Construction and Building Materials 181 (2018) 27–41

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Construction and Building Materials

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/conbuildmat

Review

Nano-SiO2 contribution to mechanical, durability, fresh and

microstructural characteristics of concrete: A review
Mohammad Balapour a, Alireza Joshaghani b,⇑, Fadi Althoey a
a
Department of Civil, Architectural, and Environmental Engineering, Drexel University, PA 19104, USA
b
Zachry Department of Civil Engineering, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX 77840, USA

h i g h l i g h t s

 NS increases strength due to dense CSH gel mostly less than 5%.
 A small dosage of NS enhances the abrasion resistant.
 Using NS leads to the reduction of chloride ions penetration.
 Addition of NS to cement matrix improves the electrical resistivity.
 The incorporation of NS can increase the extent of shrinkage.

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Long-term durability of concrete has been of interest for researchers in past decades, and throughout
Received 16 January 2018 their numerous research endeavors, they have tried to improve durability with the application of differ-
Received in revised form 30 April 2018 ent methods. One technique is the integration of a new material into the concrete. One material that has
Accepted 30 May 2018
attracted great attention of researchers is nano-SiO2 (NS). Its considerable performance in the enhance-
ment of durability properties of concrete and mortar provides reasonable specifications satisfaction for
scholars. In this paper, important durability characteristics of concrete, including the chloride ion pene-
Keywords:
tration, electrical resistivity, water penetration, water absorption, the pore size distribution, the carbon-
Nano-SiO2
Concrete
ation, the sulfate resistance, frost resistance, shrinkage, and thermal properties were explored.
Durability Additionally, the effects on the microstructure of concrete and mortar in the previous studies were dis-
Mechanical properties cussed. Mechanical properties, such as compressive strength, flexural strength, tensile strength, and abra-
Penetration sion resistivity were also investigated in the past and most recent papers.
Microstructure Ó 2018 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Resistivity

Contents

1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
2. Mechanical properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
2.1. Strength . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
2.1.1. Compressive strength . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
2.1.2. Tensile strength . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
2.1.3. Flexural strength. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
2.2. Abrasion resistivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
2.3. Thermal behavior . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
3. Durability properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
3.1. Chloride ions penetration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
3.2. Water absorption. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
3.3. Electrical properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32

⇑ Corresponding author at: Civil Engineering, Zachry Department of Civil Engineering, 508K CE/TTI Building, Texas A&M University, 3136 TAMU, College Station, TX 77843-
3136, USA.
E-mail addresses: mb3746@drexel.edu (M. Balapour), joshaghani@tamu.edu (A. Joshaghani), fma35@drexel.edu (F. Althoey).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2018.05.266
0950-0618/Ó 2018 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
28 M. Balapour et al. / Construction and Building Materials 181 (2018) 27–41

3.4. Water permeability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33

3.5. Shrinkage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
3.6. Frost resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
3.7. Sulfate resistance. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
3.8. Carbonation resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
4. Pore structure and porosity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
5. Fresh properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
6. Microstructure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
7. Nano-silica challenges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
8. Conclusions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
Conflict of interest. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39

1. Introduction mechanical and durability properties of concrete by providing

Over the past few years, durability properties of cement-based
products have attracted the attention of researchers more than
their mechanical properties. In fact, an essential step for an
enhancement in serviceability of different types of concrete struc-
tures is the improvement of their durability. There is a great incli-
nation among designers for inclusion of new materials, which can
be an excellent substitute for traditional materials in the produc-
tion of a more durable concrete. Nano-material is one of the most
effective materials, making a great contribution to the durability
properties of mortar and concrete [1].
The main progress in concrete performance was attained by the
application of super-fine particles. The optimal performance of
these systems was attributed to the high-density continuous pack-
ings of the binder constituents, as shown in Fig. 1 [2]. Using these
fine particles in mix-design will cause high fluidity levels. Nano-
silica (NS) was found to be a very effective additive to concrete
for improving strength, flexibility, and durability. NS can be used
as an additive to improve workability and the strength of high-
performance and self-compacting concrete as well [3]. Nano-
binders composed of nano-sized cementitious materials, poz-
zolanic nanoparticles and a finely ground mineral additive-
Portland cement mixture were proposed [4].
Based on a definition stated in 1981, a nano-material is consid-
ered to be a particle with dimensions between the interval of 1 and
100 nm. Nanoparticles play a major role in the improvement of
great specific surface area, which leads to acceleration of poz-
zolanic reactions. Productions of pozzolanic reactions contribute
to densification of the concrete structure at a microscale by
decreasing porosity of concrete and amelioration of interfacial
transition zone (ITZ) properties. It also fills pores with non-
reactive particles in the presence of cement. All these improve-
ments positively affect the mechanical and durability characteris-
tics of concrete and mortar [5–8]. Nano-materials, such as nano-
rice husk ash [8], nano-metakaolin [9], nano-TiO2 [10], nano-
Fe2O3, nano-Al2O3 were studied by different researchers because
of their great performance in the improvement of concrete’s prop-
erties. However, the most common and important nano-material
in the production of concrete is NS.
In recent years, NS has turned into an effective material for the
improvement of mechanical and durability properties of concrete.
These improvements lead to a longer lifespan of concrete struc-
tures and a reduction in cost for repair of such structures as a
result. One of the main problems regarding the production of Port-
land cement is the high amount of greenhouse gas emissions that
will be produced in the process of cement clinker manufacturing.
The addition of NS to cement-based materials, because of its
unique properties, not only can notably reduce the amount of
required cement in the production of concrete, but also can pre-
vent consumption of raw materials in this process.
Many attempts have been done regarding nanosilica incorpora-
tion in the concrete industry. Each research experiment

Fig. 1. The particle size and specific surface area scale related to concrete materials [2].
 M. Balapour et al. / Construction and Building Materials 181 (2018) 27–41
investigated a part of this study and indicated NS effects on a few
properties of concrete. However, a review that considers the simul-
taneous impacts of NS was needed to match the existing gaps. The
significant parameters including NS fineness, NS replacement ratio,
using other SCMs, mixture constituents and curing conditions have
the most significant contribution to fresh, mechanical and durabil-
ity properties of concretes with NS. So, the primary purpose of this
study was to point out effects of these factors one by one and delin-
eate how the future research should be oriented. Over 120 papers
were reviewed and discussed in this paper.
2. Mechanical properties
2.1. Strength
2.1.1. Compressive strength
Nazari and Riahi [11,12] investigated the effect of 0–5% NS
replacement on the compressive strength of high-strength com-
pacting concrete with w/b ratio of 0.4. Their investigation revealed
that an addition of NS up to 4% led to the increase of compressive
strength and an increase in replacement level led to the reduction.
However, it should be mentioned that 5% replacement of NS
increased the compressive strength by more than 0%, 1%, 2%, and
3% replacement. They considered two reasons for the reduction
of compressive strength with 5% replacement. First, as the NS
crosses its beneficial threshold, there is not enough lime to react
with and produce C-S-H gel during hydration. Thereby, excessive
NS was replaced with cementitious materials while it cannot make
a contribution to the enhancement of compressive strength. Sec-
ond, a high amount of NS cannot be well-dispersed through the
mixture due to agglomeration and as a result, cannot provide the
best result. Li et al. [13,14], reported that 1% replacement of NS
could enhance the compressive strength of pavement concrete
more than one containing 3% or 5% NS. Moreover, they stated that
nano TiO2 was more powerful in the enhancement of compressive
strength in comparison to NS. The difference in optimal NS replace-
ment in last two studies can be attributed to the difference in sur-
face area of NS particles. Indeed, Li et al. (reference must be added)
used NS with higher surface area. As such, there was a higher
attraction force among NS particles and usage of higher NS per-
centage led to agglomeration of nano particles and inferior
performance.
Sadrmomtazi et al. [15] reported that the optimum replacement
level of NS is between 5% and 7%. Although any dosage higher than
that of an optimum level increases the compressive strength in
comparison to the control mixture, it does not do this by more than
that of an optimum replacement level. Najigivi et al. It should be
noted that Sadrmomtazi et al. (reference must be added) proposed
higher dosage of NS replacement in comparison to other studies.
The reason can be attributed to the fact that they used NS with
average diameter of 50 nm. The higher average size of nano parti-
cles lead to less agglomeration; therefore, higher percentage of NS
can be beneficial in enhancement of compressive strength. A group
of researchers [16] observed that depending on curing in water or
lime solution optimal NS replacement for the increment of com-
pressive strength can slightly vary. If the concrete is cured in water,
the threshold for NS replacement would be 1% and if it is cured in
lime solution optimal replacement level would be 2% (see Fig. 2).
They attributed this phenomenon to the presence of more Ca
(OH)2 in a lime solution, which can react with NS particles and pro-
duce the C-S-H gel for further development of compressive
strength. Riahi and Nazari [17] also mentioned that curing in satu-
rated limewater could be more beneficial for increment of com-
pressive strength in the presence of NS particles. Moreover, they
observed that compressive strength of specimens made with NS
29
Fig. 2. Compressive strength of lime and water cured concrete made up of NS [16].
is superior to that made with nano-CuO. Some researchers believe
that the increase of compressive strength by adding NS owes to the
increase of C-S-H chains dimensions and stiffness [5]. The study of
Wang et al. [18] demonstrated that 1% NS replacement could pro-
vide the maximal compressive strength for Ultra-High-
Performance (UHP) concrete. They observed that a replacement
higher than 1% could lead to the reduction of compressive strength.
They concluded that, owing to the agglomeration of NS higher than
1%, it can provide fewer nucleation sites for pozzolanic reaction,
which produce the C-S-H gel and as result higher compressive
strength. Another reason for increment of compressive strength
mentioned by researchers is the improvement of ITZ. Indeed, the
addition of NS improves the strength of ITZ by eliminating large
pores in it. In addition, unreacted NS particles have a filler effect
which can make the microstructure denser and more homogenous.
Elkady et al. [19] investigated the effect of the de-agglomeration
process of NS on the compressive strength concrete. They observed
that NS replacement up to 2% by weight of cement could enhance
compressive strength by 7.3% in comparison to the control mix-
ture. However, five minutes of sonication of NS before adding it
to the concrete mixture will lead to enhancement of compressive
strength up to 23% in comparison to the control specimen. Xu
et al. [20] investigated the effect of colloidal NS modifications on
ITZ at macro and micro scale at the age of three days. Throughout
their modeling, at the macro scale, they concluded that incorpora-
tion of NS contributes to the enhancement of Young’s modulus of
ITZ to Young’s modulus of bulk cement past ratio around 50%-
80%. However, at the micro scale, they observed that NS plays its
major role by accelerating the hydration process and as a result,
the ITZ at the early age of three days will be modified. These
improvements in ITZ substantial increase the compressive
strength. Ghafari et al. [21] showed that dispersion of NS within
cement paste considerably govern its performance. Excess NS
replacement causes agglomeration of particles within the cement
paste; therefore, it leads to a weak zone and result in a compressive
strength lower than that of optimal replacement.
2.1.2. Tensile strength
Parkasam et al. [22] measured split tensile strength of high-
strength concrete made up of NS with 1% and 2% replacement
levels. Their investigation revealed that tensile strength could
improve up to 17% and 24% in comparison to the control mixture
30 M. Balapour et al. / Construction and Building Materials 181 (2018) 27–41
Fig. 3. Tensile strength of high-strength concrete made up of NS [22].
by addition of 1% and 2% NS respectively (see Fig. 3). They also
observed that this improvement mostly happened within a period
of 28 days and at longer period, such as 56 days, no significant
improvement was observed. They attributed this matter to poorly
dispersed NS through the concrete matrix and also to a lack of Ca
(OH)2 production at longer ages for further reaction with unreacted
NS particles [23]. Jalal et al. [24] showed that incorporation of 10%
fly ash and 2% NS with a different binder content of 400, 450, and
500 kg/m3 enhanced splitting tensile strength of self-compacting
concrete by 25.6%, 30.7%, and 35.9% at the age of 90 days
respectively.
As a tensile crack propagate inside the matrix of concrete, its
leading edge usually consists of multiple microcracks, which join
to form a macrocrack as the tensile displacement increase. Tensile
strength is highly dependent on the tensile strength of the ITZ, the
aggregate and the mortar. Low ratio of aggregate to ITZ strength
lead to smooth fracture surface at failure and low tensile strength.
On the other hand, high ratio of aggregate to ITZ strength results in
rough failure surface and higher tensile strength. Nili and Ehsani
[25], observed that in a plain concrete aggregate was surrounded
by Ca(OH)2 and large pores were observed in SEM images. While
incorporation of NS, excluded those large pores by reacting with
Ca(OH)2 and converting it to C-S-H gel. As such, better bonding
between aggregate and bulk cement paste was observed which
can contribute to higher tensile strength [26].
Fallah and Nematzadeh [27] evaluated mechanical properties of
high-strength concrete in the presence of macro-polymeric fibers
and NS. Their investigation revealed that 1%, 2%, and 3% replace-
ment of cement by NS enhanced tensile strength 12.96%, 7.82%,
and 16.10% respectively. They attributed enhancement of tensile
strength to the amelioration of bonding between cement matrix
and aggregates. It is worth mentioning that they observed that
8%, 10%, and 12% replacement of cement by silica fume was more
successful in the improvement of tensile strength. Low w/c ratio of
high-strength concrete and tendency of NS to absorb more water
due to its high surface area led to incomplete hydration reactions
and decrement of tensile strength. Yet, a higher percentage of silica
fume can be considered as one of the reasons for its better perfor-
mance in comparison to NS. Ghazy et al. [28] assessed possibility of
application of nano modified fly ash concrete as a repair material
for concrete pavement. They observed that incorporation of 6%
NS not only improved the tensile strength of specimens at longer
ages but also improved it significantly at early ages. Thus, along-
side durability properties, development of mechanical properties
at early ages is an important criterion for repair materials.
2.1.3. Flexural strength
Experimental investigation of Rong et al. [29] revealed that
incorporation of NS up to the threshold of 3% replacement could
ameliorate flexural strength of UHP cementitious composites.
Study of Mohamed [30] showed that addition of 0.75% NS and 3%
nano clay to concrete led to the enhancement of flexural strength
up to 4% and 9% at the age of 90 days regarding the filler perfor-
mance of nanoparticles. Moreover, it was observed that 3%
nanoparticles replacement, which consists of 25% NS and 75% nano
clay, provided the best result in terms of mechanical properties.
Beigi et al. [31] studied the effect of incorporation of NS and fibers
on mechanical and durability properties of self-compacting con-
crete. They observed the positive performance of NS alongside with
fibers in the improvement of flexural strength. Fig. 4 demonstrates
this improvement. Their study demonstrated that 4% replacement
of cement particles with NS and 0.3% addition of steel fibers led to
76% increment of flexural strength in comparison to the control
mixture. In addition to pozzolanic reactions, filler effect, reduction
of Ca(OH)2 crystals, and nucleus performance, NS was considerably
effective in the improvement of interfacial adhesion of cement
matrix-fibers. A similar trend in improvement of compressive
strength and flexural strength of concrete with the incorporation
of NS particles is reported by researchers [30,32]. Li et al. [33],
investigated the effect of NS and nano-TiO2 on flexural strength
of pavement concrete. They observed that 1% replacement of
nano-TiO2 slightly outperformed NS in enhancement of flexural
strength. As they mentioned, this observation can be attributed
to the much higher specific surface area of NS compared to nano-
TiO2. Greater specific surface area can lead to harder dispersion
of nano particles in the matrix. As such, weak zones form in the
microstructure which can be the point for initiation and propaga-
tion of cracks and reduction in flexural strength.
2.2. Abrasion resistivity
Several studies on the abrasion resistance of concrete pavement
have been conducted. The results indicate that the abrasion resis-
tance of concrete pavements is strongly affected by compressive
strength, construction methods, curing conditions, material prop-
erties and testing conditions, i.e., dry or wet [34,35]. If concrete
containing nanoparticles is used for pavement, the service life of
pavement can be prolonged [13]. The abrasion resistance of con-
crete containing NS for pavement was experimentally studied.
The test results indicated that the abrasion resistance of concretes
containing nanoparticles is significantly improved. However, the
enhanced extent of the abrasion resistance of concrete decreases
with increasing content of NS particles more than the optimal
replacement level. Sadegzadeh et al. [36] studied the surface
microstructure and abrasion resistance of concrete. They found
that different surface finishing methods produced diverse pore
structures and hardness. Thus, the abrasion resistance of concrete
mostly depends on the pore structures which can be improved
Fig. 4. Flexural strength of concrete made up with NS and containing 0.3 v% steel
fibers [31].
 M. Balapour et al. / Construction and Building Materials 181 (2018) 27–41
by the contribution of NS. Hui et al. [13] investigated the effect of
NS, nano-TiO2, and polypropylene on abrasion resistance of pave-
ment concrete. They found the abrasion resistance of concrete
made up of nano particles is much higher than that of concrete
made of polypropylene. Moreover, nano TiO2 particles were more
favorable in the improvement of abrasion resistance in comparison
to NS. They generally believe that NS particles can restrict the
growth of calcium hydroxide (Ca(OH)2) crystal, making the con-
crete matrix more compacted and homogenous. The authors also
observed that 1% incorporation of NS could increase the enhanced
extent of abrasion resistant by 157%. However, 3% incorporation of
concrete could increase this value by 100.8%. Fig. 5 shows findings
of this study. A possible explanation is that by increasing NS parti-
cles, the distance between these particles decreases. Less disper-
sive particles allowing more spaces for Ca(OH)2 crystal growth.
This can lead to relatively weaker concrete matrix, and conse-
quently less strength.
2.3. Thermal behavior
Several studies have been conducted to investigate the thermal
behavior of concrete in the presence of NS. It is widely accepted the
NS can significantly improve concrete mechanical properties at
high temperatures. Heikal et al. [37] studied the effect of substitu-
tion of 1% and 6% NS on the compressive strength at elevated tem-
perature up to 1000 °C for cement pastes containing blast-furnace
slag. They observed a similar behavior for all cement pastes; the
compressive strength increased as the temperature increased up
to 450 °C. Thereafter, the compressive strength dramatically
decreased as the temperature reached 1000 °C. This significant
reduction at high temperatures was attributed to a possible
decomposition of C-S-H phase, leading to an increase in porosity
accompanied with significant decreases in the compressive
strength. Their work generally showed that the substitution of
NS slightly improved the resistance of cement pastes exposed to
high temperatures. It is thought by researchers that NS can
enhance the hydration of unreacted cement clinkers through inter-
nal autoclaving effect which forces the physically bound water to
be available for internal curing at high temperatures. This mecha-
nism can improve the hydration reaction of cement as well as the
enhancement in the pozzolanic reactions of NS, which may eventu-
ally help in forming more C-S-H with low Ca/Si ratio to further
strengthen the concrete matrix. Similar outcomes have been
observed by Bastami et al. [38] in their investigation of the effect
of elevated temperature on the mechanical properties of concrete
containing both silica fume (SF) and NS (see Fig. 6). The total mass
Fig. 5. Surface and side abrasion resistance of specimens containing NS materials
[13].
31
Loss in compressive Strength (%)
80
0% NS
1.41% NS
60 2.83% NS
4.2% NS
40
20
0
80
Loss in tensile Strength (%)
60
40
20
0
400 600 800
Temperature, 0C
Fig. 6. Loss in compressive and tensile strengths vs. temperatures for concrete
containing NS [38].
for NS and SF was held constant at 30 kg/m3. The mixtures
contained 1.41%, 2.83%, 4.2% NS (by mass of binder). The samples
were heated at a rate of 20 °C/min to temperatures of 400, 600
and 800 °C. The data generally showed that the mass loss decreases
as NS increases for specimens exposed to 400 °C while an opposite
behavior observed for specimens exposed to 600 °C.
A thorough study has been conducted by Horszczaruk et al.
[39], where they investigated the effect of elevated temperature
(up to 800 °C) on the mass loss, compressive strength and tensile
strength of mortars containing 1%, 2%, 3%, 4% and 5% NS (% by
weight of cement). The results showed a similar mass loss behavior
for all mortars up to 400 °C while a slight improvement was
observed for mortars containing 3% and 5% NS in temperatures
between 600 °C and 800 °C. The average mass loss was 3.7% and
4.5% in temperatures of 600 °C and 800 °C, respectively. For the
compressive strength, the data showed that all mortars with NS
had a higher strength compared to the reference sample. However,
the sample with 3% NS exhibited a noticeable improvement in
strength compared to other NS-based mortars. For the tensile
strength, the authors concluded that the NS materials did not
noticeably affect the tensile strength of the mortars because flexu-
ral strength is more sensitive to micro cracks caused by a build-up
in vapor pressure. NS can react with lime to produce C-S-H gel
which ameliorates the microstructure of the cement matrix and
prevents cracks from propagating while the samples are exposed
to elevated temperature. Ibrahim et al. [40] also studied the effect
of high temperature on the mechanical properties of high-volume
fly ash mortars containing NS. They showed that the addition of NS
significantly improved both compressive and flexural strengths at
temperatures up to 400 °C. However, a significant reduction in
strength was observed for all mortars at temperatures of 700 °C.
They believe that temperatures up to 400 °C can increase the reac-
tivity of NS, which in turn can produce more high-dense C-S-H to
enhance the matrix strength; however, higher temperatures than
400 °C can dehydrate cement hydrates and produce large crakes
32 M. Balapour et al. / Construction and Building Materials 181 (2018) 27–41
due to the excessive of build-up vapor pressure, leading to weaker
matrix and thus a significant reduction in strength.
3. Durability properties
3.1. Chloride ions penetration
The intrusion of chloride ions into concrete can cause corrosion
of buried rebar, followed by an abundance of cracks, and in the final
stages, a detachment of the concrete from the rebar. As a result,
assessing the permeability status of concrete and putting effort
toward its improvement seems necessary. The Rapid Chloride Pen-
etration Test (RCPT) was conducted by Said et al. [41] showed the
replacement of 3% and 6% NS with cement particles could con-
tribute to significant improvement in concrete permeability reduc-
tion. They stated that NS functions by refining the pore structure of
the cement matrix. By their investigation, Du et al. [42] revealed
that with 0.3% and 0.9% replacement dosages of NS, a better disper-
sion of this would be achieved. By adopting the Rapid Chloride
Migration Test (RCMT), they observed that penetration depth, and
consequently, the migration coefficient, would decrease consider-
ably. Refinement of pore structure, specifically at the ITZ, as well
as tortuosity and more disconnected transport channels, caused
the reduction of permeability. One of the reasons that can be attrib-
uted to the huge difference between optimal replacement of NS.
The form of the NS can explain the significant difference in Said
et al. and Du et al.’s studies. Du et al. [42] used NS in powder form,
which dictate the application of lower NS percentage in concrete. In
contrast, Said et al. [41] used NS in aqueous form, which allow the
researchers to use a higher NS percentage in the mixture due to less
probability of nano particles agglomeration.
Through the investigation on the effects of NS on the permeabil-
ity of self-compacting concrete by the RCPT, Mohseni et al. [43]
demonstrated that a 5% dosage of NS could yield the best results
in the reduction of a charge passed through a specimen. They
observed that although 1% NS replacement could not improve per-
meability of specimens better than a range of moderate chloride
permeability [44], its improvement is considerable in comparison
to the control sample. Li et al. [45], studied the synergetic effect
of NS and micro silica on microstructural properties of mortars.
They observed that incorporation of these two materials caused
formation of smaller voids and smaller crystals. Hence, the texture
of microstructure was denser and more compact. Same as other
studies, Quercia et al. [46] observed a reduction in the chloride
migration coefficient of NS incorporated concrete. By analyzing
the SEM images, Quercia et al. mentioned that the absence of crys-
tallized portlandite and reduction in volume of gel pores confirmed
refinement of microstructure by addition of NS. In addition, precip-
itation of small sized C-S-H gel was responsible for formation of
dense microstructure [47,48]. Madani et al. [49], studied the influ-
ence of hydrosol NS on concrete, using both the RCMT and RCPT.
Their research revealed that up to 3% replacement of NS had a
slight effect on the reduction of passed charge through the speci-
mens. However, in a close optimal replacement level to Said
et al. [41], Madani et al. observed increasing the replacement level
of NS to 5% notably reduced chloride intrusion into specimens. The
results obtained by Said et al. are presented in Fig. 7. Similar to
other researchers’ results, more blocked and tortuous routes would
lead to a denser microstructure, thereby reducing chloride migra-
tion into concrete [50]. Moreover, they observed that an increase
in specific surface area has notable effect on permeability. At a
3% replacement level of NS with specific surface areas of 300 m2/
g, 200 m2/g and 100 m2/g, reductions in passed charge of RCPT
were 22%, 34%, and 50% respectively in comparison to the control
mixture. They found that at the age of 28 and 90 days NS with
lower specific surface area performed better than finer NS.
Fig. 7. Average penetration depth of chloride for NS incorporated concrete [41].
3.2. Water absorption
Jalal et al. [51], observed that the incorporation of 2% NS
decreased capillary water absorption by 58% in comparison to
the control mixture without NS. Furthermore, they observed that
the depth of absorbed water would decrease more notably at
longer times of the test, such as 72 h. The samples’ pores were
emptier at the beginning of the test due to being in the oven for
an extended amount of time. Therefore, there is a great tendency
for specimens to absorb more water. Tobón et al. [52], investigated
the effect of NS on 3-days cured samples by 5% and 10% replace-
ment levels. They observed that by the substitution of NS, the
extent of absorbed water decreased significantly. High specific sur-
face area and well-dispersion of NS can be considered for its power
in the acceleration of pozzolanic reactions even at the age of 3
days. As they concluded in their research, the progress of NS poz-
zolanic reactions leads to the rupture of interconnected pores
and the reduction of total pore volume, thereby inhibiting the ame-
lioration of permeability [18]. It should be mentioned that Jalal
et al. (reference must be added) used a w/b ratio of 0.38; therefore,
lower percentage of NS were used in the mixture for acquiring
desirable mechanical, durability and workability properties. On
the other hand, Tobón et al. designed their mixture with w/b ratio
of 0.55, which allowed the usage of higher NS percentage.
Chithra et al. [53], evaluated the influence of NS on durability
properties of high-performance concrete with w/b ratio of 0.31.
In a similar optimal replacement level to Jalal et al.’s study, Chithra
et al. observed that small substations of cement by 2% NS would
lead to a reduction of capillary water absorption. The efficiency
of very fine NS particles, which blocking the pores and improving
the microstructure of specimens, is another reason for the reduc-
tion of water absorption values. The influence of NS on ternary bin-
ders in concrete also has been studied by researchers [50,54].
Zahedi et al. [55], conducted a research project on the durability
of concrete, which was made up of NS and rice husk ash. They
reported that the water absorption of specimens that were only
made with NS was remarkably reduced at early ages due to the
high surface area of NS. The nucleation sites provided by NS helps
the production of more C-S-H gel and as a result a denser
microstructure. The addition of rice husk ash particles to NS influ-
enced its effectiveness in the improvement of capillary water
absorption at early ages. At the age of 28 days, 5 %NS + 10 %RHA
outperformed the binary mixtures of NS and decreased water
absorption by 28.1% in comparison to the control mixture (see
Fig. 8).
3.3. Electrical properties
Many researchers have shown that there is a strong relationship
between the conductivity of concrete and its porosity, pore struc-
ture, and pH value of pore solution [56–60]. Generally, a high pH
 M. Balapour et al. / Construction and Building Materials 181 (2018) 27–41
Fig. 8. Capillary water absorption of mortars made with NS and RHA [55].
of pore solution, a high degree of pore connectivity and low tortu-
osity lead to the high conductivity of concrete, which is an indica-
tor of its high permeability. The most common test for assessing
the conductivity and electrical properties of concrete is the Wen-
ner four-electrode method [61,62]. Specifications, such as being a
Non-Destructive Test (NDT), simplicity in use and short perfor-
mance time made the Wenner a desirable device. The electrical
resistivity of a specimen shows its resistance against penetration
of aggressive ions. Thereby, an increase of electrical resistivity val-
ues is an indicator of improvement in terms of permeability [63].
Nili et al. studied the effects of NS and microsilica (MS) on con-
crete performance with 0.45 water-cement ratios. They used 1.5%,
3% and 4.5% NS as cement replacement percentages. A considerable
increase in electric resistance was observed at later ages of 91 days,
compared to the early age result [64]. They believed the reason was
the hydration progress that occurred in the later ages. The maxi-
mum electrical resistance was found in mixtures that contained
6% and 1.5% MS and nanosilica, respectively. In another experi-
ment, Jalal et al. introduced a mixture containing 2% NS and 10%
SF increased the electrical resistivity values considerably and the
corrosion tend to become impossible [65].
Khaloo et al. [66], observed that the increment of replacement
level of NS from 0.75% to 1.5% contributes to the enhancement of
specimens’ electrical resistivity. Moreover, they showed that at
w/b ratio of 0.35 and 0.3 finer NS outperformed coarser NS in terms
of electrical resistivity, while at a low w/b ratio of 0.25 coarser NS
were more successful in the enhancement of electrical resistivity.
Fig. 9 shows the obtained results in their study. They attributed
Fig. 9. Electrical resistivity of concrete incorporated with NS materials at different
w/b ratios [66].
33
this phenomenon to a higher probability of agglomeration of finer
NS at low w/b ratios. They discussed that in addition to the effec-
tive role of NS in refining the pore structure, it helps to change the
chemistry of the pore solution and reduce its conductivity. The
accelerated pozzolanic reactions of NS, which consume Ca(OH)2,
lead to a reduction of OH in pore solution, and thereby electrical
resistivity will increase [67–69]. Similar results related to the
improvement of electrical resistivity of concrete with partial
replacement of cement by NS were reported by Palla et al. [70].
They found that 2% NS replacement for production of concrete with
a w/b ratio of 0.25 would be the optimum level. Quercia et al. [46],
showed that the addition of colloidal and powder NS improved the
resistivity of SCC more than 50% compared to the control concrete.
They observed that colloidal NS was slightly more successful in
amelioration of SCC’s electrical resistivity in comparison to powder
NS. This matter was attributed to the higher reactivity of colloidal
NS, which makes the microstructure more compact.
3.4. Water permeability
Ji [14] investigated the influence of NS on water permeability of
concrete. For the control concrete that only consisted of fly ash, the
average penetration depth of 146 mm was observed, while 3%
addition of NS to the mixture reduced the average penetration
depth to the value of 81 mm. He used the ESEM test for the water
permeability, and it revealed that the microstructure of the NS con-
crete was more uniform and compact than that of the normal con-
crete. He confirmed that concrete with NS was stickier than normal
concrete due to the larger specific surface area.
In another study, Ji evaluated the effects of NS on the concrete
water permeability with changing the surface area size from 10
to 20 nm. He adjusted the plasticizer dosage to obtain the same
slump time. The test results showed that NS reduce the water per-
meability of hardened concrete [14]. Shirgir et al. [71] also
observed that 5% percent replacement of cement with NS could
lead to 13% reduction of hydraulic permeability of porous concrete
in comparison to the control sample. The cause can be explained
with the absorption of Ca(OH)2 crystals by NS particles. Therefore,
an inadequate amount of the Ca(OH)2 crystals make the ITZ and
binding matrix denser. As a result, NS fills the voids of the C-S-H
gel structure. Naji Givi et al. investigated the development of the
permeability properties of binary blended concrete with NS parti-
cles. They admixed NS at 0.5, 1, 1.5, and 2% of cement. The best
improvement was especially found in using 2% of NS. The test
results showed that the NS particles not only led to denser cement
mortar but also changed the morphology of cement hydration
products [72].
Du et al. [42] observed that 0.3% replacement of NS could
reduce water penetration depth to the extent of 56%. The addition
of 0.9% NS slightly increased water penetration depth at the age of
28 days in comparison to 0.3% replacement. This increment was
attributed to the agglomeration of NS particles at 0.9% dosage,
which prevented further reaction of NS particles with cement. It
is important to note that at the age of 91 days, 0.9% replacement
of NS outperformed 0.3% replacement. This matter implies ongoing
a pozzolanic reaction of NS and its ability in the refinement of the
microstructure. Quercia et al. [46] revealed that 3.8% addition of
both colloidal and powder types of NS resulted in negligible water
penetration depth of 3 ± 2 mm. 88.5% reduction in water penetra-
tion depth in comparison to control mixture was accredited to
modification of microstructure in terms of interconnectivity of
pores. Result of their work is demonstrated in Fig. 10.
Li et al. examined the effects of NS on permeability of eco-
concrete with a mercury porosimetry intrusion (MIP). Test results
showed that the relative permeability and pores sizes decreased
with NS addition (1%–2%) [73]. The amount of reduction in perme-
34 M. Balapour et al. / Construction and Building Materials 181 (2018) 27–41
Fig. 10. Penetration depth of water of concrete containing 3.8% NS [46].
ability in concrete with 2% NS was double compared to fly ash sam-
ples. This improvement is due to uniformity of the microstructure.
3.5. Shrinkage
Shrinkage occurs in almost every cementitious product because
of contraction of total mass due to loss of moisture through the
materials. The most reported effect of NS is the impact on the dura-
bility properties of concrete. The NS properties depend on nature of
the production method (colloidal or dry powder). Although the
beneficial effects are reported for NS, its concentration level should
be controlled. Shrinkage in the cementitious matrix is the major
reason for cracks that impact durability. Robertson [74] found
using NS in concrete containing pozzolan can reduce autogenous
shrinkage of cement paste by about 46% compared to the control
paste. However, ordinary mortars containing NS displayed higher
drying shrinkage rather than the control mortar. This consequence
was much more significant for a higher NS incorporation. It can be
prevented by cautiously adding superplasticizer and suitable cur-
ing practices [75,76]. At high NS concentrations, the autogenous
shrinkage due to self-desiccation increases, resulting in a higher
cracking potential [77]. To prevent this adverse effect, high concen-
tration levels of superplasticizer and water should be incorporated
under proper curing conditions [67,75,78].
Sadrmomtazi et al. [15] studied the effects of adding NS and SF
on shrinkage of self-compacted concrete. They reported that both
NS and SF caused higher shrinkage in comparison to the control
sample. Specimens made up of NS experienced the highest shrink-
age. However, an obvious distinction was observed after about
seven days. An increase in the shrinkage value of specimens made
with NS mainly refer to the accelerated hydration process which
increased hydration degree and as a result caused enhancement
in chemical shrinkage. They also mentioned that the extent of
shrinkage increased with replacement level of NS. Senff et al. also
compared the addition of NS and SF on unrestrained shrinkage.
They reported that the NS incorporation effects on the shrinkage
did not follow a linear regression model. After 7 days the shrinkage
increased 80%, while at 28 days it increased 54% (the maximum
unrestrained shrinkages). They tried 1.75%, 3.5% and 7% NS as the
replacement level percentages [76]. Fig. 11 shows unrestrained
shrinkage of mortar with different dosage of NS in their work.
The higher shrinkage level of NS can be attributed to the capability
in refining the porous media. However, groups of researchers
affirmed that nanoparticles enhance the mechanical performance
and reduce the permeability and shrinkage [79,80].
Haruehansapong et al. [81] studied the effect of 9% NS replace-
ment with particle sizes of 40, 20, and 12 nm on drying shrinkage
of cement mortar. They observed that cement mortar made up of
NS with average particle size of 12 and 20 nm undergo higher
Fig. 11. Unrestrained Shrinkage of mortar with NS after 7 and 28 days. The
specimens contained 0, 1.75 and 3.5% NS and 3, 3, and 3.3 wt% of superplasticizer,
respectively [76].
drying shrinkage in comparison to control specimen and sample
made with NS with average particle size of 40 nm. They discussed
that this happened because NS with lower particle sizes has a
greater tendency for accelerating pozzolanic reactions and con-
tributed to a higher degree of hydration which led to a high shrink-
age. Another reason that can be considered is that the distance
between nanoparticles decreases with increasing content of
nanoparticles. In that case, the Ca(OH)2 crystal has limited space
to grow. Thus, the crystal quantity will be decreased that keeps
the ratio of crystal to strengthening gel being small and the shrink-
age increased [33].
3.6. Frost resistance
In winter time, the temperature usually reaches subzero in cold
regions. This reduction in temperatures causes problems for serval
constructions in industry due to expansive ice formation in water-
saturated pores. Internal stresses are induced by expansion pres-
sures of ice, and if it exceeds the tensile strength of concrete, the
concrete starts cracking until complete failure by excessive
freezing-thawing cycles. In order to control the environmental
impacts, improving the frost resistance of concrete mixtures is rec-
ommended by many agencies. Controlling the water-to-cement
ratio, using an air entrainment admixture, improving the compact-
ness, decreasing the porosity of concrete and modifying the inter-
nal voids of construction are suggested methods to improve the
frost resistance. Incorporation of NS particles in concrete is an
acceptable solution for enhancing the frost resistance of concrete.
Quercia et al. [46] studied the influence of powder and aqueous
NS on freeze and thaw resistance of self-compacting concrete. They
observed that aqueous NS was more successful in the improve-
ment of frost resistance of self-compacting concrete with respect
to control sample. They attributed this improvement to the forma-
tion of stiff C-S-H gel and refinement of pore structure, which pre-
vents intrusion of water to concrete’s microstructure. Moreover,
they mentioned that an addition of air entrainment admixture,
which ensures 4% air content in the mixture in the presence of
NS could result in high resistance concrete to freeze-thaw cycles.
Zhao et al. [82] studied the effects of different replacement per-
centages of NS on the frost resistance of concrete. They reported
that NS decreased the capillary voids in the hardened concrete
samples, and thus, the ability of concrete to be durable against
the freezing-thawing cycles was developed by adding NS. More-
over, mixtures with the air-entraining agent had more freezing-
thawing cycle numbers. The closed bubbles caused by air-
entraining agent added in cement concrete can block the penetra-
tion channel in capillary and buffer static water pressure due to
 M. Balapour et al. / Construction and Building Materials 181 (2018) 27–41
water freeze, further changing the internal voids structure. Com-
pared with ordinary concrete, the frost resistance of NS concrete
and air-entraining agent concrete will increase by 28% and 42%
[82]. They also found when water-to-cement-ratio is 0.35–0.39,
the ability of frost twisting is very high, but when the water-to-
cement ratio is larger than 0.39, freezing-thawing resisting perfor-
mance had a considerable decline. Salemi and Behfarnia [83]
reported that 5% NS dosage addition to concrete enhanced the frost
resistance by about 83%. In addition, they found that the combined
mixture of fiber and NS has shown more frost resistance compared
with the single addition of NS. The concrete with 0.2% polypropy-
lene fiber (by the volume of concrete) had the best frost resistance.
The authors discussed the mechanism of NS in improving concrete
frost resistance, and concluded that the NS has the ability to
restrict the growth of CH crystals in favor of supplying more
CHS, which makes the concrete matrix more compact and homoge-
neous. Fig. 12 illustrates the effect of NS on the compressive
strength of the concrete specimens after 50, 150 and 300
freezing-thawing cycles.
3.7. Sulfate resistance
Sulfate resistance of concrete is the ability of concrete to resist
the secondary ettringite formation due to later reaction of sulfate
ions with hydrated aluminate phases. The secondary ettringite for-
mation is an expansive reaction that can damage the concrete
matrix. Concrete permeability plays a major role in sulfate resis-
tance. Therefore, the NS can be used to reduce concrete permeabil-
ity through refining the pore structure due to the ability of NS
particles to work as internal filler within the concrete matrix. Arel
and Thomas [85] investigated the effectiveness of NS and MS as a
partial replacement of cement against sulfate attacks. Their mortar
mixtures were prepared with a w/c ratio of 0.5 and exposed to 7%
sodium sulfate solution over a duration of 23 weeks. They con-
cluded that NS with a replacement of 8% is enough to make con-
crete highly resistance against external sulfate attacks. The
authors also stated that the advantage of using NS over MS is the
ability of NS materials to enhance the physical adherence in the
aggregate-cement interface, which leads to an excessive reduction
in the total porosity, thereby reduce the permeability of chemical
species into concrete. A similar conclusion has been made by Mos-
lemi et al. [86] on the investigation of the resistance of mortar
against sulfate attack. Their results emphasized that 8% NS replace-
ment of cement would be sufficient to improve the sulfate resis-
tance of concrete. Tobón et al. [52] argue that 3% NS addition
may lead to reduction of expansion up to 63% in comparison to
control specimen, implying that smaller replacement level of NS
may be effective in enhancing concrete resistance to sulfate.
Fig. 12. Effect of NS on compressive strength loss [84].
35
Fig. 13. Expansion of mortars exposed to 5% MgSO4 solution [52].
Fig. 13 is drawn based on Tobón et al. result and reveals expansion
of mortar exposed to 5% MgSO4 solution in this study [52]. This is
also supported by a study conducted by Atahan and Dikme [87]
where they reported that even 2% replacement of cement by NS
would be enough for effectively controlling expansion due to sul-
fate attack. They both discussed that NS helps in refining the con-
crete pore system through increasing the smaller pores (gel pores)
and reducing the connected pores (capillary pores), which signifi-
cantly enhances the durability of concrete. As a result, aggressive
agents of MgSO4 cannot penetrate into the cementitious matrix
to produce expansive products. Ghafoori et al. [88], emphasized
that the permeability modification of concrete is more important
than controlling C3A content for preventing concrete expansion.
They observed that mortars made with MS outperformed mortars
made with powder NS in terms of resistance to sulfate attack.
Agglomeration of these fine particles is the main reason for the
inferior performance of powder NS. In contrast, aqueous NS with
equal replacement level to MS was significantly more beneficial
in expansion reduction of mortars subjected to sulfate attack.
3.8. Carbonation resistance
Carbonation of concrete is the result of CO2 ingress through the
concrete pores to disassociate the C-S-H and/or to chemically react
with CH, forming new product, known as (calcium carbonate,
CaCO3). This process can reduce the pH of the concrete as well as
increase its porosity due to a replacement of relativity large CH
molecules with smaller CaCO3 molecules, which can weaken the
concrete matrix and significantly decrease its strength. The carbon-
ation resistance of concrete depends on the pore system, the water
to binder ratio, degree of hydration, and other factor concerning
the exposure condition, including relative humidity and CO2 con-
centration. The contribution of NS to improve the carbonation
resistance of concrete is a subject of debate. Some studies indicate
that NS can positively affect the concrete resistance to carbonation
while others indicates it may have negative effects. Lim and Mon-
dal [89] studied the influence of NS and MS on the carbonation of
bulk and powder cement paste samples exposed to an accelerated
carbonation. They observed that powder samples had much
greater carbonation than that for bulk (solid) samples. This was
attributed due to the higher surface area of the powder sample that
allows for more reactions with CO2, which is independent on the
permeability. It was also shown that the pH value plays an impor-
tant role in the carbonation kinetics through accelerating the rate
in which the carbon dioxide binds with the hydroxyl ions to form
carbonate ions, which in turns can react with CH to form calcium
carbonate. Therefore, they concluded that the reduction of con-
crete carbonation depends not only on the permeability, but also
on the pH of the pore solution. They also observed that a small
36 M. Balapour et al. / Construction and Building Materials 181 (2018) 27–41
Fig. 14. Effect of NS on carbonation resistance of concrete [89].
replacement of NS causes a reduction in the content of calcium
hydroxide, thereby leading to a reduction in total carbonation.
They eventually believe that MS and NS were both progressively
successful in the reduction of carbonation depth. Li et al. also
emphasize that [90] the addition of NS and MS can be helpful in
reducing the carbonation of concrete, with a better performance
of the simultaneous addition of both NS and MS to the mixture.
Their results showed that 10% MS reduced carbonation depth by
33% more than that of 1% NS replacement. They discussed that
the small volume of NS could not have a filling effect as effective
as a high-volume of MS. Therefore, in combination state of NS
and MS, MS will fill the voids among cement grains, and NS would
fill the pores between the MS and cement grains. Result of this
study is plotted in Fig. 14. On the other hand, Isfahani et al. [91]
came to a different conclusion that the effects of different dosages
of NS on the carbonation resistance of concrete made with differ-
ent w/b ratios. The authors observed that the carbonation resis-
tance of concrete was not affected by increasing NS dosages for
concrete with w/b = 0.65 and 0.50, while the addition of similar
dosage of NS in concrete with w/b = 0.55 slightly improved the car-
bonation resistance of concrete. They moreover noted that for w/b
ratio of 0.65, the addition of NS can result in an adverse effect, pos-
sibly due to excessive moisture accompanied with increased
porosity that can increase the diffusion rate of CO2. They concluded
that NS addition may have negative effects on the capability of
concrete to resist carbonation, unlike the w/b ratio which plays a
major role in improving concrete resistance to carbonation. Rao
et al. [92] also came to a similar conclusion that NS materials
may not improve the carbonation resistance of concrete. They
believe that use to the fact that the NS can form more C-S-H
through pozzolanic reactions, the susceptibility of concrete to the
carbonation attack will increase due to the possible carbonation
of C-S-H phase if the CH is depleted.
4. Pore structure and porosity
It is widely accepted that the pozzolanic and filler effects of NS
can enhance the microstructure properties of concrete through
reducing the porosity and improving the pore structure. However,
it seems that the content of NS significantly influences its poz-
zolanic and filler effects. Said et al. [41] investigated the effect of
colloidal NS on concrete pore structure. They used dosages of 0%,
3%, and 6% by total mass of cement. The w/b ratio of 0.40 was kept
constant for all the mixtures. Their results showed that the addi-
tion of 6% colloidal NS could help in reducing the critical pores
up to 40% as well as increasing the percentage of micro-pores by
4%. This was mainly attributed to the pozzolanic and filler effects
of NS particles. The authors concluded that the total porosity and
the critical pore were significantly decreases by increasing the
dosage of NS. A similar conclusion has been made by Tobón et al.
where they discussed the effect of colloidal NS on the porosity
and the pore structures for mortar specimens. The w/c ratio of
the mortars was 0.4, and the NS dosages were 0, 5, 10% by weight
of cement. Their results showed that 5% replacement of NS was not
sufficient to alter the porosity and the pore structures of the mortar
whereas 10% replacement of NS achieved 12% reduction in total
porosity and produced a significant refinement of pores with
respect to the reference sample. The authors concluded that incor-
porating of 10% NS could reduce the permeability of the paste
matrix, thereby make it more resistant to chemical attacks. Oltulu
and Sahin [93] investigated the pore structures of cement mortars
produced by the addition of SF and containing NS powder at three
different proportions of 0.5%, 1.25% and 2.5%. The results showed
that mortars containing 0.5% and 1.25% NS reduced the pore vol-
ume and overall porosity relative to the control sample by 45%
and 48%, respectively. However, mortars containing 2.5% NS
increased the pore volume and overall porosity by 43%. They stated
that the addition of NS to mortars dramatically changed the pore
distribution due to the effect of nano filler that could decrease
the pores in the range 10–100 nm. The authors concluded that
the addition of the NS at proportions in excess of 1.25% could result
in an increase in the pore volume of mortars because of agglomer-
ation. Du et al. [42] argues that a small dosage of 0.9% NS in slurry
form cannot alter the total porosity on concrete but it may improve
the concrete pore structure. They observed that the total porosity
of the reference sample and sample containing 0.9% NS was almost
identical at about 13.5%. However, they noted that the concrete
pore structure has improved by reducing large capillary pores
(greater than50 nm) about 15% and increasing medium capillary
pores (10–50 nm) about 32% comparing to the reference sample.
The authors pointed out that the refinement on the large capillary
pore was the result of the pozzolanic reaction as well as the ability
of NS particles to work as a filler into the capillary pore structures.
Fig. 15 illustrates Du et al. results [42]. Quercia et al. [46] studied
the effect of incorporating 3.8% NS in colloidal and powder forms
on the pore size distribution and the porosity the concrete. They
observed that the addition of both colloidal and powder NS let to
a reduction in the average pore diameter up to 12.5% and 6.8% with
respect to the reference sample, respectively. Their results showed
that NS materials made the pore structure of the cementitious
matrix more homogeneous by increasing medium capillary pores
(10–50 nm) and decreasing gel pores (<10 nm).
Joshaghani and Moeini tested influences of nanosilica and sugar
cane bagasse ash (SCBA) on the mechanical and durability proper-
ties of mortar. They reported that the MIP test results showed that
additives decreased the total specific pore volume of the mixtures.
However, the effectiveness of nanosilica in improving the pore
structure is better than SCBA, since the total amount of the harm-
Fig. 15. Pore size distribution and total porosity of concrete with NS from [42].
 M. Balapour et al. / Construction and Building Materials 181 (2018) 27–41
less pores in mixtures containing nanosilica was increased to the
largest extent. In addition, ternary blended mortar mixtures had
better performance in total specific pore volume reduction [94].
5. Fresh properties
Based on the previous experiments, a high-quality concrete mix
has acceptable workability (about 60–70 mm slump height) in the
fresh condition. The higher the measured slump flow, the better
the workability will be, representing that the concrete flows
quickly but at the same time is free from segregation [95,96].
NS modifies the characteristics of fresh mortars. The accelerating
effect of NS incorporation in concrete was measured indirectly by
rheological tests (viscosity change) of cement pastes and mortars
[76,97]. In the fresh cement paste, a layer of adsorbed water mole-
cules surround the fine particles. The reason is attributed to a
decrease in the available amount of lubricating water in the mix-
ture. Thus, an additional amount of water is required to fill the
remaining void fraction of the granular system [98]. The fine pow-
ders mainly contribute to the total specific surface area and have
the strongest effect on the total water demand of concrete mix-
tures. As a result, the powders may have a rather high water
demand [98]. Hence, a suitable determination of the water amount
is needed to cover all particles with a water layer of a certain thick-
ness. Brouwers and Radix [99], Hunger and Brouwers [100], and
Hunger [101] found a relationship between the specific surface
area and the water demand of micro powder using the mini
spread-flow test. They found a constant water layer (about 25
nm) for several tested powders. Researchers have reported effects
of NS on the workability of cement paste by using rheometric mea-
surements in the literature; however, the effects on the water
demand by using the mini spread-flow test have not been reported
widely [98].
The effect of NS on the workability of concrete can be measured
regarding slump loss, according to ASTM C143 [102]. The viscosity
measurements indicated that NS addition increased the need of
water to keep the workability constant. Although rheometric
methods are accurate, they might be time-consuming and difficult
to conduct compared with standard workability tests [103,104].
Senff et al. reported that the yield stress, as a rheological parame-
ter, is increased significantly by adding NS in the paste. The NS
incorporation reduces the spread diameter on the flow table
because of having more cohesiveness. They stated that the rela-
tionship between spread and yield stress values will justify the
NS incorporation in the fresh properties [105]. Supit and Shaikh
[106] showed that the addition of NS in concrete significantly
decreased the slump loss up to 60% for NS level of 2–4%. The reason
was attributed to the large specific surface area that adsorbed more
water from concrete mixtures [106]. A group of researchers
reported that the proper percentage of NS should be small
(1–5%) due to possible agglomeration induced by lack of particles
dispersion [13,107,108]; however, some believe that the a better
performance can also be achieved with higher dosages (10%).
Besides, the size of NS particles is crucial in the fresh properties.
Sadrmomtazi et al. [15] indicated that incorporating NS in con-
crete generally made the samples more viscous. In conducting the
workability tests, the authors did not observe any segregation or
blockage. Quercia and Brouwers [77] tested the viscosity and found
that using NS in cement paste and mortar samples requires more
water to keep the workability of the mixtures constant. Moreover,
it was reported that using NS caused a stronger tendency for
adsorption of ionic species in the aqueous medium and the forma-
tion of agglomerates. Sari et al. [109] used colloidal NS (2%) to pro-
duce high-performance concrete with anti-bleeding properties and
high workability. It seems that the colloidal particles of amorphous
37
silica appear to significantly influence the process of C3S hydration
[75].
One of the applications of NS is using it in the rehabilitation jobs
as a mortar. The water/powder (cement, nanoparticles, etc.) ratio
of mortar and chemical admixtures should be tested to place the
fresh mortar with no compaction and segregation [110]. Nazari
et al. [111] checked the rheology of paste phase of self-repairing
mortar and found that nanoparticles blended mixtures had low
slump values and non-acceptable workability. The reason was
attributed to the high surface area of powder after adding nanopar-
ticles that needs more water for wetting the cement particles. Also,
NS decreases the setting time of mortar compared with SF and
makes cement paste thicker . Moreover, NS reduces segregation
and bleeding water, and it will result in a higher cohesiveness
state.
6. Microstructure
Considering the chemical properties of NS particles, it has been
reported that the NS used free lime (C-H) during hydration reac-
tions. The result of this process is C-S-H gel formation due to the
high fineness of NS particles [112]. The size of NS particles is about
1–100 nm, which is mainly advantageous in taking part in reac-
tions as a nucleus. The results will be a dense cement hydrate
products and an improved ITZ, even in low replacement levels
[113]. Some researchers found that concrete samples containing
NS have better performance compared to concrete that contains
SF [114].
The durability properties of concrete can be measured through
permeability. NS influences chemical and physical properties of
concrete. The silica pozzolanic reaction with calcium hydroxide
produces more C-S-H gels. Based on physical aspects, NS is about
100 times smaller than cement particles, is able to fill remaining
voids in cement paste, and increases the final density of concrete
at initial ages [78,115]. Using different electronic microscope tech-
niques (SEM, ESEM, and TEM) to conduct microstructural analyses
of concrete showed that the microstructure of concrete with NS is
more uniform and dense than concrete without NS [14,75,76].
Using NS can improve the microscope properties of concrete due
to the interface, surface and filler effects of nanoparticles [116].
The NS can act as an activator that enhances the hydration reac-
tions of concrete and forms large amounts of C-S-H gel
[32,53,117,118]. Thus, NS incorporation reduces the calcium leach-
ing rate of cement pastes and increases durability [107,119]. Said
et al. [41] examined the NS effects on the filler and pozzolanic reac-
tions through thermal and microstructural tests. The concrete pore
structure with NS was improved due to the nucleation effect of
nanoparticles. Lin et al. [120] found the relative permeability and
pore sizes of mixtures decreased with NS addition (1–2%) by using
a mercury porosimetry test.
Ji [14] observed that concrete with NS showed more a compact
and uniform microstructure compared with the control sample by
SEM tests. The reason is attributed to the size Ca(OH)2 crystals that
can be absorbed by NS and resulted in a denser ITZ of the cemen-
titious matrix [30,72]. Givi et al. [1] emphasized that curing con-
crete samples in the lime solution can increase the pozzolanic
activity and form more C-S-H gels in the presence of NS. Zhang
and Islam [114] found that using SiO2 nanoparticles in the concrete
led to a decrease in the porosity of the cement paste. Du et al. [42]
reported the same results and believed that using NS caused the
microstructure in ITZ to be more homogeneous due to the poz-
zolanic reaction and filler effects.
Shaikh and Sarker [121] reported that the microstructure of the
concrete was perceptibly improved by using fly ash and NS with
observing backscattered electron (BSE) images analysis and X-ray
38 M. Balapour et al. / Construction and Building Materials 181 (2018) 27–41
diffraction (XRD) analysis. The secondary C-S-H gel can be formed
to fill the micro-pores due to the tiny particle size and large specific
surface area of NS. However, Supivt and Shaikh [106] observed that
NS reacted more rapidly with the free lime in the hydration reac-
tions than fly ash. In another study, decreasing permeability of
concrete occurred while using NS, and high fly ash content (50%)
was reported [73]. Ji [14] studied the effect of sizes of NS (10–20
nm) on concrete water permeability and microstructure. The test
results showed that finer NS can improve the microstructure and
reduce the water permeability of hardened concrete. Khaloo et al.
[66] evaluated the microstructure of concrete samples containing
assorted sizes of NS by using the SEM, XRD and mercury intrusion
porosimetry tests. The results showed that the coarser NS was
associated with a lower pozzolanic reactivity and a smaller accel-
eration of cement hydration compared the finer nanoparticles. In
addition, the NS with coarser size had a better contribution in com-
pacting cement matrix due to the preventing agglomerates of
nanoparticles. Also, Givi et al. [1] observed the dense C-S-H gel
(with the particle size of 15 nm) around NS particles (with the par-
ticle size of 80 nm) at early stages. Bani Ardalan et al. studied the
effects of NS particles on concrete permeability through using
the technique of spraying nanosilicon and treatment in the
water-diluted NS oxide [122]. They found a denser microstructure
was observed in the SEM images of samples cured in colloidal NS
and sprayed with nanosilica. The densification of the microstruc-
ture can be attributed to the formation of the additional C-S-H gel.
Qing et al. [107] compared the effects of NS and SF. The con-
sumption of C-H (crystals) content at the interface between the
glass plate and the paste containing NS can be verified approxi-
mately by intensity changes of main diffraction peaks of C-H crys-
tals, such as (0 0 1) crystal face, as well as (1 0 0) and (1 0 1),
neglecting the effect of orientation on the intensity. Diffraction
peak intensities of the (1 0 0) and (1 0 1) crystal faces of C-H at
the interface of sample 3% NS replacement were almost equal to
those of the control sample, but the intensity of the (0 0 1) crystal
face was much less than that of the control sample. For example, as
compared with the control sample, the intensities of the (0 0 1)
crystal face at the interface of the sample with 3% NS decreased
by 67%, 61% and 64% at ages of 1 day, 7 days and 28 days,
respectively.
7. Nano-silica challenges
Nanoparticles have a large surface area to volume ratio, which
provides considerable potential for further reactions. However,
one of the main problems regarding the usage of nanoparticles
and especially NS is their agglomeration due to their high surface
area and great surface attraction force among the particles [123].
Indeed, in the agglomerated state, NS particle size will change to
the micron range. Therefore, their effective role in providing nucle-
ation sites in pozzolanic reactions or their filler effect for densifica-
tion of the porous concrete structure will be limited [72,124]. As a
result, well-dispersion of NS in concrete or mortar is a challenge
that many researchers have tried to deal with. There are different
types of NS materials, which can lead to different results in the
fresh and hardened properties of concrete due to their dispersion.
Pyrogenic NS (powder form) and NS hydrosol (colloidal suspen-
sion) are common types of NS that were used by researchers in a
cementitious matrix. The first type is usually in a state of agglom-
erated particles, and their dispersion in water is complicated. In
contrast, NS particles in a hydrosol state are insoluble and mono-
dispersed in water [124,125]. However, previous researchers
demonstrated that colloidal NS also would be coagulated after
addition to cement, owing to the enhancement of the paste’s ionic
strength [126]. Amiri et al. [127] investigated the influence of pH
values on the dispersion of pyrogenic NS with an average size of
12 nm. Their research revealed that an increase of pH values,
which was followed by five minutes of high shear mixing of diluted
NS suspension and 60 min sonication, can be helpful in de-
agglomeration of nanoparticles up to the size of 0.2 mm. Bagheri
et al. [123] were also successful in breaking the agglomerated par-
ticles of pyrogenic NS up to an average size of 0.045 mm by apply-
ing 60 min of sonication and adjusting the pH value of suspension
to 10.
8. Conclusions
This review paper studies the fresh, mechanical, durability, and
microstructural properties of modified concrete with NS. Providing
a nucleation site for further reactions, accelerating pozzolanic reac-
tions, filling the pores in the microstructure, and producing more
C-S-H gel that refines the microstructure are the main effective
performances of NS in improving concrete’s properties. However,
difficulties in working with NS, which mainly refer to its tendency
to agglomerate, should not be disregarded. Based on the review of
a hundred papers, the following conclusions can be drawn:
1. The addition of NS to concrete contributes to the enhance-
ment of compressive strength due to the production of C-
S-H gel and densification of the microstructure. Different
thresholds have been proposed by researchers for optimal
replacement of NS. However, most of the proposed thresh-
olds are less than 5% replacement. Addition of any content
more than that of the optimal level to the mixture causes
reduction of compressive strength due to agglomeration of
nano particles.
2. Tensile and flexural strength follow a similar trend of com-
pressive strength increment with the addition of NS to the
mixture. The improvement in bonding between the aggre-
gate and the matrix can be considered for enhancement of
flexural and tensile strength. Moreover, NS shows a good
synergetic effect with other materials, such as fiber and nano
clay.
3. The abrasion resistance of concrete ameliorates by replacing
cement with NS. It is found that abrasion resistance of con-
crete depends on its pore structure, which can be improved
by the addition of NS to the mixture. A small dosage incorpo-
ration of NS could enhance the surface index of abrasion
resistant to a great extent. Moreover, the abrasion resistance
of concrete enhances with the increase of compressive
strength.
4. With the incorporation of NS, the compressive loss due to
the exposure to high temperature could improve obviously.
Formation of the secondary gel by incorporation of NS,
which makes the microstructure denser, can exclude propa-
gation of cracks at elevated temperature. Addition of NS
leads to a higher compressive and flexural strength of con-
crete at elevated temperature in comparison to the control
sample.
5. The incorporation of NS lead to the reduction of chloride ions
penetration. NS refines the pore structure of concrete and
more importantly lead to the reduction of prosity at ITZ. Fur-
thermore, by causing more tortuous and disconnected
routes improve the permeability of concrete. It should be
noted that NS with the very high specific surface area may
not be as effective as coarse NS. Higher specific surface area
can lead to a higher tendency for agglomeration of nano par-
ticles and formation of micro particles. As such, it is harder
to work with a NS with higher specific surface area.
6. NS not only could be prominently effective at binary mixture
but works progressively alongside other pozzolanic materi-
 M. Balapour et al. / Construction and Building Materials 181 (2018) 27–41
als, such as RHA. Filling empty pores with different sizes and
rupture of connected pores are two of the reasons cause
reduction in water absorption.
7. The addition of NS to cement matrix can improve the electri-
cal resistivity of concrete not only by refinement of pore
structure, but also by consuming of Ca(OH)2 and causing a
reduction in OH content in pore solution thereby conduc-
tivity reduction of specimens.
8. Addition of a small dosage of NS could decrease water pen-
etration depth to a great extent in comparison to control
mixture. It should be noted that continuous pozzolanic reac-
tions would yield the best results regarding the penetration
depth at long-term ages. Refinement of pore structure and
filler effect of NS are responsible for the observed reduction
in water penetration depth.
9. The incorporation of NS can increase the extent of shrink-
age, and its value can enhance with the increment of NS
replacement level. The growth of shrinkage mainly hap-
pens due to the fact that NS will lead to higher degree
of hydration thereby higher chemical shrinkage. It should
be noted that NS particle size has a great effect on shrink-
age extent. The lower NS particles size, the higher extent
of shrinkage would be. The reason is the higher reactivity
of finer NS particles; therefore, consumption of greater
amount of existing water in the mixture, as a result higher
chemical shrinkage.
10. The addition of NS ameliorates frost resistance of concrete
by refinement of pore structure and also by densification
of the microstructure. Although NS can considerably
enhance the resistance of concrete against freeze-thaw
cycles, however air-entraining admixtures are highly recom-
mended for improvement of frost resistance.
11. NS was significantly effective in improving sulfate resistance
and causes notable expansion reduction in the samples. A
small dosage addition of NS to the concrete mixture can
cause negligible expansion of the samples after exposure
to MgSO4. Moreover, great ability of NS in the improvement
of ITZ lead to a desirable reduction in total porosity, and as a
result preventing penetration of aggressive agents of sulfate
ions into the concrete.
12. With the simultaneous incorporation of NS and MS, it was
found that carbonation depth can reduce. Permeability
reduction due to the production of secondary gel, filling
effect of NS and MS, and reduction of pore solution pH
attributed to carbonation depth reduction. In contrast, some
researchers observed that carbonation coefficient was not
influenced by the addition of NS to concrete and even car-
bonation depth can be increased in some cases.
13. NS has a substantial influence of on pore size distribution
regarding its filler effect, which can decrease the number
of pores in 10–100 nm range. In fact, the addition of NS
refines the large capillary pores while filling the medium
capillary pores. In other words, NS makes the pore size dis-
tribution more homogenous. Having a more homogenous
microstructure cause a reduction in permeability.
14. Inclusion of NS particles in concrete decreases slump values
and workability. For keeping the slump values equal to the
control sample, more water is needed in mixtures. However,
it should be mentioned that although the presence of NS in
the mixture makes it more viscous, it can prevent segrega-
tion and blockage.
15. The addition of NS particles to the cement matrix can make
the microstructure denser and more homogenous. Indeed,
NS elevates cement hydration and reacts with free lime
which leads to the formation of a great amount of C-S-H
gel and as a result densification of the cement matrix. Fur-
39
thermore, NS can fill the micro-pores in the microstructure,
also in ITZ, and reduce the porosity.
Conflict of interest
The authors declare that there is no conflict of interests.
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