (x), mango (y), durian (z)
Transfer of birds: coconut to mango (2y), mango to durian (2z)
After the process, the number of birds on each tree is equal

Working backwards
Algebraic notation

Finally the number of birds on each tree is equal
108
  36
3
Coconut Mango Durian

Landing x y z
Transfer I x–y 2y
Transfer II 2y – z 2z



 108


(e) Strategy 5: Analogy
Problem 5
Ahmad went to the market where he bought two sacks of goods and each
sack was hauled onto a pony. Ahmad and the ponies had to travel a long
way home across the hot sunny rocky roads. The first pony walked and
jumped happily all the way, while the second pony trotted slowly with
heavy loads on his back.
When they reached a village, the second pony straight away jumped into the
water with the sacks on his back as he was tired and exhausted, followed by
the first pony. While in the pond, the second pony was wondering why his sack
was heavier than the other one although the sacks were of similar size.

As they continued the journey, he realised that his loads became lighter and he
jumped happily all the way home, but he saw the first pony struggle with his
steps due to the heavy loads on the back. The second pony wondered itself,
“Such a miracle! Maybe someone from the village exchanged the sacks while
we were in the water‰.

 Ahmad bought two sacks of similar size.
 Earlier, one sack was heavier than the other one
 After soaking in the water, the lighter sack became heavier and the
heavier sack became lighter.
 What were the goods Ahmad had bought?

 Analogy
 Past experience

 Earlier: one sack was heavier than the other one
 After soaking in the water, the lighter sack became heavier and the
heavier sack became lighter
 The sack of the first pony was filled with cotton
 The sack of the second pony was filled with salt or sugar

 The sack of the first pony was filled with cotton, which is lighter when
dry and heavier when soaked with water (cotton absorbs water)
 The sack of the second pony was filled with salt or sugar, which is
heavier when dry and lighter after being soaked in the water (dissolved
in the water)
 Use logical thinking

(f) Strategy 6: Simplify The Problem
Problem 6: Thonigsberg Bridge Problem

River Pregel flows through the town of Thonigsberg. There are two islands
in the river. During the seventeenth century, there were seven bridges
connecting the islands to the two river banks. People of Thonigsberg loved
the Sunday stroll along the bridges and the famous Thonigsberg bridge. A
problem is developed, which is to find a route that crosses the seven bridge
only once.

Two islands connected by seven bridges.
Find a route passing through all seven bridges only once.

Simplify the problem
Transferability of a network

The Thonigsberg seven bridges problem became very famous all over
Europe and had reached Leonard Euler. In 1735, he solved the famous
problem in the Court of Russian Empress Cathrine the Great.
Euler simplified the problem by drawing a network representing
the system of bridges.
– Draw the topology map of Thonigsberg
– The two islands connected by seven bridges
– Simplify the problem that is the network representing the seven
bridges
– Four vertices or points A, B, C, D (network cannot be traversed)



(g) Strategy 7: Identify Sub-Goal
Problem 7: Mina Magic square

Mina has a piece of quilt with 9  12 patches. She has cut away eight patches
in the middle which were smeared with black dye. Mina is going to cut the
quilt into two pieces and re-stitched back to form a quilt of 10  10 patches?
Can you help Mina to carry out the task?

 A quilt of 9  12 patches
 8 patches in the middle were spoilt
 Cut into two pieces
 Then, stitch back to form a square quilt of 10 x 10 patches


Sub goal: the way to cut the patches
 Take a grid paper of 9  12 and a pair of scissors
Cut the paper as a sample before cutting the quilt
Step 3: Carry out the Plan







(h) Strategy 8: Draw a Diagram and Construct a Table
Problem 8: Breeding Rabbit

Mr Leonardo Pisano bought a pair of rabbits in January and started breeding
them on his farm. There was no offspring on the first month, but one pair of
rabbits were produced after each of the following months. Each pair of the
offspring started breeding and produced a pair of rabbits after the second
month. How many pairs of rabbits were there at the end of the year
(December)?

Assume that the rabbits did not die and the female rabbit always
produced one new pair (one male, one female) of rabbits every month
from the second month onwards.
The puzzle that Fibonacci posed was to figure out how many pairs of
rabbit were there by the end of the year?

The original problem that Fibonacci (Leonardo Pisano) investigated in
the year 1202 was about how fast rabbits could breed in ideal
circumstances. This is a famous problem in the history of mathematics.
At the end of the first month, they mated, but there was still only one
pair.
At the end of the second month, the female produced a new pair; so
now, there were two pairs of rabbits on the field.
At the end of the third month, the original female produced a second
pair, making a total of three pairs of rabbits on the field.
At the end of the fourth month, the original female produced yet
another new pair. The female born two months ago also produced her
first pair, making a total of five pairs of rabbits.


 Strategy – draw a diagram
 Tabulation
No. of No. of No. of Pairs at the

No. Month
Pairs New Pairs End of the Month
1. January 1 0 1
2. February 1 1 2
3. March 2 1 3
4. April 3 2 5
5. May 5 3 8
6. June 8 5 13
7. July 13 8 21
8. August 21 13 34
9. September 34 21 55
10. October 55 34 89
11. November 89 55 144
12. December 144 89 233
The diagram and the figure of tabulation clearly illustrate the total of 233
pairs or 466 rabbits on the farm by the end of the year.

 The answer can be double checked by drawing and figures from the
chart or table.

ACTIVITY 5.4
(i) Strategy 9: Identifying Pattern
Problem 9: Genius Prince Gauss

Find the sum of the first 10 , 100, 1000, 10000, 100000, 1000000 or
10000000000000000000000000000 within a minute.

 Find the sum of:
1+ 2 + 3 + ⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄+ 8 + 9 + 10
1+ 2 + 3 + ⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄+ 98 +99 + 100
1+ 2 + 3 + ⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄+ 998 + 999 + 1000
1+ 2 + 3 + ⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄+ 9998 + 9999 + 10000
1+ 2 + 3 + ⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄+ 99998 + 99999 + 1,000,000
 Adding 10 numbers, 100 or 1,000, 000 within a minute

 Finding a pattern
Carl Friendrich Gauss (1777 – 1855) was a great mathematician.

He found this number pattern and regularity at the age of eight when
he was told by his teacher to find the sum of the first 100 counting
numbers. In the nick of time, the young Gauss handed in the answer
to his teacher while his classmates were stumbling over the sum.
How did he solve the problem in a short time?
1 + 2 + 3 + .......................... + 98 + 99 + 100

ring
1 + 2 + 3 ....... 10
10
10 n
2 2
1 + 2 + 3 ....... 100
100
100 n
2 2

Sum/pair
Questions Numbers Pairs Sum
1+n
1 + 2 + 3 + ⁄⁄+ 8 + 9 + 10 10 5 11 5(11) 55
1 + 2 + 3 + ⁄⁄+ 98+ 99 + 100 50 101 50(101) 5050
100
1 + 2 + 3 + ⁄⁄+ 998 + 999 + 1000 500 1001 500(1001) 500500
1000
1 + 2 + 3 + ⁄⁄+ 9998 + 9999 10000 5000 10001 5000(10001) 50005000
+ 10000 104
1 + 2 + 3 + ⁄+ 999998 + 1000000 500000 ? n ?
999999 + 1000000
n  1
106 5x105 2
1+2+ ? ? ? Can you find What is

⁄+1000000000000000000000 10n a pattern the
00000 generalisation possible
answer?
What is the common pattern or generalisation to the above problem?
Observing the pattern that appears in every sum above, you will be able to
n
conjecture a generalisation of  n  1 . By using inductive reasoning, you will
2
find a pattern or generalisation and then apply the generalisation or conjecture to
similar problems. This is a way of testing a conjecture obtained by inductive
reasoning.
Sum/pair n
Numbers Pairs n  1 Sum
1+n 2
1 ⁄..10 5 11 5(11) 55
1⁄...100 50 101 50(101) 5050
1⁄ 1000 500 1001 500(1001) 500500
1⁄...10000 5000 10001 5000(10001) 50005000
1⁄⁄1,000,000 skip 5000050000
1⁄⁄.1,000,000,000 skip 5,000,000,005,000,000,00
1..10000000000000 skip Guess?

(j) Strategy 10: Experimenting
Problem 10: Accurate Jug











7, 9, 11, .., (9 11



5.3 NEWMAN’S ERROR ANALYSIS

NewmanÊs Error Analysis is a procedure to identify studentsÊ errors in solving
word problems with respect to:
 Reading
 Comprehension
 Transformation
 Process Skills
 Encode
 Carelessness
 Motivation
(a) Reading
The price of a durian is twice of a watermelon. If Emmy pays RM 14.00 for
two durians and three watermelons, what is the price of a durian and
watermelon?
(i) Points of problem:
(ii) Twice
(iii) Price
(iv) Total price or total amount paid
(v) What operations

(b) Comprehension
(i) Understanding terms (unable to understand the meaning of terms in
the word problems and mathematical operations).
(ii) Algebraic operation:
twice: The price of 1 durian = The price of 2 watermelons
(c) Transformation
(i) Operations and Mathematical Sentences (unable to relate terms and
operations – multiplication and addition)
(ii) Unable to write mathematical sentences as below
The price of 2 durians + the price of 3 watermelons = RM 14.00
Level 3: Mental Transformation from Word Problems to Mathematical

(d) Process Skills

(i) Mathematical sentences and algorithm
(ii) Difficulty with calculations and processes
(iii) HavenÊt acquired problem-solving skills
Twice :
1 durian = 2 watermelon: d = 2w
2 durian + 3 watermelon = RM 14.00; that is
2 d + 3 w = RM 14.00
Substitution and operations:

2 (2w) + 3w = RM14.00
4w + 3w = RM 14.00
7w = 14, w = 14/7, w = 2
d= 2w, d = 2  2 , d = 4
Level 4: Applying Process Skills for the Selected Strategy



(e) Encode
(i) Mathematical processes
(ii) Algorithm and encode the answer
(iii) Difficulty with mental processes:
Durian = RM 4.00
Watermelon = RM 2.00
(The price of durian is twice of watermelon)




(f) Carelessness
Level 6: Careless Mistakes


(g) Motivation
ACTIVITY 5.5

 Problem solving is in the heart of mathematics and part of mathematics

dimensions.
 Learning mathematics is a process of learning and understanding facts,

concepts, procedures and problem solving challenges.
 Learning mathematics through problem solving will be more fun, enjoyable,

meaningful and interesting.
 Teaching problem-solving can take place both inside and outside of the
classroom and can be applied to any real situation.
 Mathematics teachers should practise and integrate problem solving in their

teaching.
Conjecture Problem
Deductive reasoning Problem solving
Inductive reasoning Strategy
1. Learning mathematics through problem solving will produce quality

students. Give reasons if you agree with the statement.
2. Explain why problem solving is necessary in teaching and learning

mathematics.
3. Explain why NewmanÊs Error Analysis is important in analysing studentsÊ

solutions to word problems.

4. Polya commented that there is no hard and fast rule in solving problems;
however, the four-step model is useful as a guide in finding solution(s) to a
problem. Answer the following questions:
(a) What are the four steps in PolyaÊs model of problem solving?
(b) Give one example of a mathematical problem.
(c) Illustrate how PolyaÊs four steps can be used in solving this problem.

€ Planning
Mathematics
Lessons
€ INTRODUCTION
Effective planning is the key to successful teaching in an environment that is
conducive for learning. Even the most experienced mathematics teachers are only
successful when they have carefully planned and effectively structured their
mathematics lessons. The mathematics that students learn starts from what they do
and experience in the mathematics classroom. As mathematics teachers, you need
to plan your lessons systematically to ensure that students can benefit and
maximise their learning when they go through your lesson.
This topic will help you to structure and sequence the various topics and concepts
to be addressed in a lesson and outline some key components for successful
planning, both yearly and daily plans. The preparation of a yearly plan and a daily
lesson plan will be described in detail.

TOPIC 6 PLANNING MATHEMATICS LESSONS E 131
6.1 PLANNING OF MATHEMATICS LESSONS

Teachers should plan meaningful mathematics lessons for their students in order
to provide appropriate and worthwhile experiences for them. They must consider
the intended curriculum, the ideal goals of the mathematics instructional
programme and decide on how to go about implementing all these in the
classroom. They have to determine the content to be emphasised, pedagogical
approaches to be adopted, and the type of assessment to be used in evaluating their
studentsÊ progress. In addition, mathematics teachers also need to decide on the
nature of the learning environment they want to create, as well as how and when
to use classroom discourse to support studentsÊ learning.
Teachers need time and resources in order to make all these decisions. Careful
planning prior to classroom teaching can provide the structure in making these
important decisions and achieve the desired learning outcomes.
6.1.1 The Importance of Planning

Lesson planning is important because it enables teachers to:
(a) Develop clear lesson objectives. A lesson plan is like a blueprint that provides
the guidelines to teachers on how to accomplish a set of goals, design relevant
activities, create a conducive learning environment and materials for
assessing progress and outcomes.
(b) Present coherent, creative and interesting ideas for teaching and learning
activities.
(c) Select and organise relevant teaching-learning content as well as interesting
and useful resources. Content knowledge is vital for planning a lesson. In-
depth understanding of mathematics content will give teachers a sense of
what needs to be done and how to sequence the topics and ideas of the lesson.
(d) Plan a variety of activities that are relevant to the teaching and learning
approaches and techniques.

132 € TOPIC 6 PLANNING MATHEMATICS LESSONS
6.1.2 Overall Planning

There are five steps involved in the overall planning of mathematics lessons as
illustrated in Figure 6.1. These include the yearly plan, semester plan, monthly
plan, weekly plan and daily plan as follows:
(a) Firstly, study the whole year mathematics curriculum specifications;.
(b) Secondly, divide the one-year content into two semesters with reference to
the mathematics curriculum specifications;
(c) Thirdly, divide the semester content into weekly content depending on the
number of weeks available for teaching and examination;
(d) Fourthly, divide the weekly content into daily content.
(e) Finally, prepare daily lesson plans.
Figure 6.1: Steps in planning lessons
ACTIVITY 6.1

6.1.3 Other Important Planning Elements

There are many other important planning elements to be considered in lesson
planning, which include:
(a) Time and experiences to develop social skills that will help students learn
how to work cooperatively with other group members.
(b) Discussion and negotiation of a classroom environment in which
cooperation among group members is expected.
(c) Clear and accurate directions for students to follow so that they are clear
about their responsibilities as group members.
(d) A comfortable physical environment where students can work effectively and
arrange shelves to place materials for a variety of mathematical
investigations.
(e) Flexibility to change plans as needed, when activities take too long or do
not proceed as planned.
(f) Rich mathematical investigations that lend themselves nicely to cooperative
group work.
6.1.4 Main Components of a Lesson Plan

There are three main components of a lesson plan, namely, preparation,
presentation and conclusion. These components are briefly described below.
(a) Preparation
(i) Preparation: Teaching-learning objectives
(ii) This is the first part of a lesson plan. It comprises the general particulars,
including studentsÊ previous knowledge, learning contents, learning
objectives, skills integration, teaching-learning resources and
inculcation of noble values.
(b) Presentation
(i) Presentation: Teaching-learning process
(ii) This is the second part of a lesson plan. It comprises two main parts,
that is, the set induction and development of teaching-learning
activities. Set induction covers the warm-up activity which will help
students to get started to do mathematics as soon as they enter the
classroom. It is also a way to introduce a new topic and provide an
opportunity for students to brush up their pre-requisite skills. The

development of teaching-learning activities covers skill development,

teaching and learning activities, use of resources and inculcation of
noble values.
(c) Conclusion
(i) Conclusion: Consolidation, evaluation and closure
(ii) This is the last part of a lesson plan. It comprises activities and methods,
including follow-up and consolidation activities, evaluation of learning
objectives and closure.
ACTIVITY 6.2
6.2 YEARLY PLAN

One of the first instructional plans that you need to do at the beginning of each
academic year is the yearly plan and the semester plan. It is a framework that
arranges all topics in an intended instructional sequence. On the other hand, a
semester plan contains a more detailed content description of topics for the
semester. A common practice is to design a yearly plan into two semester plans.
A yearly plan is important for teachers to set clearly the appropriate goals for
studentsÊ learning across the school year. In order to prepare the yearly plan,
mathematics teachers should read and interpret carefully all important and relevant
matters, such as curriculum specification, objectives, learning units, skills, teaching
strategies and teaching-learning activities. Once they have a sense of major
concepts or units that will form the big picture, semester plans and daily lesson
plans will fill in the details.
6.2.1 Guidelines for Preparing a Yearly Plan

Guidelines for teachers to consider when preparing the yearly plan are as follows:
(a) Study the relevant mathematics curriculum specifications and identify the
learning areas (topics), learning outcomes (skills) and contents to be taught.

(b) Study the school calendar and identify the number of schooling weeks, lesson
hours allocated and expected intrusion to the lesson. Then, prepare two
semester plans in order to complete the one-year curriculum in two semesters.
(c) Identify studentsÊ background and consider their prior knowledge in the lesson
plan to make sure that they have related knowledge to the new content.
(d) Choose suitable teaching and learning strategies after considering several
strategies.
(e) Identify relevant resources and teaching materials that can motivate students
to learn and continue learning.
(f) Decide and plan strategies to evaluate studentsÊ learning.
(g) Integrate various aspects, such as noble values, thinking skills and contextual
learning into the lesson plan.
ACTIVITY 6.3
An example of Year One mathematics yearly lesson plan is given in Table 6.1.
Table 6.1: Mathematics Yearly Plan (Year One)
Week Topic/Learning Area Learning Objective/Learning Outcome Remark
1.0 WHOLE NUMBERS 1.1.1 Say and use the number names
in familiar contexts.
1.1 Numbers 0 to 10 (i) Say the number names 1 to 9.
(ii) Recognise numerals 1 to 9.
(iii) Count a group of objects 1
to 9.
1.1.2 Read and write numbers from
Number of 1 to 9.
schooling week (i) Write numerals 1 to 9.
(ii) Read number words one to
nine.
(iii) Write number words one
to nine.

1.1.3 Say and use the number names

in order.
(i) Arrange numbers 1 to 9.
(ii) Count on in ones.
(iii) Count back in ones.
1.1.4 Read and write numbers from
1 to 10.
Prepare Daily
(i) Say the number names 0
Lesson Plan and 10.
(ii) Recognise 0 and 10 in
counting.
(iii) Count in groups of objects
to 10.
(iv) Write numerals 0 to 10.
(v) Read number words zero
to ten.
(vi) Write number words zero
to ten.
1.1.5 Understand and use the

vocabulary of comparing and
arranging numbers or
quantities.
(i) Arrange numbers from 0 to
10.
(ii) Count on in ones.
(iii) Count back in ones.
(iv) Count on from a given
number.
(v) Count back to a given
number.
(vi) Compare two numbers and
say which is more or less.
(vii) Identify one more or one
less.
1.2 Addition with the 1.2.1 Use the vocabulary involved in

highest total of 10 addition with the highest total
of 10.
(i) Find one more than a
number from 1 to 9.

6.2.2 Semester Plan

Teachers should make decisions about how to organise lessons for a particular unit
or topic. One way to begin the process of making these decisions is to create a
concept map. A concept map is a diagram that illustrates the main concepts in a
unit or topic area and the connections between concepts. The map provides a visual
aid for planning the sequence of topics to be taught in a particular semester.
6.3 DAILY LESSON PLAN

Ideas for creating, organising and enhancing lesson plans will produce effective
lesson plans. Mathematics teachers must consider factors that will influence
student learning in a particular situation of a specific classroom. Varying student
populations from class to class demands a shift in thinking and the way lessons are
prepared.
6.3.1 Elements of Lesson Plan

Daily lesson planning is essential for new teachers. These plans will help them to
organise all the details of the classroom resources, the lesson to be taught, the
specific mathematics pedagogy to be employed, as well as general pedagogical
techniques. There are several important elements which need to be fully
implemented in a quality lesson. Some of the essential elements are:
(a) Learning Outcomes

Daily goals or objectives. It may describe the main concepts or topics of
lesson as well as the skills or processes to be mastered by students.
(b) Set Induction

Warm-up or opening activity. It helps to get students to be involved in doing
mathematics as soon as they enter the classroom. A warm-up activity is also
a great way to introduce a new topic or provide opportunity for students to
brush up on skills needed in learning new concepts.
(c) Activities in Development Stage

Activities designed to achieve learning objectives. An outline to guide what
teachers need to do, as well as what students are required to do to accomplish
the stated objectives. The activities should follow a logical sequence and
should involve students in active learning.

(d) Evaluation in Development Stage

Questions and other means of assessment. For beginning teachers, questions
should be written as part of the activities to achieve the lesson objectives.
These may include questions to test studentsÊ prior knowledge, questions
that stimulate brainstorming among students or questions that can challenge
students to investigate specific mathematical ideas.
(e) Closure
Summary of closing activities. Wrapping up a lesson can be as important as
the opening. It is valuable to summarise the concepts discussed or give
students the opportunity to talk about what they perceive as the lesson
outcomes. The summary is not necessarily the same as the closing activity.
(f) Teaching Aids

Materials needed or other special notes. A list of any special materials needed
to conduct the lesson. It might include manipulative, OHP and pens for
students to record solutions and to present in the classroom. Notes might
include lesson modifications for students with special needs.
(g) Time Allocation

Approximate time allocation to indicate a range of minutes needed to
complete a stated activity or goal.
If necessary, a daily lesson plan may also include notes about modifications for
students with special needs or possibly notes about how to shorten or lengthen the
lesson. Lesson plans are also a good place to record reflections or notes about what
changes to be made for the next day or the next time the lesson is to be taught.
ACTIVITY 6.4

6.3.2 Example of a Daily Lesson Plan

Refer to Figure 6.2 for an example of a daily lesson plan.

Students play the “Counting Game” in groups of five
Figure 6.2: Daily lesson plan
ACTIVITY 6.5
 Planning a lesson helps teachers to organise the teaching-learning activities in

a given time.
 Planning enables teachers to see how learning objectives can be achieved and
help their students attain an understanding of the subject matter.
 In addition, planning imparts the values of organisation and careful

consideration to the needs of the students.
 In short, planning is making a decision on how and what to teach.

 A good daily lesson plan will boost teachersÊ confidence in delivering their
lesson, especially at the early stage of their teaching career or when they are
teaching new topics.
 Lesson plans should contain all the elements needed to fully implement a
quality lesson.
Allocation Lesson presentation

Lesson conclusion Plan
Lesson preparation
1. „Effective teaching mathematics begins with thoughtful planning.‰ Do you

agree with the statement? Why?
2. There are various factors teachers need to consider before planning a lesson.
How does lesson planning suit the differences in ability among the students?
3. One of the elements of a lesson plan is the „warm-up or opening activity‰.

Explain briefly why this element is important in teaching.
4. There are three main components of a lesson plan.

(a) List the three main components of a lesson plan.
(b) Explain briefly one of these components.
(c) Give an example of a lesson plan which is related to this component.

€ Theory and
Practice of ICT
in Primary
Mathematics
Education
€ INTRODUCTION
In education, the Information and Communication Technology (ICT) is defined as
a diverse set of technological tools and resources used to communicate, and to
create, disseminate, store, and manage information. These technologies include
computers, the Internet, broadcasting technologies (radio and television), and
telephone (Wikibooks, 2011).

TOPIC 7 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF ICT IN PRIMARY E 143
MATHEMATICS EDUCATION
Most countries in the Asia Pacific region have been working towards the use of
technology in education. This effort is to prepare the nation to adapt and meet
global technological changes. The computer system has changed rapidly. The
speed of the computer is now faster, costs are lower, software is more powerful
and user friendly too. These changes will require teachers to enhance their
computer skills and competencies in line with the current advancement of
technology (Williams, 2000).
7.1 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF ICT IN

PRIMARY MATHEMATICS EDUCATION
In the advancement of ICT in Malaysia, many schools, colleges and higher
learning institutions are emphasising on the use of ICT in the teaching and
learning process to meet the global demands. The same goes to mathematics
teachers who constantly need to explore the advantages and disadvantages
including their implications in using ICT in mathematics classrooms.
7.1.1 Use of Computer Technology in School

The development of technology has produced modern and sophisticated tools that
can be used in education to enhance the effectiveness of teaching and learning.
Johnson (1995) has carried out a case study on the use of ICT in the classroom.
The findings showed that the computer is a good motivational tool that can help
students focus on their learning. According to Maddux, Johnson and Willis (1997),
computer technology supports the process of sharing, negotiating and developing
knowledge.
Mills (1999) found that the worries and varying perceptions of teachers towards
computer assisted instruction influenced the way they implement ICT in their
classrooms. In a study regarding the status of various technologies used in teaching
and learning at the primary school level, it was found that there were teachers who
only used computers to perform daily routine tasks (Mona Masood & Nor Azilah
Ngah, 2003). It is therefore necessary for teachers who are technology savvy to be
more proactive in exploring the various educational technology applications
available out there. Some of these include (Mills & Tincher, 2003):
(a) Modelling the use of technology in the classroom;
(b) Applying technology across the curriculum;
(c) Using technology for problem-solving activities;

€ TOPIC 7 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF ICT IN PRIMARY
144 MATHEMATICS EDUCATION
(d) Using technology to facilitate collaboration and cooperation among

students; and
(e) Setting up authentic learning environment that encourages decision making
by students.
Mills (2004) added that the technology teachers should be equipped with the
technology skills and technology resources that support the integration of
technology in the teaching and learning process.
There are some advantages of computer-based learning. Computer-based learning

enables students to learn independently, be active and adjust to the needs of
individual learning (Walker, 1983). McFarlane (2001) identified the potential of
ICT for studentsÊ learning in terms of:
(a) StudentsÊ enthusiasm and confidence,
(b) Cognitive processing speed;
(c) Concentration;
(d) Range of writing forms used;
(e) Information handling skills;
(f) Critical thinking, ability to organise and classify information;
(g) Improved reading and comprehension;
(h) StudentsÊ autonomy; and
(i) Leading to improved motivation and learning.
However, John and Sutherland (2004) stressed that ICT alone does not enhance
learning but most important is the way in which ICT is incorporated into various
learning activities.
It is important for mathematics teachers to plan and implement suitable learning

situations that can integrate the use of ICT in mathematics lessons. With the
integration of ICT, the way students learn mathematics will change from passive
learners to constructors of their own knowledge.

7.1.2 Learning Theories Related to ICT

Pachler (2005) presented the theories of learning and implications of using ICT in
terms of behaviourism, cognitivism, learning styles and social interaction.
Behaviourism
The ICT application in the behaviourist tradition tends to follow an instructional

pattern. A computer program or application models the role of teachers to offer
some input in which students can drill and practise followed by the provision of
feedback. For example, the use of integrated learning system (ILS) is designed to
help students to develop specific skills often in the areas of numeracy and literacy.
The ILS presents questions, records responses, provides feedback and
automatically selects tasks based on studentsÊ responses.
Cognitivism
The use of software such as word processors, databases and spreadsheets help
students to process information, engage them in abstract thinking and allow them
to make the knowledge-construction processes transparent.
Learning Styles
New technologies offer one or many possibilities to provide varied learning

opportunities that cater for students with different learning styles such as visual
learning, auditory learning and kinaesthetic learning.
Social Interaction
Teachers need to be aware that the use of ICT can promote teacher-student,
student-teacher, and student-student interactions. For example, teacher and
students can interact and communicate virtually through e-mails and online
discussion forums.
ACTIVITY 7.1

7.2 INNOVATIVE AND CREATIVE USE OF ICT

IN PRIMARY MATHEMATICS EDUCATION
Innovative and creative skills are the dynamic agent of transformation to move
forward (Lim, 2008). The innovative and creative use of ICT in primary
mathematics education can promote higher order thinking skills among students.
In the ICT lesson, the role of mathematics teachers is as facilitators to facilitate
students to learn mathematics while the students take on the role of active learners.
Computer software can make abstract ideas become physical in the same way as
mathematics manipulative. Teachers can use the software already on most
computers such as MS Word, MS Excel, MS Paint or any other drawing programs
to do hands-on computer activities for teaching primary mathematics (Burnley,
2005).
Some of the innovative and creative uses of ICT in primary mathematics lessons
are as follows:
(a) Interactive Whiteboard

Interactive whiteboard is one of the innovative and creative uses of ICT in
teaching and learning in schools. It has the potential to transform teaching
and learning through the ability to connect teacher, students and computers.
This interactive whiteboard enables interactive teaching in which the teacher
interacts with the board, the hardware and software and also the students.
Some of the interactive whiteboard features include drawing tools, flipchart,
annotation tool, pen colours, highlighter, board rubber, camera tool and
handwriting recognition tool (Easingwood & Williams, 2004).
(b) Digital Product

Mathematics teachers can relate learning mathematical concepts with the use
of ICT such as word processing and presentation software to produce creative
and innovative products. Students can use their digital camera to take pictures
of shapes found around the school and then create a digital album using MS
PowerPoint presentation. The digital product can be presented to the whole
class.
(c) Searching Information

Mathematics teachers can select some suitable Internet websites or
courseware available in CD-ROM for students to explore and search
information regarding mathematical problems. This will encourage

students to use their thinking skills and creativity to solve the problems given.
(d) Multimedia Technology

Multimedia technology such as computer and television can be used for
learning mathematical concepts in a more exciting and meaningful way. For
example, students can explore computer software to learn mathematical
concepts such as numbers and operations, measurement, algebra, geometry,
data analysis and probability.
(e) Interactive Activities

Students can use the Internet or CDROMs to access mathematical interactive
activities such as games, puzzles, problem solving. They can apply their
mathematical concepts through hands-on computer activities.
ACTIVITY 7.2
7.3 IMPLICATIONS OF THE INTERNET IN

PRIMARY MATHEMATICS EDUCATION
Internet access is available in most places in Malaysia and the world in general.
This technology enables students to involve in „global learning‰ in which
learning is no longer confined in the classroom. Students and teachers are able to
communicate anywhere anytime, read the latest news from the Internet, and gain
access to digital multimedia materials from sites around the world to prepare their
assignments or lessons.
However, teachers should be aware that not all materials obtained from the
Internet are suitable for their students. Therefore, teachers need to evaluate the
content of the website before it is used in their classroom. Mathematics teachers
need to check whether the content of the website is accurate, current, reliable and
suitable to the age of the students. Bitter and Pierson (2002) noted that teachers
need to understand that all online activities are not entirely secure or private and
some materials may be inappropriate for some students. So, teachers have to seek
ways to help students to safely explore the Internet for the purpose of enhancing
their learning.

Williams (2000) identified three major reasons why the Internet can be used
effectively by teachers and students.
(a) Teachers can find a lot of useful and free resources on the Internet.
(b) The Internet can also be used as direct instruction for teaching some
mathematics topics or content. Some of the direct instruction websites are
shareware instructional software, instructional websites, Intranets and
portals.
(c) One of the powerful characteristics of the Internet is that it enables teachers
and learners to communicate with each other to promote collaboration with
other schools and classes around the world.
The Internet is not for all instructional situations. It can be used in the classroom
or outside the classroom for further exploration. The use of the Internet is limited
with the learning situation which has the facility of electricity, computer and
Internet access.
ACTIVITY 7.3
7.4 ELECTRONIC RESOURCES IN PRIMARY

The World Wide Web is a source of unlimited electronic resources that can bring
exciting learning opportunities to students anywhere anytime. In order to integrate
an online resource effectively, mathematics teachers must consider appropriate
websites that can help to meet the objectives of the lesson (Bitter & Pierson, 2002).

7.4.1 Evaluating Web-Based Resources

The Internet has become a favourite platform for searching electronic resources.
The results of the search widely vary in terms of quality and reliability.
Mathematics teachers and students need to be equipped with skills on how to
critically evaluate resources found on the Internet before they are used in the
classroom. The criteria used for evaluating Web resources are as follows (QUICTh,
2005):
(a) Is it clear who has written the information?

Who is the author? Is it an organisation or an individual person? Is there a
way to contact them?
(b) Are the aims of the site clear?

What are the aims of the site? What is it for? Who is it for?
(c) Does the site achieve its aims?

Does the site do what it says it will?
(d) Is the site relevant to me?
List five things to find out from the site.

.......................................................................................
.......................................................................................
.......................................................................................
.......................................................................................
.......................................................................................
(e) Can the information be checked?

Is the author qualified to write the site? Has anyone else said the same things
anywhere else? Is there any way of checking this out? If the information is
new, is there any proof?
(f) When was the site produced?

Is it up to date? Can you check to see if the information is up to date and
not just the site?
(g) Is the information biased in any way?

Does the site have a particular reason for wanting you to think in a
particular way?
Is it a balanced view or does it only give one opinion?

(h) Does the site tell you about choices open to you?
Does the site give you advice? Does it tell you about other ideas?
ACTIVITY 7.4
7.4.2 Web-Based Resources for Primary Mathematics

Some of the electronic resources suitable for primary mathematics education are
as follows.
(a) WebTV Rasmi Thementerian Pelajaran Malaysia

URL: http://www.eduwebtv.com
In line with the development of the ICT, the Ministry of Education Malaysia
made an effort to broadcast WebTV through the Internet to reduce the digital
gap in education. WebTV covers various fields which can be accessed
through eight learning channels such as News, Academic, Interview,
Documentary, Curriculum, Interactive, Live telecast and Guidelines.

(b) Primary Resources

URL: http://www.primaryresources.co.uk/maths/maths.htm
The Primary Resources have a wide range of free resources for teaching
primary mathematics. It provides free worksheets, lesson plans and teaching
ideas for teaching numbers and the number system, calculations, solving
problems, measures, shape and space and also handling data.
(c) BBC ThS2 Bitesize

URL: http://www.bbc.co.uk/schools/ks2bitesize/maths/
This website has free resources for teachers teaching primary mathematics
such as lesson plans, worksheets, games and activities.

(d) Internet4Classrooms: Elementary Math Resources

URL: http://www.internet4classrooms.com/math_elem_index.htm
This is a free Web portal for teachers, parents and students of all ages who
want to find high-quality, free Internet resources to use in classroom
instruction, developing project ideas, reinforcing specific subject matter areas
both in class and at home and even for online technology tutorials.
(e) Teaching Ideas

URL: http://www.teachingideas.co.uk/maths/contents.htm
This website contains a wide range of teaching ideas which include free
lesson ideas, resources and activities.

ACTIVITY 7.5
 The theory and practice of ICT in primary mathematics education explains the
use of computer technology in schools and the learning theories related to the
ICT such as behaviourism, cognitivism, learning styles and social interaction.
 The innovative and creative uses of ICT in primary mathematics education are
interactive board, digital product, searching for information, multimedia
technology and interactive activities.
 The implications of the Internet in primary mathematics education are the

advantages and disadvantages of the Internet in the teaching and learning
process.
 The electronic resources are Web-based resources in the Internet which need
to be evaluated before they are being used in the classroom. The Web-based
resources offer free resources, lesson plans and activities to support teachers in
planning and implementing a lesson.
Electronic resources Internet

Evaluating Web-based resources Multimedia technology
Information and Communication
Technology

1. Explain briefly the status of using the computer in the teaching and
learning of mathematics in schools.
2. State three innovative and creative uses of the ICT in the teaching and
learning of mathematics.
3. The information and communication technology such as the Internet is

widely used among students.
(a) Describe briefly the situation in which the Internet is used by the
students.
(b) What are the mathematics topics that are suitable to be taught using
electronic resources?

€ ICT in
Mathematics
Instruction
€ INTRODUCTION
In the 21st century, the application of telecommunication technology is no longer
restricted to industries, transportation, economics, international trading or medical
services; but it has also become a common tool for communicating and accessing
information about the world. Technology has also changed the scenarios of
todayÊs education world. The internet, multimedia, computer software, portable
devices, calculators, CD-ROMs, videos, e-mails, relevant supporting materials and
web-based instructional designs bring new paradigm in the millennium
education. Computer technology has become an integral part of most business
operations, financial, marketing, industrial operations, transportation, education
and management. Information and telecommunication technology have slowly
become a fundamental part of Internet-based education and conventional
education.
156 € TOPIC 8 ICT IN MATHEMATICS EDUCATION
8.1 TECHNOLOGY AND MATHEMATICS

INSTRUCTION
People-oriented instruction has been the tradition in schools for centuries, that is,
since 500 BC or nearly 2,500 years ago. In October 1985, Steve Jobs, the co-
founder of Apple II and Macintosh computers, and his colleagues took the initiative
to develop innovative, personal and affordable computers. By 1999, personal
computers have been widely used in developed countries. Since then, there was a
shift from people-oriented instruction to machine-oriented instruction in most
schools worldwide.
Today, other than teaching and learning, schools provide recreation, nourishment
and health, social interaction and other social services to students. Computer
technology in mathematics education plays an important role in computer based
instruction. Most mathematics experts agree that computer as an instructional
material has a great influence in mathematics classrooms.
Thilpatrik & Silver (2000)

TOPIC 8 ICT IN MATHEMATICS EDUCATION E 157
Technology is the They to LearnersÊ Achievement of World Class Standards
ACTIVITY 8.1
8.1.1 Planning for the Use of Technology in

Mathematics Instruction
There are significant changes in the way mathematics is being taught in the 21st
century. Today, many mathematics experts believe that teaching and learning
mathematics through the deductive approach or drill-method fails to reach the
majority of students. This is because, there are many restrictions when it comes to
paper, pen, pencil and printed materials.
An effective mathematics instruction provides a variety of learning opportunities

to students. Students can use computer technology and mathematics instructional
software as investigation learning tools compared to the limited use of paper and
pencil.
In 2000, the National Council of Teachers of Mathematics (NCTM) of America

laid out six principles for quality teaching and learning mathematics. The sixth
principle is about mathematics education and technology.

The Principles and Standards of Mathematics Education Goal stated that each
student has the opportunity to learn in a classroom. He/she:
(a) Demonstrates the value of mathematics;
(b) Develops confidence to participate in mathematics;
(c) Nurtures capability for solving problems;
(d) Builds skills for communicating and mathematical contexts; and
(e) Strengthens insight into patterns of mathematical reasoning.
8.2 KNOWLEDGE THROUGH MATHEMATICAL

INVESTIGATIONS
Discovering meanings in mathematics can be done either through deductive
reasoning or inductive reasoning. These two types of reasoning are defined in
Figure 8.1.
Figure 8.1: Types of Reasoning

ACTIVITY 8.2
8.2.1 Geometer’s Sketchpad

In 1985, the Education Development Center (EDC) developed instructional
software that enables teachers and students to use computer as teaching and
learning tools. Later, the National Science Foundation organised the Visual
Geometry Project under the direction of Dr Eugene Thlotz and Dr Doris
Schattschneider.
In 1987, Nicholas Jackiw joined the Visual Geometry Project, and a year later, he
became the creator and author of the Geometer’s Sketchpad. Apart from the
GeometerÊs Sketchpad, the Visual Geometry Project also produced computer
software called The Stella Octangula and Plotonic Solids.
The Geometer’s Sketchpad is designed primarily as a teaching and learning tool.

It is a dynamic tool that encourages students to explore, investigate and invent their
own way to discover mathematics. Learning mathematics, especially geometry,
becomes easy and simple as it helps students to create simple geometric figures
and make conjectures about their properties.
ACTIVITY 8.3

The following are the drawings or plots produced using the Geometer’s
Sketchpad.
(a) Teaching Space and Shape


(b) Teaching Graph




ACTIVITY 8.4

8.2.2 Interpretation of Data

Let us look at how we can interpret data.
(a) Teaching Histogram, Bar Chart and Pie Chart

A simple data collection can be done during class activities. Here is an
example of data collected by Year 3 students about ‰Favourite Food for
Breakfast‰. During class activities, students in small groups are asked to
collect data. Teacher has to demonstrate how to tabulate and classify data,
since effective teaching involves demonstration by the teacher and
modelling by the students.
The process of direct teaching should always include some means of

representing mathematics visually. Microsoft Excel is a suitable software or
tool for data interpretation and manipulation. The examples below will
demonstrate how a single data can be interpreted as pie chart, bar chart or line
chart.
The above examples are suitable for teaching lower grades such as Year 3 or
Year 4 by using simple data. Higher grades require higher levels of data
interpretation.

(b) Teaching Higher Level Interpretation

Now, look at the data of ‰Favourite Food for Breakfast‰ obtained from
other classes. Comparisons can be done by using frequencies and means. The
line graph and histogram can be drawn as follows:
Year 3: Favourite Food for Breakfast
Types 3A 3B 3C 3D Total Mean

1. Fried rice 9 5 6 6 26 6.5
2. Nasi lemak 8 8 7 5 28 7.0
3. Porridge 5 7 4 4 20 5.0
4. Sandwich 5 6 7 8 26 6.5
5. Roti canai 3 4 6 7 20 5.0
Total 30 30 30 30 120

8.2.3 Internet in Education

In developing Internet applications, administrators should consider how to
integrate the Internet with other data communications facilities in a school district.
The Internet does not necessarily replace existing facilities such as LANs, WANs
or access to commercial online services, but it should be used to enhance them.
Schools have started establishing intranets, LANs and WANs that use Internet
software tools such as Web browsers. Intranets, which are also referred as mini-
internets, are useful for controlling access to sensitive data, reducing data traffic
and speeding access to frequently used data files. An intranet depends on local
software system (e-mail, file servers, databases, etc) to accomplish many of its
activities. Some of these local software packages may be easier to use than those
that exist on the Internet.
It functions as a connecting net, which is a kind of communication system that

enables computer users to communicate globally with other users. It also provides
photographs or films, exchanges information with others and so on. Internet users
in the organisation will be able to communicate with each other globally through
e-mails. People can also obtain certain information required via the World Wide
Web (WWW) or, in short form, the Web.
(a) Uses of the Internet in Mathematics Education

Mathematics teachers should attempt to master the skills of using the Internet
in order to obtain current information on mathematics development and the
latest pedagogy in teaching. Besides, teachers can also utilise the computer
skills to guide students to use the Internet as a medium of learning
mathematics. The following are some suitable network organisations
(WWW) to obtain education information:

(i) Write to Dr. Math

(http://forum.swarthmore.edu/dr.math/ask.html);
(ii) Australia Teach Net (http://teachnet.org);
Principles and Standards for School Mathematics
(http://illuminations.nctm.org/index2.html); and
(iii) Other educational websites (www.prenhall.com/picciano).
The Internet can also be used in educational research for the following
purposes:
(i) Manage education information, research and interactive learning;
(ii) Publish study results and share research findings;
(iii) Submit questions and answers to research questions; and
(iv) Collaborative learning and solving of education problems together.
(b) The Internet and Distance Learning

With the expansion of the Internet into peopleÊs homes and places of
business, distance learning is becoming more popular in the United States.
Early distance learning projects employed passive analogue communications
such as one-way television and radio. In the 1980s, two- way analogue
communications using video conferencing technologies began to dominate
distance learning applications. Today, data communication facilities
provided by the Internet and other large networks are beginning to redefine
distance learning.
The Internet, which is a fully interactive combined with digital technology,

will eventually redefine distance learning in several ways:
(i) First, students will no longer have to come to the classroom to learn.
The Internet will help students to actively participate in lessons from
any place (schools, day care centres, business establishments, homes)
through computers which are connected to the Internet.
(ii) Second, it will no longer be necessary for students to participate at the

same time. In digital format, lessons can be delivered and stored and
then called up by students as needed. Interactivity can be achieved
asynchronously through electronic bulletin boards, discussion groups
and e-mails.
(iii) Third, delivery of instruction can be done by integrating several

resources from which students can customise their lesson. Multiple

resources may already exist, but students need to budget their time and
schedule their learning in a sequential mode, such as: (1) attend a
lecture, (2) go to the library, (3) organise thoughts, (4) write a paper,
(5) receive teachersÊ comments, and so on.
With respect to Internet facilities, students may have at their disposal a

resource that includes learning materials such as videos, computer
simulations and reference works. A student can integrate the sequence
by listening to the teacher for a while, consulting a reference work,
looking at a simulation, sending an e-mail message and then once again
listening to the teacher. In the not too distant future, new digital
facilities such as video on demand and split-screen monitors will allow
students to do several of these tasks simultaneously.
Advances are being made in communications technology such as wireless digital

communications, digital subscriber lines (DSL), cable modems, integrated service
digital network (ISDN) and high-speed transmission rate. In future, things that can
be done using text on the Internet nowadays will be done routinely with live or
real-time digital video conferencing. Teachers, especially those already investing
in distance learning applications, should keep abreast of these and other
developments that will have a significant impact on the potential of the Internet as
a medium of distance learning.
ACTIVITY 8.5
 This topic discusses the development and applications of ICT in mathematics

education, particularly how the ICT changes mathematics learning and
instruction.
 The discussion focuses on the importance of investigation in discovering

mathematics.

 The topic also explains how the GeometerÊs Sketchpad can enhance
investigations in mathematics through the teaching of space and shape, and the
teaching of graph.
 The topic further explores how computer can be used to teach numbers, and
data analysis and interpretation. Finally, the Internet and its usage are briefly
discussed.
1. Technology has influenced the teaching and learning processes of

mathematics. Explain briefly how technology changes these processes.
2. List three goals of mathematics education as stated in the Principles and

Standards of Mathematics Education Goal.
3. There are several uses of the Internet in mathematics education. List three
uses of the Internet in educational research.
4. Discovering meanings in mathematics can be accomplished either through

deductive reasoning or inductive reasoning.
(a) Give a definition of inductive reasoning.
(b) Give an example of how we discover meanings in mathematics
through inductive reasoning.
(c) Explain how a teacher can use the GeometerÊs Sketchpad so that
his/her students can discover meanings in mathematics.

€ Remedial and
Enrichment
€ INTRODUCTION
Instruction in all content areas must be designed to meet the needs of all students.
Teachers must set high, but reasonable expectations that challenge studentsÊ
ability, while matching each studentÊs interests, needs and developmental
levels (Baroody & Coslick, 1998). Instruction cannot target only the average ability
level. Students significantly above and below the average ability level require
specialised instruction to meet their needs. When these needs are not met, both
gifted and struggling students will lose motivation, and often perform poorly. They
need to have the encouragement especially from teachers and often require an
individualised pace to complete a variety of mathematical tasks. Many of the
characteristics of curricula for the gifted and struggling students can benefit all
studentsÊ learning, but they become especially important with these diverse
learners.

174 € TOPIC 9 REMEDIAL AND ENRICHMENT
Remedial programmes are provided to help students who have difficulties in

reading, writing and doing arithmetic. These programmes provide alternative
activities for students to overcome these basic problems. By implementing
remedial activities, it is hoped that students who struggle to cope during normal
instruction can achieve a certain acceptable standard of understanding in
mathematics. Enrichment programmes, on the other hand, can be considered as a
set of extra mathematical tasks provided by teachers who are more complex, yet
interesting and challenging. These activities are different from those activities
provided during normal instruction. Students involved in enrichment activities are
encouraged to apply and expand their knowledge in mathematics acquired during
normal instruction.
9.1 CONCEPT AND OBJECTIVES OF REMEDIAL

PROGRAMMES
ACTIVITY 9.1
There are students with various achievements, interests and abilities in a classroom.
Therefore, as teachers, you need to design different teaching and learning activities
to accommodate everyone of them. Some examples of such activities are remedial
and enrichment activities. Remedial and enrichment activities are important
components of the teaching and learning process in mathematics. We usually
provide students with remedial and enrichment activities especially during group
work. Groups with gifted students are provided enrichment activities, while
groups with students who struggle to cope with the subject matter will be provided
remedial activities.
Students who are struggling to meet a certain expectation in mathematics require a

curriculum to help them understand and be comfortable with mathematical
concepts. Many suffer from mathematics anxiety and have a predisposition to
dislike mathematics and lack the motivation to change.
Teachers need to work on making instruction meaningful and interesting, getting

students involved actively, and providing support and encouragement (Baroody &
Coslick,1998). This can help teachers to engage students to learn mathematics,

TOPIC 9 REMEDIAL AND ENRICHMENT E 175
motivate them to achieve and establish high expectations for their learning. Once
students have overcome their mathematics anxiety and found the concepts
meaningful, they often need instruction that builds concepts from the basic.
Prior knowledge must be engaged and they typically benefit from concrete
representations of the mathematical concepts. The use of mathematical
manipulatives allows remedial students to encounter concrete, physical and
practical manifestations of the mathematical concepts being taught. Through
establishing a very concrete understanding of the concept, they can begin to expand
their understanding to more abstract representations and problems. They can also
benefit from a more structured curriculum that offers students the support in
finding solutions by providing specific methods in doing so.
Remedial students often require more repetition, consistent review and a

curriculum that spirals back to show the connections between learned concepts.
Teaching and learning materials can be made meaningful by carrying out the
learning process with concrete representations and repeating the concepts.
Remedial students can benefit from a remedial curriculum to reach the expectations
that match their potential.
9.1.1 Objectives of Remedial Activities

Usually, there will be some students who cannot understand certain mathematical
concepts or skills being taught. According to Baroody & Coslick (1998), these
remedial students cannot cope with their teachers. In fact, teachers should work on
making instruction meaningful and interesting by planning remedial activities in
the classroom.
The objectives of having remedial activities in the classroom are to:

(a) Help remedial students build mathematical concepts and acquire
mathematical skills so that they do not lag behind other students in the class;
(b) Guide these students to apply the mathematical skills acquired to solve
practical problems in order to build their confidence and interest;
(c) Help them correct the mathematical concepts and mathematical skills that
they have wrongly learnt; and
(d) Guide them so that they will be able to learn mathematics meaningfully
and at their own pace.

You should have a better understanding of the concepts and objectives of remedial
activities by now. Thus, you should be able to summarise in your own words the
importance of remedial activities in your mathematics lesson.
9.1.2 Factors that Affect Learning among Students

Students in a classroom usually differ from each other in terms of their ability,
physical build, intelligence, interest and skills. Thus, some of them seem to be very
fast in grasping information and knowledge conveyed to them while some others
may only be able to understand certain concepts or skills after going through
special remedial activities. At the same time, there are also students who cannot
learn at all.
Generally, students with learning disabilities are those who really need help to
make their learning more meaningful and interesting. This can be achieved by
ensuring that they are actively involved in classroom activities. In order to design
activities for these students, it is necessary to understand and analyse the factors
that hinder them from learning.
Some of the factors that affect students’ learning are:
(a) Individual Factors

Individual factors are usually related to socio-economic and social
background. Students from poor families may not have a conducive
environment to study in. In fact, they may be working to earn extra income
for their family which results in their not having time to study at home. Even
if they may have time to study, they are just too tired to do so. These students
are not motivated at all by their parents. These are some of the situations that
may affect students’ performance.
(b) Learning Factors

Some learning factors that may contribute to students not performing as
expected are unattractive teaching and learning materials used by the
teachers, unsuitable instructional strategies used and sometimes the
curriculum itself is not appropriate to the cognitive development of these
students. If these learning factors are not addressed accordingly, students will
not be interested to learn. They will start skipping lessons and later have a
high tendency to become school drop outs.
(c) IQ Factors
IQ factors are closely related to brain activities. There are many instances
where students are slow in giving opinions, slow in reading, forget very
quickly what they have learned and sometimes find it difficult to
understand what is being taught. These factors might be due to hereditary,

abnormal birth, brain damage or even malnutrition.
ACTIVITY 9.2
9.2 IDENTIFYING REMEDIAL STUDENTS

Providing various activities that suit various categories of students in some ways
contribute to the improvement of studentsÊ performance in mathematics. Thus,
before teachers start to plan and implement remedial activities, they must be able
to identify the strengths and weaknesses of their students. This can be achieved by
evaluating and identifying which students have fully learned and understood what
has been taught.
The following procedures (not in the order of preference) can help teachers in the
process of identifying students who require remedial programmes:
(a) Observation
Observation is essentially selective. In other words, teachers must identify
the important criteria that they should be looking for in the observation. Good
planning and practice is necessary before they can carry out high quality
observation. As teachers, it is helpful to plan what to observe and what to
record during the actual observation exercise. For example, if teachers want
to observe students doing pair work activities, the following questions might
help them to record their findings:
(i) Is he/she portraying a dominant character?
(ii) Is he/she persistent with his/her answer?
(iii) Does he/she listen to his/her friendÊs views?
(iv) Does he/she always accept his/her friendÊs idea?

ACTIVITY 9.3
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
(v)
2. Share and discuss your questions with one of your friends.

Convince him/her that your questions are good and valid.
3. Request six of your friends to solve decimal problems set by your

tutor.
(a) Record your observation according to the questions you
have developed.
(b) Discuss your observations with your friends. Can you
identify any one of the six friends for a remedial class?
(b) Questioning
The questioning technique will usually complement the observations. Asking
questions is an art. The technique needs to be developed and practised before
teachers can master and apply it efficiently and effectively. Questions
forwarded or set by teachers are considered efficient if they are clear, concise
and with logical expressions. While asking questions, it should be noted that
teachers must allow appropriate time for questioning and answering.

ACTIVITY 9.4
(c) Interviewing
The interviewing technique is a powerful method to identify students’
strengths and weaknesses. It involves a combination of skills used in
questioning and observing techniques. Interviews are usually conducted with
one student at a time in a quiet place. Teachers can get insights about their
respondent’s thinking through interviews. The significant factors in a
successful interview are establishing rapport with the respondent, accepting
response without being judgemental and encouraging the respondent to talk
and explain his/her views. Before starting to interview the students, teachers
need a basic plan of what to investigate, what questions to ask and what form
of information to be recorded.

ACTIVITY 9.5
(d) Reviewing Samples of StudentÊs Work

Work samples can include written assignments, homework, projects and
other products produced by students. By reviewing the work produced by
students, teachers can identify the studentsÊ mistakes. Teachers may ask
them to do corrections and if the mistakes still prevail, then there should be
some form of remedial activities planned for the students. In fact, taking a
closer look at each student’s work can reveal their strengths and weaknesses.
This will help teachers to monitor the performance of their students.
(e) Tests
According to Gagne (1965), test is a systematic way to measure changes in
an individual’s behaviour. In a classroom condition, a test is conducted to
measure changes in behaviour related to students’ learning activities. In
general, it is a measuring instrument to obtain information about students’
achievement in the cognitive, psychomotor or affective fields.
Test requires students to show explicitly, in the form of activities such as

answering questions orally or in written form or through demonstration, the
changes in their behaviour related to the concepts or skills after instruction.
Normally, during the testing process, observation and formal tests are usually
used as a measuring instrument.

Thoughtful, well-constructed and correctly analysed tests can tell a lot about
students. It is important to recognise that tests alone will not give a complete
assessment of students’ performance, but they can be considered as an
important piece of information to the puzzle. Performance tests used in
combination with other forms of evaluations can help teachers identify
students who are experiencing difficulties learning mathematics. They can
then plan remedial activities for the students identified in acquiring and
understanding the mathematical concepts taught.
ACTIVITY 9.6
9.3 PLANNING A REMEDIAL ACTIVITY

The objectives of remedial instruction can only be achieved if the activities are
planned in a sequential and systematic manner. Good planning of remedial
activities should be conducted in a sequence as shown in Figure 9.1.
Figure 9.1: Steps in planning remedial activity

ACTIVITY 9.7
9.3.1 Screening and Diagnostic Tests

Planning and administering screening tests can be considered to be the first step in
planning remedial activity. The ultimate role of this test is to identify students who
must undergo remedial activity for a particular skill and task identified. Teachers
can administer the screening test casually by implementing any one of the
techniques discussed in Section 9.2 (such as observation, questioning, interviewing
or by looking at students’ daily exercises).
Once teachers have gathered students who are struggling in learning mathematics,
the next task is to identify the specific nature of their difficulties. The diagnosis of
the nature of problems faced by students can be done using one or more of the
procedures mentioned earlier or by using a specific diagnostic test.
Some of the important guidelines for diagnosis in mathematics are as follows:

(a) Teachers have to make sure that studentÊs noticeable lack of specific
mathematical understanding or skills is in fact a true lack of such
understanding or skills. Making wrong diagnosis of studentsÊ abilities would
result in high consequences.
(b) Teachers must always keep in mind that every one student progresses through
several stages of development before reaching an adult conceptual level. This
shows that the difficulties faced by students could have been caused by the
misconceptions gathered through early education.
(c) Teachers must not deny the fact that as teachers they might unintentionally
have contributed to the complications experienced by students. They must
sometimes reflect on their mode of instruction and see if it can be rectified.
(d) Teachers must also pay attention to the emotional effects of students in the
diagnosis. Their feelings must not be affected and their expectations must be
addressed.

(e) Teachers must always be patient and sometimes flexible in gathering relevant
information to form an accurate and precise picture of studentsÊ
performance. Only then they can plan a suitable remedial activity for the
identified difficulty.
(f) Teachers must make sure that students are receptive to their method of
diagnosis. In other words, teachers must maintain a climate of acceptance
while conducting the diagnosis.
(g) Teachers must be careful in distinguishing between errors that occur
randomly and those that occur more systematically among students. If the
errors made during diagnostic tests are systematic and not random, they
can identify the patterns in the errors made which will connect to some
underlying skills that have not been mastered or some conceptual
understanding that has not been properly absorbed.
The follwing is some of the important guidelines to follow while constructing a

diagnostic test:
(a) Identify a particular task or skill that students are very weak at (for example,
subtraction involving three digits).
(b) Identify the sub-tasks or sub-skills involved and arrange them in a hierarchy
of increasing complexity (from simple to more complex sub-task).
(c) Construct four items for each sub-task or sub-skill that has been identified.
(d) Distribute the above mentioned items randomly in a test.
(e) Do not impose a time limit. Actually, a diagnostic test is to determine
studentsÊ strengths and weaknesses in a particular skill of mathematics and
not how fast they can complete the task.
(f) A student who answered incorrectly for more than one of the four tested items
for a particular sub-task or sub-skill may need to go for remedial activity on
that sub-task or sub-skill concerned. Therefore, it is important for teachers to
carefully analyse students’ responses for each test.

ACTIVITY 9.8
456 367 783 567 815 754

– 321 – 248 – 592 – 289 – 567 – 232
135 121 211 322 352 522
9.3.2 Planning Remedial Activity

Based on the analysis made during the diagnosis test, teachers can plan a remedial
activity to help students overcome the difficulties that they face. In order to
implement an effective remedial activity, teachers must follow a few basic
principles.
These basic principles can help teachers plan mathematical remedial teaching:
(a) The remedial instruction should only focus on weak areas identified.
(b) Steps in the presentation should be developed from concrete to abstract, from
simple to complex, according to the capability and experience of the students.
(c) Teachers should use various teaching aids to help students understand the
basic concept that should be mastered.
(d) Teachers should use symbols and mathematical terms that should be related
to students’ experience. This will make it easier for students to identify their
errors.
(e) Teachers should give oral and written exercises after every lesson. They
should construct questions that are from simple to more complex questions.
At the early stage, teachers can allow students to use teaching aids to solve
problems, but towards the end, students should be able to solve the problems
without the teaching aids.

(f) Teachers should give an evaluation activity after every written activity in the
class. They should plan and prepare written mathematical problems. This will
determine whether the teaching objective is achieved.
Please refer to Table 9.1 for an example of a remedial lesson plan.
Source of Error:
Students cannot subtract numbers involving two digits in multiples of 10.
Table 9.1: An example of a remedial lesson plan
Step Remedial Activity

Flash cards are used to get students to give spontaneous responses.
Set Induction 18 25 37 66
-10 -20 -30 -30
1. Match sticks are tied in bundles of ten each.
2. The following question is asked:
„If 10 sticks are removed from 20 sticks, how many sticks are
Lesson left?‰
Development 3. Students are guided into solving the problem by showing the
(Step I) process in a mahjong paper prepared by the teacher.
20 (llllllllll) (llllllllll) - 10 (llllllllll) =
The activity is repeated with three more examples.

Students are guided to answer similar questions without using
bundles of match sticks.
(Step II)
30 50 70 40
- 10 -30 -40 -20
1. Students are given worksheets with five similar examples.
Evaluation 2. Students solve the questions without any guidance from the
teacher.

9.3.3 Evaluating Achievement

This stage is important for teachers to determine whether students have acquired
the skills after going through the remedial activity. Teachers can evaluate students’
performance based on the answers given in their exercises after the remedial
activity.
9.3.4 Making Decision

After the evaluation activity, teachers can make a reliable decision. If studentsÊ
achievement is satisfactory, the students can be given the chance to learn
mathematics with other students who have acquired that particular skill. If the
achievement is not satisfactory, then teachers can ask a special teacher trainer for
remedial teaching to help them to teach the particular students in a special remedial
class.
ACTIVITY 9.9
9.4 CONCEPT AND OBJECTIVES OF

ENRICHMENT PROGRAMME
Gifted students have unique needs that need to be addressed in a mathematics
curriculum. They can be bored doing easy activities repeatedly. Instead, these
students will benefit from a curriculum of enrichment. They often approach
mathematics with inquisitiveness. They will challenge the purpose of material or
the rationale of procedures. Just like remedial activity, enrichment should also
provide opportunities for students to explore materials in meaningful ways.
Meaning can be achieved by applying concepts to authentic contexts. Gifted
students should be encouraged to solve problems in a creative manner. Instruction
for enrichment should involve projects that require application and extension of the
content (Baroody & Coslick, 1998).
Instruction should challenge students to apply learning in innovative and

purposeful ways and ask them to be reflective upon their choices. Fostering gifted
students’ inquisitiveness by asking them to reflect upon, apply, and extend content
in meaningful ways allows them to reach high expectations while

gaining mathematical power. Differentiating instruction in an integrated classroom

can be a very difficult task.
One way of providing the specialised instruction needed by these groups of

students involves the use of mathematics learning centres. These centres will
allow students to work with specialised materials at an individualised pace. The
mathematics learning centre will provide students a structure for their own
learning that does not require teacher supervision. The centre also provides
facilities needed for any student who either wishes to extend their learning or
gain further practice regardless of whether they are gifted or remedial students.
Because students can work on projects in the centres without prompting, teachers
remain free to interact with individual students to assess, clarify, and personalise
instruction. The centres should be well-equipped with materials, have instructions,
examples, and materials for specific projects relating to the content of instruction, and
should provide space for tasks to be completed at the centre. The centres should be used
to supplement and complement other forms of instruction. Activities can be adapted to
incorporate cooperative learning or can be centred on individual activities. Students
should have the opportunity to engage in multimodal learning in the centres and
activities in the centres should incorporate authentic uses of mathematics.
9.4.1 Objectives of Enrichment Programme

Through enrichment activities, students will have the opportunities to take part in
value-added activities so as to widen their learning experience, enhance their
interest, creativity, and also inculcate self-discipline, and leadership qualities.
Students’ performance in the classroom is determined by their individual
differences. Students who have achieved a certain level of mastery should be given
an opportunity to try out the enrichment activities prepared by teachers.
Enrichment activities, therefore, do not only provide students with additional, more
sophisticated and thought-provoking work, but still keep them with their peers in
the classroom.

ACTIVITY 9.10
9.4.2 Principles in Conducting Enrichment Activities

Enrichment activities prepared by teachers should have the following principles:
(a) In the form of self-learning activities and have clearly defined instructions so
that students will do the activities by themselves, whenever they feel that
they are ready for it;
(b) Interesting, challenging and diversified according to studentsÊ ability, so that
there is a kind of motivation for students to try it by themselves;
(c) In the form of daily project which lasts for one to two weeks so that it does
not make students think that it is a project that drags on or it is too easy to
complete; and
(d) Activities which are related to students’ learning skills so that they can see
the application of the skills in their daily lives.

ACTIVITY 9.11
9.5 TYPES OF ENRICHMENT ACTIVITIES

Enrichment activities can be clustered into two different categories:
(a) Horizontal Enrichment Activities

All groups will be doing the same type of activities but each group’s activity
will differ according to their cognitive level. For example, if the enrichment
activity given to students in class is „tangrams‰, each group with different
levels of achievement will be given different sets of tangrams which vary
according to the levels of difficulty.
(b) Vertical Enrichment Activities

Enrichment activity is provided for students who have achieved the required
level of understanding of a topic that has been discussed in class. The activity
planned and conducted here would be of high cognitive level and very
challenging. This activity which caters for high achievers will help them to
widen their horizon in the topic being taught. While these high achievers are
engaged in such activities, we can plan, implement and monitor relevant
activities for the rest of the students in the class.
Some of the common types of enrichment activities that can be given by teachers
in the classroom are:
(a) Games : Snake and ladder, domino, selling and buying activity.
(b) Puzzles : Solving puzzles of numbers, time and basic operations.
(c) Project : Drawing of patterns using geometrical shapes, constructing

three-dimensional shapes, drawing picture graphs.

(d) Competition : Mathematical quiz, magic map.
(e) Experiment : Finding formulas or equations when given a few specific

examples.
(f) Worksheets : Solving interesting yet challenging problems.
ACTIVITY 9.12
Your task:
9.6 CONDUCTING ENRICHMENT ACTIVITIES

Enrichment activities can be conducted in classrooms through three stages, which
depend on the instructional level and also the studentsÊ performance . The three
(3) stages are as follows:
(a) The first stage is after students have mastered one basic skill;
(b) The second stage is after students have mastered all the basic skills for one
mathematical topic; and
(c) The third stage is after students have mastered all the basic skills for a few
related mathematical topics.

As a whole, enrichment activities are best provided to all students in the

classrooms, either individually or in groups. Since there are bound to be differences
among students, it is good to provide varied enrichment activities which would suit
different individuals or groups. Generally, students of higher ability should be
given more complex and challenging tasks, while those who are struggling should
be given less challenging, but interesting tasks. It should be emphasised that
enrichment activities for different groups should be based on the same
mathematical concept or skill, but at different difficulty levels.
Students selected for enrichment activities are usually those who have mastered
the required basic skills. Teachers can identify such students through informal
tests, such as observations, oral questioning or by checking their daily work. They
can even be identified through screening tests in which teachers can segregate those
who have mastered the skills from those who have not. Teachers can provide the
gifted students with enrichment activities, while the low ability students with
remedial activities.
When teachers plan the enrichment activities, they have to make sure that students
have mastered the skills taught, at least at a satisfactorily level. The content of the
activities should be suitable to the studentsÊ capabilities. Make sure that they are
capable of carrying out the activity on their own with minimum guidance from
their teachers.
 In order to carry out remedial activity, teachers should know how to identify
students who need remedial activities. This can be done by carrying out
screening and diagnostic tests.
 Teachers should then plan a remedial programme, which is followed by

implementing remedial teaching.
 As for gifted students and those who are high achievers, teachers should plan
and implement enrichment activities.

Horizontal enrichment activities Remedial activities

Lesson plan Self-development
Puzzle Vertical enrichment activities
1. There are three main factors that affect students’ learning. Explain briefly
how the individual factors affect students’ learning.
2. List five procedures that can be used to identify students who need remedial
programmes in mathematics.
3. There are several objectives of providing enrichment programmes in

mathematics. List three objectives which you think are most important to
high-achieving students.
4. Remedial programmes provide alternative activities for struggling students

to overcome the basic problems of reading, writing and doing arithmetic so
that they can achieve a certain level or standard of understanding
mathematics.
(a) List two of the most important objectives of remedial activities for
struggling students.
(b) Explain briefly how you may identify remedial students through
reviewing samples of students’ work.
(c) Take a look at the answers to the diagnostic test given in Activity 9.3.
Suggest a remedial activity that may overcome the misconception
shown by these students.

€ Action
Research in
Mathematics
€ INTRODUCTION
As teachers, we can consider ourselves lifelong learners. As lifelong learners, we
should be constantly involved in educational research. Through research activities,
we can bring changes and make adaptations to the existing teaching and learning
strategies. As such, research activities provide us with an avenue to upgrade our
knowledge and skills in our respective fields. We can improve our teaching
performance by mastering some of the basic research skills to assess the
effectiveness of teaching and learning processes.
Action research is a basic useful research that can be used in schools. It gives us
an opportunity to address issues that affect educational practices, and ultimately
will correct the weakness of such practices. Some of us are used to exploring and
testing new methods of teaching and learning, but we normally do it informally.

194 € TOPIC 10 ACTION RESEARCH IN MATHEMATICS
We always ask ourselves: Will my students perform better if I use a variety of

questioning techniques? Would involving students in presenting their assignments
in class increase the likelihood of them completing their work? Does paying
attention in class translate into better performance in examination? All these are
some of the questions we pose every day in our mind. Action research is actually
a structured process for knowing the answers for such questions. It provides the
information necessary for us to know whether or not our intervention had the
expected outcomes. In actual fact, action research allows us to address issues that
affect teaching and learning in our classroom systematically and empirically.
WHAT IS ACTION RESEARCH?

As we all know, the most important aim in improving mathematics performance of
our students is to improve and upgrade the technique of teaching the subject in
the class from time to time. To achieve this purpose, mathematics teachers should
always work conscientiously to ensure that there will always be implementation of
effective teaching and learning techniques.
Basically, teachers’ effort to improve their performance can be achieved through

mastering some of the basic research skills so as to carry out research to assess the
effectiveness of their teaching and learning activities. By constantly applying
action research, teachers will be able to make modification or correct weaknesses
in their teaching method so that the follow-up teaching-learning activities can be
effectively conducted in class. Though this topic will concentrate more on the
general aspects of action research, mathematics teachers are encouraged to apply
the principles and methods discussed here for their respective use in their teaching
and learning activities.
Action research is actually a study conducted individually or sometimes

collaboratively, which is then expressed in the form of self-reflection. It is a term
used to explain the investigation made by a practitioner to improve his practice. In
the educational context, action research can be used to study educational problems
and correct certain unfavourable teaching and learning situations in class. It
provides an opportunity for teachers to research on their own teaching situations.
Teachers should understand problematic situations before investigating and taking
actions to improve on those situations. With action research, the role of teachers
has been expanded. In fact, as teachers, we are playing a double role, that is, as
practitioners who are teaching and at the same time as researchers who are studying
the effects of our own teaching. We can do our own systematic classroom research
rather than relying on someone else to tell us about our strengths and weaknesses.

TOPIC 10 ACTION RESEARCH IN MATHEMATICS E 195
ACTIVITY 10.1
10.1.1 Definitions of Action Research

When we carry out action research in our classrooms, we are actually playing a
double role. We are being practitioners who are teaching and at the same time being
researchers who are studying the effects of our own teaching. Just imagine us being
a badminton player with two racquets on both of our hands.
“Research” is a systematic and disciplined inquiry, whereas „action‰ relates

directly to one’s practices in a social situation. When “action‰ combines with
“research‰, it refers to “practices disciplined by systematic inquiry” (Hopkins,
2002). In other words, action research is a process conducted to examine new
practices by observing and collecting data related to the effects of the practices
with the aim of improving them.
Some of the definitions of action research given by some prominent researchers

are stated below:
Themmis (1983)

(c) Action research is a study of a social situation with a view to improve

the quality of action within it.
Elliot (1991)
(d) Action research is research conducted by teachers in order to develop

their own practices.
Altricher, Posh and Somekh (1993)
(e) Action research is a systematic form of inquiry in which people participate

collaboratively in a cyclic process of planning, acting and reflecting. In
this process, the participants themselves will: (1) determine the focus of
the research; (2) collect and analyse the data; (3) make decisions for
change; (4) engage in action to improve practices or solve problems; and
(5) reflect on the outcomes of the action with a view to further action.
Crotty (1998)
(f) Action research is a name given to a particular way of researching your

own learning. It is a practical way of looking at your own practice in order
to check whether it is as you feel it should be. If you feel that your practice
is satisfactory, you will be able to explain how and why you believe this
is the case; you will be able to produce evidence to support your claims.
If you feel that your practice needs attention in some way, you will be able
to take action to improve it and then produce evidence to show in what
way the practice has improved.
McNiff (2002)
ACTIVITY 10.2

10.1.2 Aims of Action Research

Traditional classroom research generally does not assist us in improving our
practices. However, if we engage ourselves in action research, we will create an
environment of constant renewal and improvement. By looking closely at our
classrooms, reflecting on our practices, developing our own questions, strategies
and interventions, we are actually developing ourselves to become capable and
effective teachers. Such an engagement will open us to a wide world of further
research that will upgrade our image as professional teachers.
Basically, a classroom is an intricate social institution that involves dynamic

interaction between our students and us. The numerous changes that take place in
a classroom environment demand us to be reflective practitioners. In other words,
as we teach, we also need to constantly learn how to cope with the frequent
changes. This kind of new learning will help us to promote our capability to be
effective teachers.
In fact, action research is an important strategy that helps us to improve our own
classroom practices. It allows us to logically address issues that affect teaching and
learning activities in our classrooms. This kind of practical insight is very valuable
in developing a body of useful theories for the teaching profession.
10.1.3 Characteristics of Action Research

Frequently, action research has been wrongly interpreted as academic research.
Thus, it is of utmost importance for us to appreciate the features of action research
in order to put it into operation correctly. Listed below are some of the distinctive
characteristics of action research:
(a) Action research incorporates action with research. This type of research
shows no separation between reflection (knowledge construction) and action
(testing of knowledge gained). The results of reflection are continuously
transformed into practices, and practice continuously throws up reasons for
reflection and this is repeated until it develops into practical theories.
(b) Action research is collaborative. Both teachers and students are involved
collaboratively as partners in making important decisions such as the
collection and interpretation of data. It is important to realise that action
research is research done with the students and not on the students. There
exists some form of understanding between participating partners about what
has to be done to improve the situations.
(c) Action research is participative. It is not a process in which teachers will be
actively involved while the students will be passively following instructions.

In fact, in action research, both teachers and students are involved as active
participants in the research process.
(d) Action research is situational. The main focus of action research is not
towards creating knowledge that can be generalised into other settings. It is
actually to focus on generating specific knowledge on specific desired changes
in a particular unique situation.
(e) Action research is reflective in nature. Researchers have to play an important
role reflecting on the outcomes of the research done. Reflection plays a key
role in evaluating and making sense of the research process and its possible
outcomes.
(f) Action research is a cyclic process. Usually, the process starts with a concern
or an issue. Normally, its findings will then lead to new concerns. According
to Clements and Ellerton (1996), in action research, the end is just the
beginning. Lewin (1952), a social psychologist, described the process of
action research as a spiral of cycles of action and research that comprises four
major components: plan, act, observe, and reflect [refer to Figure 10.1(a)].
Clements and Ellerton (1996) further illustrated the same process as shown in
Figure 10.1.
Figure 10.1(a): The spiral nature of action research spiral (Lewin, 1952)

Figure 10.1(b): One cycle of the action research (Lewin, 1952)
ACTIVITY 10.3
DEVELOPMENT OF ACTION RESEARCH
10.2.1 Historical Development

Thurt Lewin initiated action research in the early 1940s. He devised action research
as a form of inquiry into a group of psychological patients. His methodology was
based on group dynamics. His actions to the problems were focused on the group
environment itself. Lewin’s inquiry cycle starts with analysis, data collection,
conceptualisation, action plan, taking action and finally ends with evaluation of the
action. His innovation in devising an action research design is considered an
important contribution to social inquiry.
Action research was also applied in the industrial field (Whyte & Hamilton, 1964).
The Massachusetts Institute of Technology and the Tavistock Institute of Human
Relations were the pioneers in propagating action research in solving industrial
problems. When carrying out action research, Tavistock focused on the practitioner
himself, rather than the professional researcher (Wallace, 1987). In actual fact,
Lewin did emphasised that the contribution of the practitioner cannot be sidelined
if we want to understand and improvise the existing social system.
Corey (1953) introduced action research to education. He believed that this form
of inquiry could change and improve learning and teaching activities in

classrooms. According to him, teachers could use their own findings of research to
improvise their own techniques in teaching. Corey defined action research as a
process where a practitioner investigates his own practice to solve practical
problems in his classrooms (Johnson, 1993). Many educationists used extensively
this form of investigation for the formulation of curriculum and improvement of
teaching methods and techniques.
In 1973, John Elliot and Clem Helman adopted action research under the Ford
Teaching project to study the teaching and learning methods in classrooms. Later,
Tholb (1984), Carr and Themmis (1986) further developed the concept of action
research. In the 1980’s, action research was popularly used as a research tool. In
the United Thingdom, action research was closely related to a movement called
“Teacher as a researcher” (Hustler, Cassidy & Cuff, 1986). In Australia, Stephen
Themmis formed a team of action researchers at the University of Deakin. Their
action research projects have been very influential in theories and practices of
action research in Australia (Themmis & McTaggart, 1988). The idea of action
research was first introduced in Malaysia in 1988.
10.2.2 Culture of the Mathematics Classroom

The culture of the mathematics classroom is becoming an important topic of
discussion in mathematics education. Studying and changing what happens in the
classroom enable researchers and teachers to recognise the social character of
mathematical pedagogy and the relationship between the mathematics classroom
and culture (Seeger, Voigt, Waschescio, 1999). Teachers as researchers can look
into some of the culture of mathematics classroom mentioned below for further
improvement.
(a) The StudentsÊ Roles and Actions

In the classroom, studentsÊ role and actions depend on how mathematics
teachers conduct the lesson. According to Nickson (1992), learning
mathematics from textbooks tend to produce students who learn mathematics
passively with little connection with their daily lives. Students view
mathematics in terms of a ‰right or wrong‰ nature. Their main concerns
are the quantity of mathematics done and its correctness. However, students
take a different role when their belief about mathematics differs. They take
control of learning the mathematical knowledge.

(b) The TeachersÊ Influence

The teaching and learning process very much depends on the ability of
teachers. Teachers with an integrated and conceptual understanding of
mathematics tend to organise teaching and learning activities that encourage
students to engage and interact with the conceptual aspects of mathematics.
The depth of mathematical knowledge taught to the students correlates highly
with the depth of the teachersÊ mathematical knowledge (Fennema and
Franke, 1992).
(c) The Learning Environment

The learning environment influences the studentsÊ learning of mathematics.
The teachers who are warm and supportive are more effective than teachers
who are critical (Tikunoff, Berliner & Rist, 1975; Rosenshine & Furst, 1971).
Henningsen and Stein (1997) stressed that teachers need to maintain a high
level of student engagement at doing mathematics by selecting appropriate
tasks for them, asking students to provide meaningful explanations of their
work and making meaningful connections. Henningsen and Stein (1997)
added that students engagement in mathematical activities declines when
teachers remove the challenging aspects of the tasks, focus on the correctness
or completeness of an answer and do not allow enough time for students to
complete the task. Artz and Armour-Thomas (1992) highlighted that students
working in small groups to solve mathematical problems exhibit cognitive
behaviours and processes that are similar to the expert mathematical problem
solvers.
10.2.3 Practice of Teaching and Learning

Mathematics
Teaching and learning practices vary widely across educational systems and across
schools within systems. Some of the practices of teaching and learning
mathematics are:
(a) The way teachers handle challenges;
(b) Preparation and implementation of a lesson;
(c) Collaboration and discussion among teachers;
(d) Mathematical thinking; and
(e) Use of new knowledge and skills in enhancing studentsÊ learning.
From time to time, teachers need to enhance their practices in terms of

mathematical knowledge and skills through various continuous professional

development programmes. Lesson study is a type of continuous professional

development programme that has many similar features of an action research.
Lesson study provides an ongoing method to improve instruction. In lesson study,

teachers work together to plan, observe, and refine „research lessons‰ designed
to achieve their long-term goals for studentsÊ learning and development. Lesson
study is a learning process, supported by collaborative goal setting, careful data
collection on studentsÊ learning and discussion focuses on the data collected at the
research lesson on the students and lesson, not the teacher (Lewis, 2002).
Cheah (2008) conducted a project using the lesson study approach to address two
main concerns in the teaching and learning of mathematics in Malaysian primary
schools. The concerns are that the teaching of mathematics is still very much
focused on computations and students often learn mathematics mainly by rote
learning. These practices often lead students to not being able to appreciate,
understand and apply the mathematical concepts in solving problems. The lesson
study project was carried out to promote students to learn mathematics by engaging
in mathematical processes such as mathematical thinking, communication and
problem solving.
10.2.4 Issues Related to Mathematics Instruction

Issues related to mathematics instruction refer to the process of teaching and
learning mathematics or problems faced by teachers. Some of the issues related
to mathematics teachers that affect students’learning are professional
preparation, mathematical knowledge, pedagogical content knowledge,
classroom management and also teaching styles and specific instructional
approaches.
Caro-Bruce (2000) proposed some questions as starting points to help teachers

identify an issue they would like to research.
I would like to improve .

I am perplexed by .
I am really curious about .
Something I think would really make a difference is .
Something I would like to change is .
What happens to student learning in my classroom when I ?
How can I implement ?
How can I improve ?

Bergeson (2000) identified four key aspects of mathematics education for teachers
to investigate.
(a) StudentsÊ Characteristics

StudentsÊ maturity, intellectual ability, past experiences and performances in
mathematics, preferred learning styles, attitude toward mathematics, and
social adjustment are related to how they learn mathematics.
(b) The Teaching and Learning of Mathematics

TeachersÊ understanding of mathematics, beliefs in mathematics, preferred
styles of instruction, interaction with students, view on assessment,
professionalism and effectiveness as mathematics teachers do influence the
process of teaching and learning of mathematics.
(c) The Mathematics Curriculum

Teachers need to look into the difficulty level of the mathematics content, its
scope, the sequences, required pre-requisite knowledge and the aspects of
concepts, skills, values and contextual applications.
(d) The Pedagogy of Mathematics

The method used by teachers to present the mathematical content and
studentsÊ experience in the mathematical content are important. Teachers
need to look into the use of optimal instructional techniques, the design of
instructional materials, the use of multimedia and computing technologies,
the use of manipulative, teachersÊ requirements, the role of parents or
guardian and the integration of alternative assessment techniques.
10.2.5 Challenges in Conducting Action Research

Mathematics education is a dynamic process. In the era of information and
communication technology, the teaching and learning process is getting more
sophisticated. Teachers need to improve their knowledge and skills that are in line
with the needs of the students and expectation of the stakeholders. Teachers need
to conduct action research for professional development. The process of planning,
conducting and reporting an action research is demanding, complex and
challenging because teachers as researchers have the responsibilities for doing the
research and also for creating changes in the process of teaching and learning.

Some of the challenges in conducting action research are as follows:

(a) Engage energy, passion and commitment in carrying out action research
with the daily teaching routine;
(b) Identify and engage colleagues to share and discuss action research;
(c) Search current and relevant information from various sources;
(d) Identify and state clearly the research questions;
(e) Use suitable data collection methods;
(f) Review literature that helps to define the theoretical, social, historical,
educational or cultural context of the research issue or question; and
(g) Analyse the data using suitable data analysis methods.
Teachers as researchers who are trying out new teaching techniques need to realise
that everything might not result ideally the first time. Good teaching techniques
take years to perfect, so teachers need to improve the teaching techniques from
time to time (Ishii, 2003). Bergeson (2000) stressed that mathematics teachers must
be both reflective and proactive professionals. Their attitudes must be favourable
to change and acquiring in-depth knowledge of mathematics is important for
professional development.
ACTIVITY 10.4

IMPLEMENTING ACTION RESEARCH IN A

CLASSROOM
Action research is said to be very frightening for many of us who are trying to make
the first attempt to engage ourselves in it. While starting off our action research, we
will frequently face many uncertainties, and this will cause us to wonder how we
can make our first move. There are in fact many different ways to begin and carry
out our first action research. However, the five-stage process that is to be discussed
here will guide us to begin our first action research in a very systematic and simple
manner. Figure 10.2 illustrates these five (5) stages, namely:
(a) Identify your concerns;
(b) Plan your actions;
(c) Implement your actions;
(d) Observe the effects of actions; and
(e) Reflect on the effects.
Figure 10.2: Stages of action research (Lewin, 1952)

If we were to look thoroughly at Figure 10.2, we would realise that there are two
(2) stages in the action research process in which data are collected and analysed,
that is, (i) identify your concerns, and (ii) observe effects of actions. This shows
that data collection does not just stop once we have passed the first stage, but it
will be done once again to see the effects of the actions implemented.
In addition to it, the figure also seems to show that “identify your concerns‰ and
„plan your actions‰ are two (2) separate stages. However, during the actual
implementation, these two (2) stages may happen at the same time. In other words,
identifying our concerns and planning out our actions may be done concurrently.
Likewise, the „implement your actions‰ stage and „observe effects of actions‰
stage may happen simultaneously too. Last but not least, it can be seen that „reflect
on the effects‰ stage can be done throughout the entire action research cycle.
We may begin our action research by asking ourselves a series of questions. The
following activities will guide us through all the five (5) stages of an action
research. At the end of all these activities, we should be able to implement our first
action research in our own classroom setting.
10.3.1 Identify Your Concerns

How do I identify a concern to be the focus of my action research?
First of all, we should look at our classroom practices in order to identify our
concerns. Then, we may formulate a list of ideas that can bring about some form
of positive changes in our present practices. Consequently, we shall decide on one
(1) idea that we would like to try out. This idea might be an important action to
tackle our existing practices that need some improvement. Then again, it could also
be a new action to replace our existing routine actions.

Once we have identified our research question, we will need to explore more about
it. In particular, we should read to get more information about our research
concern. Usually, our reading should focus on other studies that are related to our
research question. This related reading should increase your knowledge and
understanding of the problem in hand. The knowledge acquired may help us to
refine our research question. Accordingly, we may make necessary changes to our
research question.
10.3.2 Plan Your Actions

How do I plan my actions?
It is important that we list all possible actions that we think may address our
concern. However, we can also talk to our colleagues and seek their opinions on
how we can tackle the concern. Lastly, we should decide on the action that we
would like to take.
Apart from planning our action, we need to also consider how we are going to
determine the effects of our action. We need to decide on how and when facts
should be gathered. This will then help us to measure the effectiveness of our
action.

Evidence How and when evidence should be gathered

(Types of data collection) (How and when data is collected)
Questionnaire Samples are given a set of questions to be
answered. Questionnaires are given before and
after action is taken.
Interview Talk to the samples before and after action is
taken.
Record the interview with an audio recorder.
Structured Observation
Non-structured
Observation
Journals and diaries
Inventories and checklist
StudentsÊ performance
record
Group activities
Personal reflection
Case study
There are many methods to collect our facts and evidence. Some of the examples
include:
(a) Structured and non-structured observations;
(b) StudentsÊ performance records;
(c) Interviews;
(d) Group activities;
(e) Journals and diaries;
(f) Questionnaires; and
(g) Our personal reflection.

ACTIVITY 10.5
10.3.3 Implement Your Actions

What do I need to be aware of while implementing my actions?
Ethical issues are very important in action research. What do you understand by
the word ethics? Is it about rules and regulations which you need to conform to or
is it about moral values?
Ethics is about moral decisions based on a standard of conduct which indicates

how one should behave with regard to moral duties and values. It can be based on
oneÊs personal decision, universally accepted values, or ethical obligations
determined by society.
In conducting action research, ethics is about a set of values and standards that
guide our actions, thoughts or words before, during and after the research process.
Arguably, there are so many different values pertaining to right or wrong
behaviour that denote ethics while performing action research activities. In this
context, we will try to look at some universally accepted ethics related to action
research.
While implementing our actions, we need to consider certain ethical aspects in

order not to bring about any negative implications to our students (respondents)
and the teaching profession. Certain principles with respect to the code of ethics
that we need to consider are as follows:
(a) We need to inform our students (respondents) about the purpose of our
research and get their consent to participate. They are doing us a favour by
allowing us to involve them in our research. In fact, we have no right at all to
force them to participate in our research.
(b) Our students should not be mishandled in any way (physically or
mentally). It is important that we get the consent from our students or/and
their parents before we can disclose their identities when sharing our data
or findings with others.
(c) Falsifying data in order to make findings agree with our research question is
unprofessional, unethical and unforgivable. Therefore, we should take every
precaution to ensure that our data is valid and reliable.

10.3.4 Observe Effects of Actions

How do I manage my data collection?
There are many strategies that can be applied by teachers (researchers) to obtain
data. Which strategy is suitable depends on the aim and nature of our action
research. To enable researchers to conduct plausible analysis and to discover new
understanding about certain issues in the educational environment, relevant data
have to be collected from reliable sources.
Many different types of data collection methods have been introduced in Section
10.3.2. Each method has its strengths and weaknesses. As a result, we, as
researchers, need to choose the data collection method that is suitable for our
research. If possible, data should be collected from different sources and from
various methods so as to ensure that the evidence gathered is reliable and not
biased. Having considered the various methods during data collection, we can be
confident that our findings are without prejudice and we can then take effective
actions to address our research problem.
Our data collection plan should also pay due attention to the administrative aspects,
such as seeking the approval of relevant parties (the school authority and ministry).
We should also make sure that the necessary resources such as references,
stationery and research assistants are available. While collecting data, we may also
consider the following:

ACTIVITY 10.6
10.3.5 Reflect on the Effects

How do I analyse the data in order to determine the effects of my actions?
Analysis and interpretation of data give useful meaning to it, especially when it
comes to understanding the data in the context of the said research. Once we
have collected our data, we must analyse the data objectively. Basically, data can
be classified as:
Quantitative data measure an attribute numerically, whereas qualitative data

describe a situation in text form. Basic statistics is usually used to analyse
quantitative data. On the other hand, qualitative data are analysed based on the
content. You may already be quite familiar with statistical analysis in your research
methods or measurement and evaluation courses. You should, however, do some
reading about qualitative analysis.
Before conducting analysis and interpretation of data, we should refer to the

following guidelines:

REFLECTIVE THINKING IN ACTION

RESEARCH
According to Mok Soon Sang (2004), a person can be said to possess reflective
thinking if he or she fulfils the following actions:
The explanation of one’s reflection will enable the person to improve his or her
professional performance. Reflective thinking can be practised during the
following times:

The main characteristic of reflective thinking is its involvement in solving a certain

problem in stages, critically and creatively, while recollecting related experiences
as well as evaluating the possible solutions. Based on this explanation, we can
conclude that improving the level of reflective thinking is very important to us as
teachers. This form of thinking will be useful to upgrade the quality of our teaching
activities, more so when we apply it during our action research. In this respect, we
should make use of the reflection technique and self- evaluation, before, during
and after conducting an action research. For example, after completing our data
analysis, we should return to our research question(s) and consider the following:



By doing so, we take a few moments to look back at the entire process that we have
gone through and reflect on our actions. We may also consider some of the
following questions:

In addition, we should also think about the learning process that we have
experienced as a result of completing the research. We may also consider some of
the following questions:



ACTIVITY 10.7
PREPARATION OF AN ACTION RESEARCH

REPORT
As teachers, it is very crucial that we share our new knowledge with our colleagues.
There are many ways for us to share our knowledge. Conclusions drawn from the
interpretation of our study can be put into writing as reflection and self-evaluation.
One good way will be writing an article to be read by others. There are many ways
in which an action research report can be written, but usually the action research
report would contain the following components:
Title Page
Acknowledgement
Abstract
Table of Content
List of Tables
List of Figures
List of Appendices
1. 0 Introduction
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Teaching and Learning Reflection
1.3 Reflection about Educational Values
2.0 Research Focus
2.1 Research Issue
2.2 Literature Review Related to the Research Issue

3.0 Research Objective and Research Question

4.0 Target Group
5.0 Action Taken
6.0 Data Collection and Data Analysis Method
7.0 Findings, Data Analysis and Interpretations
8.0 Conclusion and Reflection of Findings
9.0 Suggestion for Future Research
References
Appendices
Finally, we must always remember that action research is an ongoing process. The
answers we gather from a study will spawn more questions and then spur us to
probe and enquire further into the next cycle. So, we should always be ready to
continue with the next research when the situation arises.
• By now, you should know the meaning, aim and characteristics of an action
research.
• Always remember the five stages required when implementing an action

research, namely:
– Identifying your concerns;
– Planning your actions;
– Implementing your actions;
– Observing the effects of the actions; and
– Reflecting on the effects.
• You should also be aware of the reflective thinking required in conducting an

action research.
• Most importantly, you must be able to report your findings.

1. Explain, in your own words, the meaning of the terms “research‰ and
„action‰, and the combined terms of “action research‰.
2. When we conduct action research in the classroom, we are the practitioners

and also the researchers. What is the main aim of action research for you as
a practitioner?
3. Action research involves reflective thinking on the part of the researcher.

What are the actions of a person who possesses reflective thinking?
4. As lifelong learners, teachers should continue to do action research and

reflective thinking to bring changes to the existing teaching and learning
practices.
(a) What is the role of reflective thinking in action research?
(b) State the five stages in implementing an action research.
(c) Briefly explain how you would identify one concern related to your
classroom practice and formulate a research question regarding this
concern.

ANSWERS E 217
Answers
TOPIC 1: TEACHER AND MATHEMATICS EDUCATION
Activity 1.1
Refer Appendix 1.1.
Activity 1.2 and 1.3

Refer topic overview.
Self-Test
1. (i) Integration of knowledge, values and language;
(ii) Integration of mathematics with other branches of knowledge;
(iii) Integration of various topics in mathematics; and
(iv) Integration of mathematics learned in the classrooms with those
experiences outside the classrooms.
2. The aim of the primary school mathematics curriculum:

 To enable students to acquire mastery in the basic skills;
 To apply the basic skills constantly to studentsÊ real life experiences;
and
 To emphasise problem solving throughout the curriculum.
3. The Razak Report proposed that Malaysia should have a common

mathematics curriculum instead of the traditional curriculum. The primary
school mathematics syllabus was revised, for the first time, in 1970, adopted
from the Special Project. After that, following the reforms of the mathematics
curriculum in the West, like Britain and USA, several projects were
implemented in our curriculum. At the same time, the government introduced
the Modern Mathematics syllabus for secondary schools. The development
of mathematics curriculum is aimed to improve the approaches, methods and
techniques of teaching and learning mathematics. The secondary school
curriculum also offers Additional Mathematics

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subject for students who intend to continue their studies in science and
technology.
4. The advancement in mathematics curriculum can help in achieving Vision

2020, especially the 6th challenge. It can be realised through the development
of teaching and learning materials in the form of multimedia materials using
ICT, especially through the EteMS and Smart School programmes. In both
programmes, mathematics is one of the main subjects. Our government hopes
that our education system is able to produce intelligent students with
advanced and sophisticated knowledge, especially in ICT as well as to
produce world standard technocrats with good moral values.
TOPIC 2: KNOWLEDGE IN MATHEMATICS
Activity 2.1
The five strands of proficiency in mathematics are:
(1) Conceptual understanding;
(2) Procedural fluency;
(3) Strategic competence;
(4) Adaptive reasoning; and
(5) Productive disposition.
Activity 2.2
Round or adjust
43 + 29 is the same as (40 + 3) + (30 - 1)

= (40 + 30) + (3 – 1)
= 70 + 2 = 72.
Activity 2.3
Estimation helps students to become better problem solvers, facilitate computation,
think quantitatively, reason numerically, check an intermediate value when a long
string of calculations depends on the accuracy of earlier calculations.

ANSWERS E 219
Activity 2.4
3925 rounds to 3900
- 1495 rounds to - 1500
2400
The estimated difference is 2400. (Exact difference is 2430)
Activity 2.5
16  24 = 16  (18 + 6) = (16  18) + (16  6) = 288 + 96 = 384.
Self-Test
1. Computational tools that are frequently used by students are mental
computation, estimation, written computation, abacus, calculator, Base 10
Block and Cuisenaire rod.
1 5
2. Estimate of 5 –4 .
6 8
6 8
because 5 – 5 = 0
6 8
3. One way students can use a calculator to enhance their conceptual

understanding is by using it to verify their answers after they have done the
computation manually. After they understood the concepts, they may use
calculator to do the calculation for them.
4. (a) 2 + 4 + 1 + 6 = 13
(b) Siti adds each number without taking into account the place value.
(c) The teacher may want to introduce the concept of place value. This
can be done by counting objects in groups of ten and counting the ten-

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groups and the one separately. Introduce also the word twenty, thirty,
etc.
TOPIC 3: TEACHING MATHEMATICS
Activity 3.1
Cooperative Learning Traditional Whole Class

Dimension
Class Instruction Instruction
Classroom Arrangement
StudentÊs desk is arranged – StudentÊs desk Desks are arranged in rows
to form groups. arrangement. and columns.
– TeacherÊs table location.
TeacherÊs table can be TeacherÊs table is positioned
arranged in any position. in front of the class.
Classroom Instruction
Two ways communication – How students interact One way communication
(teacher to students, and communicate? (teacher to students)
students to teacher). – Student or teacher
centered? Teacher-centered
Student-centered.
Classroom Talk
Talk to each other through – How students talk and Individual, no discussion.
discussion. discuss with each other?
– How students ask and Passive learning.
Active learning. answer questions?
Classroom Activity
Work in pairs or – How students work; in Work individually.
groups. group, individually, or
pairs?
Classroom Climate
Informal, enjoyable, – Formal or informal? Formal, serious, competing
friendly. – Enjoyable or serious? with each other.
– Friendly or competing?

ANSWERS E 221
Activity 3.2
Numbered Heads model
Skill: The characteristics of a cube and a cuboid.
Step 1: Divide class into groups (groups of 4).
Step 2: Each member is given numbers of 1, 2, 3, 4.
Step 3: Teacher asks students to recognise the characteristics of a cube and a
cuboid according to the characteristics listed in the table given.
Step 4: Teacher asks a question and group members work together to get the
answer. Teacher then asks certain students, for example students with
number Â3Ê of each group to answer the question. Teacher poses
questions to other students.
Activity 3.3
Sub-topic: Area of 2-D shape.
Refer examples in section 3.2.2.
Activity 3.4
Refer to section 3.3.3.
Activity 3.5
Learning objectives: To find the formula to calculate the area of a
triangle
(a) Students are asked to build a rectangle, 20 cm  10 cm using

manila card.
Teacher gives the formula of area of the rectangle, i.e. A = l  w
(b) Fold the rectangle into two equal parts as below:
l l
and
cut
w R w

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Cut the card to get two triangles, triangles A and B.
(c) Teacher asks students to compare and find a relationship between the area
of a triangle and the area of a rectangle until they discover that:
Area of triangle A = area of triangle B = half the area of rectangle R

Area of a triangle = half of area of reactangle
=½lw
Activity 3.6
Refer to section 3.4.1.
Self-Test
1. The importance of teaching methods are:
(a) To help teachers plan effective teaching and learning strategies
according to studentsÊ ability, interest and achievement.
(b) To ensure the achievement of learning objectives during the learning
process.
(c) To stimulate studentsÊ interest and motivate them to participate
actively in their learning activities as well as to develop their thinking
skills, cognitive ability, communicative ability, and organising ability.
2. The difference between induction and deduction method in teaching

mathematics:
• Induction method:
To derive certain mathematics principle, theorem, formula, or law.
• Deduction method:
To derive a new mathematics principle, theorem, formula, or law from
the existing mathematics principles, theorems, formulas, or laws.
Example:

ANSWERS E 223
(a) Derive the formula of area of a triangle from the formula of area of
a rectangle.
(b) Derive the formula of area of a trapezium from the formula of
area of a rectangle.
3. Learning objectives: to derive the formula of a rectangle (A = l  w).

Strategy of teaching: cooperative learning, inquiry-discovery, questioning.
Procedure:
(a) Teacher asks the students to work in groups of five.
(b) Students are given several unit squares and they are required to form
the shape A, B, C, D, and E.
(c) Students are guided to count the number of squares in each shape to
obtain its area and fill in the table below:
Formula of
Number of Length Width
Shape Area
Squares (Area) (l) (w)
l w
A
B
C
D
E
A B C
D E
(d) Students are then guided to use their previous knowledge about the
characteristics of a square and rectangle (i.e. length, width) and other
information from the above activity to complete the table.

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(e) Students are asked to compare and analyse all the information in the
table. They need to have some discussion among them.
(f) Teacher guides them by asking a series of questions to make them

discover the formula of area of a rectangle (i.e. area of rectangle =
length  width).
TOPIC 4: TEACHING APPROACHES IN MATHEMATICS
Activity 4.1
Implications of Constructivist Theory to teachers are:
(a) Teaching is a student-centered activity;
(b) It is designed to give the opportunity for students to construct new
knowledge and solve problem based on their prior knowledge; and
(c) The teacher becomes a facilitator.
Activity 4.2
The advantages of using constructivist approach in the classroom are students
become more confident, understand more, increase their memory, have more social
skills, become more interested in learning and able to think more.
Activity 4.3
Formula: Total number of squares in (n x n) square is the sum from 1 to n2.
Number of squares in a (6  6) square = 12 + 22 + ......... + 62
= 1 + 4 + 9 + 16 + 25 + 36 = 91.
Activity 4.4
The meaning of ÂtransferringÊ is Âlearning helps students to transfer their existing
knowledge, that is, what they already know to new knowledege, by allowing them
to build the new knowledge themselves so that they can retain their dignity and
develop confidenceÊ.

ANSWERS E 225
Activity 4.5
The tasks are to Âlist six real life situations that are opposite in nature then, represent
these situations as integers and illustrate on the number lineÊ. All the three (3)
objectives are tested in the Assessment, if at least one of the situations involves
negative integer.
Self-Test
1. According to the constructivist approach, a classroom teacher has to
supervise learning activities, acts as a consultant, helps students only when
necessary, motivates students to reflect; and accepts different solutions from
them.
2. Contextual learning motivates students to learn when they are taught on why
they learn the concepts and how these concepts are used outside the
classroom, and they learn more efficiently when they are allowed to work
cooperatively in small groups.
3. Cooperation means learning in the context of sharing, responding and

communicating with others to help students communicate effectively, share
information freely and work comfortably in a team setting.
4. Advantages of problem-based learning are:

(a) Greater recall of knowledge, higher retention;
(b) Accessing and using information from a variety of subject domains;
(c) Better integration of knowledge development of life-long learning
skills such as how to research, how to communicate in groups, how to
handle problems; and
(d) Increased motivation, interest in subject areas.
Disadvantages of problem-based learning are:

(a) Time consuming;
(b) Need good facilitation skills; and
(c) Need proper planning.
5. Implications of mastery learning are:

(a) Teachers direct a variety of group work activities;

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(b) Teachers frequently give feedback by usign diagnostic, formative tests

and regularly correcting studentsÊ mistakes during learning process.
6. (a) A contextual learning is the learning that incorporates different forms of

experiences (social, cultural, physical, and psychological) in working
towards the desired learning outcomes.
(b) The five essential elements represented by REACT are relating,

experiencing, applying , cooperating and transferring.
(c) The five REACT elements found in the lesson plan are:
(i) Relating Âopposite numbersÊ to opposite Âup and downÊ.
(ii) Experiencing the Âhands-onÊ using number line.
(iii) Applying the concept of ÂintegersÊ to Âmarching 12 steps to the leftÊ.
(iv) Cooperating in class during problem-solving session.
(v) Transfering basic knowledge of Âwhole numbersÊ to new
knowledge of ÂintegersÊ.
TOPIC 5: PROBLEM SOLVING
Activity 5.1
As mathematics teachers, to narrow the gap between mathematics and real life
problems, we can ask our students to solve real life problems which are related to
the concepts that we are teaching. Other than real, these problems should be
contextual in nature.
Activity 5.2
Understanding the problem is the most important step because we cannot solve a
problem until we fully understand what we should look for. We also need to
look for clues and information, and then identify quantities and the unknowns.
Activity 5.3
We can relate Mr EngguÊs problem to the concept of set, that is, the sets of {wild cat,
rabbit, flower}, {wild cat, rabbit}, {wild cat, flower}, {rabbit, flower}, {wild cat},
{rabbit}, {flower}, and { }.

ANSWERS E 227
Activity 5.4
There is a pattern of the number of pairs of rabbits from March onwards, that is, the
number of pairs is equal to the sum of two numbers of pairs before it. 3 = 1 + 2, 5 =
2 + 3, 8 = 3 + 5, 13 = 5 + 8, 21 = 8 + 13,........., 233 = 89 + 144.
Activity 5.5
One possible answer, if students have wrongly encoded the answer, is: Âw = 2Ê. The
question is: What is the price of a durian and watermelon? The answer should be:
The price of durian is RM 4.00 and the price of watermelon is RM 2.00.
Self-Test
1. Learning of mathematics through problem solving will produce highly
confidence, competitive, innovative and creative students. It also promotes
higher order thinking, decision making and strength in facing the challenge.
2. Problem solving skills and divergence thinking enhance studentsÊ ability to

be creative and innovative. It should be introduced at primary school level to
prepare students in facing challenging world of globalization.
3. NewmanÊs Error Analysis is important in identifying studentÊs errors related

to reading, comprehension, transformation, process skills, encode,
carelessness and motivation. After errors are identified, remedial program
can be given to correct these errors.
4. (a) The four steps in PolyaÊs Model of Problem Solving are:

(i) Understand the problem,
(ii) Devise a plan,
(iii) Carry out the plan, and
(iv) Check the answer.
(b) An example of a mathematics problem:

Find the chance of getting a HEAD or TAIL when we throw up a coin.
(d) We may use ÂExperimentingÊ strategy to solve the problem. The

PolyaÊs four steps can be used in solving this problem as follows:

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 We are asked to throw up a ten-cent coin.
 Find the chance or probability to get HEAD or TAIL.
HEAD OR
TAIL

 Experimenting.

 Throw up the coin 10 times and count the number of HEAD and TAIL.
 Find the proportion of HEAD and TAIL.

 The proportion of HEAD and Tail should be around 0.5 if the coin is not
biased.
 The greater the number of throws, the closer the proportion to 0.5.

ANSWERS E 229
TOPIC 6: PLANNING MATHEMATICS LESSONS
Activity 6.1
The five steps in preparing the overall lesson plan are:
(a) Study the whole curriculum specifications;
(b) Divide the one-year content into two semesters;
(c) Divide the semester content into weekly content;
(d) Divide the weekly content into daily content; and
(e) Prepare daily lesson plan.
Activity 6.2
The three components of the daily lesson plan are:
(a) Preparation that deals mainly with identifying learning outcomes and basic
knowledge required;
(b) Presentation that deals mainly with the teaching-learning activities; and
(c) Conclusion that deals with consolidation, evaluation and closure.
Activity 6.3
A good daily lesson plan will boost teachersÊ confidence in delivering their lesson,
especially at the early stage of their teaching career or when they are teaching a
new topic. It can also become a checklist that reminds teachers about the teaching-
learning activities they should closely follow.
Activity 6.4
Evaluation in Development Stage is a plan for questions to check studentsÊ prior
knowledge, questions to stimulate brainstorming among students or challenge
students to investigate specific mathematical ideas, and questions to measure
studentsÊ achievement of the learning outcomes.

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Activity 6.5
In this example, students worked in pairs, that is, a group of two. They took turns
to count the counters and their partners checked the counting to make sure the
counting was correct. Besides correcting each other, each partner praised the other
for successfully counting up to 10.
Self-Test
1. Yes, effective teaching begins with thoughtful planning. In the planning,
teachers must make decisions about what content to emphasise, which
pedagogical approaches to use, and when and how to assess studentsÊ
progress, which will make the teaching more effective.
2. To provide meaningful mathematics for students with different ability,

teachers must consider the appropriate curriculum, the realistic goals of
teaching mathematics and make decisions about how to implement teaching-
learning and assessment activities to their students.
3. The warm up or opening activity helps to get students involved in doing

mathematics as soon as they enter the classroom. It is also a way to introduce
a new topic or provide opportunity for students to brush up on skills that are
required in learning new topics or concepts.
4. (a) The three components of a lesson plan are preparation, presentation

and conclusion.
(b) The presentation component consists of two parts, that is, set induction
and development of teaching-learning activities. Set induction covers
the warm up activity which will help students to get started to do
mathematics as soon as they enter the classroom. It is also a way to
introduce a new topic and provide opportunity for students to brush up
their prerequisite skills. Development of teaching-learning activities
covers skill development, teaching and learning activities, use of
resources and inculcation of moral values.
(c) As an example, teachers wish to plan the set induction for the learning
outcome that Âthe students should be able to deduce the formula for the
total number of smaller squares for a given larger squareÊ (example
given in Topic 4). As set induction, teachers may want to show their
students some square figures of different sizes. They may then ask their
students of what they know about squares, that is, in terms of the length
of their sides. Then, teachers can show their
ANSWERS E 231
students squares with grid lines and ask them how many squares they
can see. As a prerequisite skill, teachers may want to check how they
calculate the square of a number, say from 1 to 10. If teachers find out
that students are not familiar with the characteristics of a square or the
square of numbers, teachers should revise the basic knowledge, before
they start teaching the new concept.
TOPIC 7: THEORY AND PRACTICE OF ICT IN PRIMARY

Activity 7.1
In self-directed learning, students determine the topics they want to learn within a
particular content area. In self-accessed learning, students search for and locate
information about specific topics from online resources. Students are encouraged
to evaluate their own progress within a particular topic and from the feedback given
(online quizzes, forums, etc). In self-paced learning, students determine their own
pace in acquiring the prescribed knowledge and skills in the various content areas
within the syllabus when using courseware or Internet. This strategy encourages
step-by-step learning in which students monitor their own progress.
Activity 7.2
Students use drawing tools such as MS Paint to draw shapes, write numbers, etc.
Activity 7.3
The school needs to provide ICT facilities such as computer rooms and computers
with Internet access, educate the students on how to select reliable, accurate and
suitable web-based resources for learning.
Activity 7.4
The World Wide Web offers a great wealth of information, as well as the
opportunity for people to express themselves and exchange ideas. Some of the
information may or may not be relevant to achieve the learning outcomes of the
subject matter. So, we need to evaluate the web-based resources based on source,
accuracy, currency, objectivity, purpose and coverage.

232 € ANSWERS
Activity 7.4
Refer to section 7.4.1
Self-Test
1. The status of using computer in teaching and learning mathematics in
schoolsdepends on the computer facilities available. The situation depends
on the environment of the school. So, the answer depends on the school you
are teaching.
2. Interactive board, Multimedia projects, Interactive computer activities.
3. (a) Students use Internet to search for information to do their assignment and
do online discussion or sharing of learning materials through e- group,
e-mail, forum, etc.
(b) Number and operations, measurement, algebra, geometry, data
analysis and probability.
TOPIC 8: ICT IN MATHEMATICS INSTRUCTION
Activity 8.1
One earlier application of computers in mathematics teaching and learning was to
carry out drill-and-practice using computers, in which students were given a lot of
questions to be tried out on their own and their answers could be checked by
computers.
Activity 8.2
An example of deductive reasoning in understanding the meaning of area is by
giving the formula of area of a rectangle as length multiplied by breadth with a
few examples. Students will understand the meaning of area through the
examples and exercises.
Activity 8.3
Discuss with your course mates.

ANSWERS E 233
Activity 8.4
Students can draw squares of various sizes and compute the perimeter of each
square as four times the length of its side and check the answer using GeometerÊs
Sketchpad. They should be able to remember that the perimeter of a square is four
times the length of its side.
Activity 8.5
One way of using internet to facilitate collaborative learning is to have an online
forum, in which each student can pose question(s) or explain his/her understanding
of certain concept, and other students will participate in giving answers or
comments.
Self-Test
1. Mathematics teaching and learning have evolved from talk-chalk-and- board
to using of computers, and from deductive approach to inductive or
investigative approach. Technology has virtually bring the world of
mathematics to students in classroom.
2. The three goals of mathematics education are to:

(a) Inculcate the values of mathematics;
(b) Develop confidence to participate in mathematics; and
(c) Strengthen insight into patterns of mathematical reasoning.
3. The three uses of the Internet in educational research are to:

(a) Manage educational information and research;
(b) Submit questions or answers to research questions; and
(c) Publish study results and share research findings.
4. (a) Inductive reasoning involves reasoning from particular facts or individual

cases to general conjectures. The induction process starts with
observing patterns then predicting answers for more complicated
problems.
(b) An example of inductive reasoning in understanding the meaning of

area is by asking students to find the area of rectangles by counting
the number of unit areas (may be 1 cm  1 cm) for some given
rectangles of various sizes (length and breadth in whole cm, e.g. 5 cm

234 € ANSWERS
 3 cm). Students will finally discover that the area of a rectangle is

equal to the length multiplied by breadth.
(c) The teacher can ask his/her students to draw rectangles of various sizes
and find their areas by counting the number of unit areas (using the grid
of coordinates) covered by the rectangles and check the answers using
GeometerÊs Sketchpad. Students will finally discover that the area of a
rectangle is equal to the length multiplied by breadth.
TOPIC 9: REMEDIAL AND ENRICHMENT
Activity 9.1
Discuss with your course mates.
Activity 9.2
Under the individual factors, students are not interested to learn due to the lack of
intrinsic or internal motivation, such as, not clear of what they want to do later in
their life. For example, having in mind their career path can motivate them to study
harder.
Activity 9.6
Asking students to do extra work about things that they already know will not
benefit them. In fact, the extra work can be a burden to them. Enrichment activities
should be focused on the application of knowledge which will help them getting
better grade.
Activity 9.7
Steps for planning a good remedial activity are:
(1) Planning and administering screening tests;
(2) Planning and administering diagnostic tests;
(3) Planning remedial activity;
(4) Evaluating achievement; and
(5) Making decisions.

ANSWERS E 235
Activity 9.8
The errors made by the student were subtracting smaller numbers from the bigger
numbers when the smaller numbers were at the top. The misconception was on the
procedure for subtracting numbers, without proper understanding of subtraction
and value of numbers.
Activity 9.9
The positive aspects are:
(a) Students are made aware of a variety of subtraction problems in set
induction;
(b) The same problems can be used to check studentsÊ ability; and
(c) The use of match sticks is more concrete and it will help students to
understand subtraction.
Self-Test
1. Some of the factors that affect studentsÊ learning and performance are the
lack of a condusive learning environment, lack of time to study since they
may be working to earn extra income, and lack of motivation to learn from
their parents.
2. The five procedures that can be used to identify students who need
mathematics remedial program are observation, questioning, interview,
reviewing studentÊs work and test.
3. The three objectives of enrichment programme which are most important to

high-achieving students are to:
(a) Enhance their creativity and thinking skills;
(b) Enhance their interest, talent and self-development; and
(c) Promote self-learning.
4. (a) The two most important objectives of remedial activities are to:
(i) Help remedial students to build mathematical concepts and
acquire related skills; and
(ii) Help them to correct mathematical concepts and related skills
that they have wrongly learnt.

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(b) We can identify remedial students by looking at the mistakes they made
in their work such as written assignments, homework, projects, test
answers and other products they produced. We may ask them to do
corrections, and if the mistakes still prevail, then there should be some
form of remedial activities planned for them. By taking a closer look at
each studentÊs work, we can discover their strengths and weaknesses;
and also use this information to monitor their progress.
(c) The errors made by the student were subtracting smaller numbers from
the bigger numbers when the smaller numbers were at the top. The
misconception was on the procedure for subtracting numbers, without
proper understanding of subtraction and value of numbers. One
remedial activity to overcome the misconception is to coach students
do the following calculations:
(i) Use one-digit and two-digit numbers, with all top digits bigger
than all bottom digits, to demonstrate the subtraction concept and
process, for examples:
9 29
-5 -13
4 16
From these exercises, we hope students can understand that

they should subtract bottom numbers from top numbers.
(ii) Use two-digit numbers, with top-right digit smaller than bottom-
right digit, to demonstrate the subtraction concept and process, for
examples:
23
-19
4
From this exercise, we hope students can understand that they should subtract
bottom number from top number. They should use one unit of top- left digit
and top-right digit to do the subtraction, when the top-right digit is smaller
than the bottom-right digit. Again, the process will be easier for students to
understand if we use, for example, bundles of 10 match sticks as follows:
(llllllllll) (llllllllll) lll 23
(llllllllll) lllllllll -19

ANSWERS E 237
TOPIC 10: ACTION RESEARCH IN MATHEMATICS
Activity 10.2
An action research is a collaborative study with the aims of improving rationality,
justice, understanding and situations of practices by means of collaborative
planning, actions and reflection on the effects of these actions.
Activity 10.3
Action research can help us as teachers to constantly improve our teaching
practices by studying our students and school syllabus, reflecting on our teaching,
and developing our own questions, strategies and intervention, so that we can
become effective teachers.
Activity 10.4
One example of action research we can try out is cooperative learning, that is, to
have a mixed group of low, moderate and high ability students in the same class;
and plan the teaching in such a way that the high ability students will help out those
with low and moderate abilities.
Activity 10.6
As for the effects of cooperative learning, we may want to collect qualitative data
such as group dynamics, studentsÊ attitude, their interest and motivation to
learn; and also quantitative data such as individual scores and group average scores
in mathematics test.
Activity 10.7
We may use a check list to observe group dynamics; interviews to find out
studentsÊ attitude, interest and motivation to learn; and mathematics test to obtain
individual test scores and group average test scores.

238 € ANSWERS
Self-Test
1. Research is a systematic and disciplined inquiry, whereas action relates
directly to oneÊs practices in a social situation. When „action‰ combines
with „research‰, it refers to practices disciplined by systematic inquiry.
2. The main aim of action research for practitioners is to help us improve our
classroom practices. It allows us to logically address issues that affect
teaching and learning activities in our classrooms.
3. A person is said to have reflective thinking if he/she relates ideas with

experiences; forwards own questions; proposes hypothesis and assumptions;
forwards various possible solutions; and evaluates possible solutions
critically and creatively.
4. (a) Reflective thinking plays an important role in evaluating and making

sense of the research process and its possible outcomes. Since action
research is reflective in nature, researchers have to reflect on the
outcomes of the research to understand them better.
(b) The five stages in implementing an action research are:

(i) Identify your concerns,
(ii) Plan your actions,
(iii) Implement your actions,
(iv) Observe the effects of action, and
(v) Reflection on the effects.
(c) The first stage in implementing an action research is to identify our

concerns, before we generate some ideas to bring about positive
changes in our present practices. We then decide on one idea that we
like to try out and formulate a research question.
(i) Some of the concerns are students of different abilities learn at
different rates; teacher does not have enough time to attend to all
students; and the content is too much to be covered in one
semester.
(ii) Suppose we choose one concern that we need to improve on, that
is, Âstudents of different abilities learn at different ratesÊ. This
concern needs our immediate attention, since the mark gaps
between students of different abilities are rather large.

ANSWERS E 239
(iii) Now, turn our concern into research question:

 How can I reduce the mark gaps between low-ability,
moderate-ability and high-ability students?

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Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Module Writers: Sharipah Ab Rahman

Dr Yeoh Poh Choo

Moderators: Prof Dr Abd Razak Habib

Developed by: Centre for Instructional Design and Technology

First Edition, September 2006

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM), April 2013, HBMT1103

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Topic 1 Teacher and Mathematics Education 1

Topic 2 Thnowledge in Mathematics 22

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Topic 3 Teaching Mathematics 41

Topic 4 Teaching Approaches in Mathematics 66

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Topic 5 Problem Solving 97

Topic 6 Planning Mathematics Lessons 130

Topic 7 Theory and Practice of ICT in Primary Mathematics Education 142

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Topic 8 ICT in Mathematics Instruction 155

Topic 9 Remedial and Enrichment 173

Topic 10 Action Research in Mathematics 193

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10.3 Implementing Action Research in a Classroom 205

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COURSE GUIDE DESCRIPTION

As an open and distance learner, you should be acquainted with learning

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Table 1: Estimation of Time Accumulation of Study Hours

Study Activities Hours

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Various approaches, strategies and techniques in mathematics which are proven to

Topic 2 will determine types of knowledge in mathematics. i.e. the concept,

Topic 3 will discuss the important approaches and techniques in teaching

Topic 4 will describe the approaches of teaching mathematics such as

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Topic 8 will allow you to be familiarised with the knowledge through

TEXT ARRANGEMENT GUIDE

Self-Check: This component of the module is inserted at strategic locations

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Activity: Like Self-Check, the Activity component is also placed at various

References: The References section is where a list of relevant and useful

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TAN SRI DR ABDULLAH SANUSI (TSDAS)

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1.1 MEANING AND ROLE OF MATHEMATICS

1.1.1 Definition of Mathematics

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Mathematics can be defined in various ways as shown in Figure 1.1:

Figure 1.1: Meaning of mathematics

Would you like to understand further the above statements? As a mathematics

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1.1.2 Role and Importance of Mathematics

The National Council of Teachers of Mathematics (NCTM) has classified

Table 1.1: Mathematics (as classified by the NCTM)

Content Standard Thinking Standard

In mathematics, solving problems refers to activities involving problems such as

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Mathematics plays an important role in the development of science and technology