Chapter

CONTROL, ELABORATION,
AND MULTIVARIRTE
ANALYSIS

CONTROL
METHODS OF CONTROL
Cross-Tabulation as a Control
Operation
Partial Tables
ED ELABORATION

0 Intervening Variables
Interaction
Q Partial Correlation as a Control
0 Operation
Multiple Regression as a Control
Operation
ED
(—) MULTIVARIATE ANALYSIS MULTIPLE
RELATIONSHIPS
CAUSAL MODELS AND PATH ANALYSIS
0 Some Examples of Causal Diagrams
ED Path Analysis
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386
• Part IV Data Processing and Analysis
c
0
Does sodal class standing affect men’s participation in household tasks in C
dual-earner families in the United States? Guided by Maixian theory Wright
et al. hypothesized that this was the case.’ Using bivariate techniques, they
found that dass had a marginal effect on the division of labor in dual-earner (Z)
homes. The researchers then questioned whether other variables might af
fect men’s household work. Using multivariate techniques, they examined
the relative effects of eight variables:, class, wife’s educational level, wife’s
hours of paid work, wife’s contribution to total family income, total family in
CD
come, respondent’s gender ideology (what he or she perceived to be 0
proper roles for men and women), age, and whether there were children
under age 16 in the household. When the researchers controlled for these
other variables, they found that the original small class effects disappeared.
Only the number of hours the wife spent on paid work and the respon
dent’s age had strong effects on how much of the household work was per- 0
formed by husbands; gender ideology had a weak effect.
If the researchers in this study had used only bivariate techniques to ex
amine the relationship between class and men’s work in the home, they C)
might have erroneously concluded that class has at least some effect. Multi-
variate techniques allowed them to control for the effects of other variables,
and they avoided coming to an erroneous conclusion. cD
•I IN THIS CHAPTER we focus on the methods researchers use to analyze more than
two variables. The analysis of more than two variables serves three major functions in C)
empirical research: control, elaboration, and prediction. The first function substitutes for
the mechanism of experimental control when it is lacking. The second function clarifies
bivariate relationships by introducing intervening or conditional variables. The third func
tion is served by analyzing two or more independent variables to account for the varia
tion in the dependent variable. This chapter discusses ways in which a third variable may - -

enter into empirical research. First, we consider the strategy of controlling for a third van-
able through elaboration. Then we examine multivariate counterparts to the bivariate
measures of relations. Finally, we -examine the techniques of causal modeling and path C)
analysis.
The examination of a bivariate relationship is but the first step in data analysis. In the
next step, researchers evaluate the substantive implications of their findings and draw
causal inferences. In other words, after researchers establish covariation and its direction
using a bivariate measure, they interpret the findings and assess the causal priorities of ED
the investigated variables by introducing other variables into the analysis. Suppose that
you find a relationship between parents’ age and child-rearing practices, that is, that older
parents tend to he more restrictive than younger parents with their children. What inter- ED
pretation can you give to this finding? You may claim that the variables are causally re
lated and that increasing age of parents is associated with a shift from permissive toward
restrictive attitudes. However, it is possible that a difference in child-rearing practices is
due not to a 4ifference..in_age .but..rather to a difference in orientation: Older parents
were exposed to an orientation stressing restriction, whereas younger parents behave ac- CD
cording to a more liberal orientation advocating more permissive practices. In other

1. Erk Olin Wight, Karen Shire, Shu-Ling Hwang Maureen Dolan, and Janeen Baxteç The Non-Effects of CD
Class on the Gender Division of Labor in the Home A Comparative Study of Sweden and the United States,
Ge,,der & Society, 8(4) (1992): 252—282. -

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• 387
Chapter 17 Control, Elaboration, and Multivariate Analysis
o
words, the relationship between parents’ age and child-rearing practices may be due to
the fact that the variables “age” and “child-rearing practices” are both associated with a
cD third variable, “Qrientation’
An observed correlation between two or more variables does not, of itself, permit the
CD investigator to make causal interpretations. A bivariate.relationship may be the product of
chance, or it may exist because the variables are related to a third, unrevealed variable.
Furthermore, the phenomenon under investigation can often be explained by more than
CD a single independent variable. In any case, the introduction of additional variables serves
the purpose of clarifying and elaborating the original relationship. I

O CONTROL
ED An association between two variables is ‘not a sufficient basis for an inference that the
two are causally related. Other variables must be ruled out as alternative explanations.
CD For example, a relationship between height and income can probably be accounted for
by the variable “ag&’ Age is related to both income and height, and this joint relationship
produces a statistical relationship that has no causal significance. The original relation be
tween height and income is said to be a spurious relation. Spuriousness is a concept
that applies to situations where an extraneous variable produces a “fake” relation be-,
ED tween the independent and deperdent variables. It is essential that an investigation un
ED cover the extraneous factors contaminating the data in this way. Thus, n validating bivari
ate associations, an important step is to rule out the largest possible number of variables
CD that might conceivably explain the original association. Researchers rule out variables
ED through the process of control, a basic principle in all research designs.
In experimental designs, control is accomplished by randomly assigning research par
ED ticipants to experimental and control groups. The logic of controlled experimentation as
sures the researcher that all extraneous variables have been controlled for and that the
ED
-. two groups differ only with regard to their exposure to the independent variable.. How
ever, as we have seen in earlier chapters, social scientists find it difficult to manipulate
social groups and to apply experimental treatment prior to observations. Consequently,
ED
-

they lack control over numerous factors that throw doubt on any association between in-
o dependent and dependent variables employed in the investigation.
In quasi-experimental designs, statistical techniques substitute for the experimental
ED method of control. Researchers employ these techniques during data analysis rather
than at the data collection stage. There are thre methods of statistical control. The first
ED entails subgroup comparisons using the tehniqye of cross-tabulation. The second tech-
nique, partial correlation, employs mathematical frocedures to readjust the value of a bi
ED variate correlation coefficient The third method is multiple regression, which enables us
to estimate the effect of an independent variable on the dependent variable while con
trolling for the effect of other variables.
ED
- METHODSOF CONTROL
(_D Cross-Tabulation as a Control Operation
ED We can compare the cross-tabulation method of control to the procedure of matching
CD employed in experiments. In both techniques, the investigator attempts to equate the
groups examined with respect to variables that may bias the results. In experiments, re
ED searchers equate research participants prior to their exposure to the independent
0
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388 • Part.IV Data Processing and Al2alyszs

variable by identifying pairs of participants.that are identical with respect to the controlled
factors and physically allocating one member of each pair to the experimental group and (Z
one member to the control group. With cross-tabulation, investigators allocate research
participants to the respective groups only during the analysis stage. Whereas matching is C
a physical control mechanism, cross-tabulation is a statistical operation. C
Cross-tabulation involves the division of the sample into subgroups according to the
categories of the controlled variable (called the control variable). The researcher then
reassesses the original bivariate re’ation within each subgroup. By dividing the sample
into subgroups, the researcher removes the biasing .inequality by computing a measure
of relationship for groups that are internally homogeneous with respect to the biasing C
factor.
Generally, only variables that are associated with both the independent variable and
the dependent variable can potentially bias the results. Thus the researcher selects as C
17.1
Political Liberalism by Urban—Rural Location
Political Urban Rural
Liberalism Area - Area

High 50°/o 28°fo

(200) (140)
Low 50% 72%
(200) (360)
TotaV 100% 100%
(400) (500)

Fiçure 17i.
C
—
Liberalism by Urban—Rural Location
C
0
or’
High Liberalism LZI Low Liberalism ED
72 C
60 — 0
50
ci)
00
‘V 0
C
0)
U
ci)
0
0
20

0—
-

Urban
—

Location
I
Rural
0
0
cD
0
0
0
0
0
0
98
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 Chapter 17 Control, Elaboration, and Multivariate Analysis • 389j

Tahig 17.2
Education by Urban—Rural Location

Urban Rural
Education Area Area

High 75% 20%

(300) (100)
Low 25°/a 80%
(100) (400)
Total 100% 100%
. (400) (500)

. Political Liberalism by Education

Education
Political
Liberalism High Low
0 High 65% 20%
0 (246) (100)
Low 40°/s 80%
0 (160) (400)
0 Total 100% 100%
(400)
0 (500)

0
control variables only variables that show an association with the independent and de
pendent variables under investigation.
0
0 AN ILLUSTRATION. The following example illustrates the steps involved in controlling
for a third variable thrOugh cross-tabulation. Suppose we select a sample of 900 respon
0 dents to test the hypothesis that people from urban areas are politically more liberal than
0 rural dwellers. The data obtained are presented in Table 17.1 and illustrated in Figure
17.1. We obseive that 50 percent of urban residents are liberal, compared to only 28
C percent of the respondents from rural areas. Thus we may conclude that political liberal
ism is associated with place of residence. The question is whether this association is di
0 rect (in which case the hypothesis may be supported) or is based on a spurious relation
0 with anothervariable, One such additional variable might be education, which is associ
ated with both place of residence and political liberalism, as reflected in the hypothetical
0 bivãriate distributions of Tables 17.2 and 17.3, which are illustratedJn Figure 17.2.
0 Partial Tables
CD To control for education, we divide the900 persons into two groups according to level of
0 education (high, low). Within each group, urban—rural location is cross-tabulated with

0
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390 0
Part 117 Data Processing and Analysis
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Fi!Jure 17.2
0
The Relationship Between Liberalism, Urban—Rural Location, and Education 0
0
(a) Education by Urban—Rural Location
0
• High Education EEl Low Education 0
80 0
80 -

0
0
60 -

0
0
0
40 -
0
20

0—
-

r215
Urban Location Rural Location
0
0
0
0
0
(b) Political Liberalism by Education cD
0
High Liberalism Low Liberalism

0
00
Co
0
a,
0
40
40 0
0
20
0

0
High Education
I Low Education
0
0
0
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100
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 Chapter 17 Control, Elaboration, and Multiuariate Analysis

17.4
Political Liberalism by Urban—Rural Location, Controlling for Education
(Spurious Relationship)
0 • High Education Low Education
0 Political Urban Rural Urban Rural
Liberalism Area
0 Area Area Area

0 High 60% 60% 20% 20°/a

• (180) (60) (20) (80)
0 Low 40% 40% 80°Io 80%
cD (120) .jIQL (320)
Total 100% 100% 100% 100%
0 (300) (100) (100) (400)
0
0 political liberalism. We then estimate the original bivariate association in each of the sub
0 groups. The controlled data are summarized in Table 17.4 and illustrated in Figure 17.3.
The resulting two bivariate tables of Table 17.4 are referred to as partial tables be
0 cause each reflects only part of the total association. Each pair Of parallel cells in the two
0 partial tables adds up to the corresponding cell in the original table (Table 17.1). For ex
ample, the 180 highly educated respondents who come from urban areas and are liber
0 als plus the 20 respondents who are urban liberals with a low level of education to
gether constitute the 200 urban, liberal respondents in the original bivariate table.
0
Figurei73;
Political Liberalism by Location, Controlling for Education (Spurious Relationship)
0
0
C
0
0
0 (1

0 a)
0
0
0
0
0
Urban Rural Urban Rur.al
0 Location
0
0
0
0
0
0
0 101
 ED
cD
CD
CD
CD
1392 —. Part IV Data Processing and Analysis
CD
To assess the partial association, we compute a measure of relationship for each of ED
the control groups and compare it with the original results, selecting appropriate mea
sures in the same way as for regular bivariate distributions. We can use difference of per- ED
centages, gamma, or Pearson’s r, depending on the level of measurement
The value of the partial association can be either identical or almost identical to the
original association, it can vanish, or it can change. For the examination of spurious rela- CD
tionships, only the first two possibilities are relevatit. When the partial association is iden
tical or almost identical to the original association, we can conclude that the control vari
able does not account for the original relation and that the relation is direct. If it vanishes, ED
the original association is said to be spurious. (A third variable may int&vene between
the dependent and independent variables, in which case the partial association will also ED
vanish or approximate zero. We will consider an example of this situation shortly.)
If the partial association does not vanish but is different from the original association
or if it is different in each of the partial tables, the independent and dependent variables ED
are said to interact We will return to interaction later.

SPURIOUS ORIGINAL ASSOCIATION. In the example of Table 17.4,8 percentage com

parison shows that education completely accounts for the relation between residence
and liberalism, for there is no difference between rural and urban residents in their de
gree of liberalism within either of the two education groups. Sixty percent of the highly
educ.ated rural residents, like 60 percent of the highly educated urban residents, are po
litically liberal. Within the low-education group, 20 percent are liberal wherever they re
side. The overall association between the independent and dependent variables is com
pletely accounted for by the association of each with education, as is illustrated in the
bar graph shown in Figure 17.3. This pattern tan also be represented by the drawing
shown in Figure 17.4.
Education determines both political libralism and place of residence. That is, people
who are educated tend to live in cities and are generally politically liberal. There is no in
herent link between political liberalism arid place of residence, and the association be
tween them is spurious.

DIRECT ORIGINAL ASSOCIATION. The control of a third variable may lead to entirely
different results, however. In the hypothetical example of Table 1 7.5k the original bivariate
association remains unchanged by educational level. In the total sample, as well as in
each educational group, a percentage comparison shows that 50 percent of urban resi
dents are liberal, compared with 28 percent of rural residents. The bar graph presented
in Figure 17.5 clearly shows that the overall relationship between the two original van-

riguri7.4. ED
Overall Association of Variables in Table 17.4 ED
Education

Political Rural—Urban
Liberalism Location

102
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0 Chapter 17 Control, Elaboration, andMultit’ariateAnalysis .—
0
Table 17.5
0
Political Liberalism by Urban—Rural Location, Controlling for Education
0 (Nonspurious Relationship)
0 High Education Low Education.
0 Political Urban Rural Urban Rural
0 Liberalism Area Area Area Area

0 High 50% 28% 50% 28%

(50) (35) (150) (105)
0 .

Low 50% 72% 50% 72%

0 (50) (90) (iQ)_ (270)
Total l00°fo 100%
0 (100) (125)
100%
(300)
100%
(375)
0
0
ables is not accounted for by the control variable. The investigator can be confident that
0 education is an irrelevant factor with respect to this particular association and that the as
0 sociation between the two original-variables is direct.
In practice, the results are not as dear-cut as presented here. It is very rare for associ
0 ations either to vanish or to remain identical with the original results. Often the partial ta
0 bles show a clear decrease in the size of the original relationship; at times the reduction
is slight. This is because of the numerous factors that can account for a bivariate association.
0
Figure 17.5
Political Liberalism by Location, Controlling for Education (Nonspurious Relationship)
C
0
100
0
0 80
0
a)
0 00 60
C
0
40
0
0 20
0
0 0
Urban Rural Urban Rural
Location
0
0
0
0
0
0
103
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 394
I • Part IV Data Processing and Analysts

In our example, other variables, such as income, party identification, or religious affihia
tion, might conceivably explain the relationship between urban — rural location and politi
cal liberalism. Statisticians refer to this characteristic of variables as “block-booking,” a
term that reflects the multidimensionality of human beings and of their social interaction.
When researchers compare people in terms 1 of social class, they consider only one di
mension of human experience. People may differ thoroughly from each other in a great C
many things, and all these other factors may enter into the phenomenon to be ex
plained. The block-booked factors become our control variables; but when we control for
only one or some of them, the rest may still explain the remaining residual in the depen- C
dent variable.
The procedure, then, is to hold constant all other variables that may be relevant to C
the subject of investigation. The selection of these variables is a logical and theoretical
operation, the only statistical guideline being the requirement that the potential control
c
factor be related to both the independent and dependent variables. Of course, a re- CZJ
searcher can never be completely sure that he or she has introduced all relevant vari
ables into the analysis. However, the greater the number of relevant factors controlled
for, the greater is the confidence that the relationship is not spurious. c
ELABORATION C
The mechanism of control is designed to uncover factors that might invahdate the origi
C
nal bivariate association. In that case, the investigators are likely to turn to other factors C
that they can employ as independent variables and then repeat the process of validating
the relationship. However, if the relationship observed is nonspurious, researchers can
proceed to a more advanced stage of analysis and elaborate the bivariate association. C
Elaboration usually involves the introduction of other variables to determine the links
between the independent and dependent variables or to specify the conditions under C
which the association takes place.
Some concrete examples will help us illustrate the meaning of elaboration. In the
past decade, social scientists have paid close attention to the effect of early childbearing
on the life chances of adolescent parents. Investigators have discovered that early child-
bearers are more likely to experience economic hardship and family disruption in later
3 Early childbearing appears to be linked to dropping out of
life than later childbearers.
school, particularly for adolescent mothers. Low educational attainment in turn makes it
more difficult for teenage mothers to find stable and remunerative employment We can C
represent these relationships schematically as follows:
Early childbearing —k low educational attainment —* economic disadvantage
In this scheme, low educational attainment provides a link between early childbearing
and economic disadvantage. It is an intervening variable between the independent vari
able (early childbearing) and the dependent variable (economic disadvantage). C
Although low educational attainment accounts for the economic disadvantage of
many teenage mothers, the life chances of these women vary enormously. For instance,
feiffüdy found That one-fourth of early childbearers were on welfare while another
fourth were relatively comfortable economically, with a family income of more than
C
2. Morris Rosenberg, The Logic of Sureey Analysis (New York: Basic Books, 1968), pp. 26—28. Cl
3. Frank F. Furstenherg, Jr., J. Brooks-Gunn, and S. Philip Morgan, Adolescent Mothers in Later Life (Cam
bridge: Cambridge University Press, 1987).

104
 Chapter 17 Contro4 Elaboration, and Multivariate Analyci •
0
$25,000 a year.
4 To account for these differences, researchers controlled for a number of
Q variables. One of these variables was race. They discovered that white mothers were
more likely to attain a higher economic level than black mothers. In this example, the
original bivariate association between early childbearing and economic disadvantage is
CD pronounced only among one subgroup, black mothers. The control variable, race, is thus
said to be a conditional variable, and the pattern is called interaction. Schematically,
O this pattern may be represented as follows:
black —‘ economic disadvantage
O Early childbeanng
white —‘ no economic disadvantage
CD We shall examine empirical examples of both intervening variables and interaction.

Intervening Variables
Let us return to the first case, in which the controlled variable is said to intervene be
cD tween the independent ad dependent variables. Table 17.6 shows the relationship be
tween childbearing and economic status. The data demonstrate that these two variables
CD are associated: Early childbearers are more likely to have low economic status. The in
vestigators hypothesized that these differences could be explained by the variable “edu
cational attainment” That is, early childbearing affects economic status indirectly through
CD educational attainment, because young mothers are more likely to drop out of school
than nonmothers.
cD As a means of testing this hypothesis, the investigators held educational attainment
cD constant and reexamined the original relationship. If, as suggested, childbearing has only
an indirect influence on economicstatus, then when the intermediate link is controlled
CD for, the association between childbearing and economic status should disappear. The re
CD suits in Table 17.7 confirm the hypothesis: There are no differences in economic status
between mothers and nonmothers when the level of educational attainment is the
CD same. The original relationship vanishes when educational attainment is controlled for.
In Order to infer that a control variable links the independent and dependent van-
-
abies, the researcher must demonstrate that the control variable is associated with both
CD
0 17.6
0 Childbearing and Economic Status (Hypotheticl Data)
0 Early Chidbearin9
0 Economic Status Yes No Total
0 Low 54% 33%
0 (869) (653) (1,522)
High
0 731)
46% 67%
(1,347) L2,,PZ)
0 Total 100°/a 100°/o
(1,600) (2,000) (3,600)
CD
CD 4. ibid., p. 48.

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1396 • Part IV Data Processing and Analysis 0
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1 Table 17.7
Childbearing and Economic Status by Educational Attainment (Hypothetical Data)
C
C
High Educational Low Educational
Attainment Attainment 0
Early Childbearing Early Childbearing
0
Economic Status Yes No Yes No Total
C
Low 18% 18%
(216)
64Ia
(704)
65%
(512) (1,522)
0
(90)
High 82% 82% 36% 36% 0
jp). (984) (3961 (2,078) 0
Total 100% 100% 100% 100%
(500) (1,200) (1,100) (800) (3,600) 0
0
0
the independent and dependent variables and that when it is controlled for, the original 0
relationship vanishes (or diminishes considerably) in all categories of the control variable.
You may be exclaiming that these were the identical condftions required for declaring the 0
relationship spurious, and we can confirm that this is indeed true. The statistical tests in
both cases are identical, but the interpretation is significantly different. With a spurious in-. 0
terpretation, the statistical results invalidate a hypothesis about the relationship between 0
the independent and dependent variables; an intervening interpretation, by contrast, clar
ifies and explains such a relationship. How, then, can we distinguish between the two? 0
Morris Rosenberg maintains that the difference is a theoretical issue rather than a
statistical one and that it lies in the assumed causal relationship among the variables.
5 0
With a spurious interpretation , it is assumed that there is no causal relation between the CD
independent and dependent variables; in the case of an intervening variable, the two are
indirectly related through an intermediate link, the control variable.

Interaction
0
For the second type of elaboration, interaction, the researcher specifies the conditions or
contingencies necessary for the relationship to occur. We will illustrate the meaning of in
teraction using the example of childbearing, economic status, and race. The bivariaté as
sociation between childbearing and economic status already presented in Table 17.6
demonstrated that these two variables are associated. To gain further insight, a re
searcher might control for race. The results are presented in Table 17.8.
The results clearly demonstrate an interactive relationship, since the relationship be
tween childbearing and economic status is different for white and black women: For
black women, early childbearing has a considerable impact on economic status (66 per
cent of the early- childbearers have a lo economic status, cocnpared to only 31 percent
of women who are not early childbearers); whereas among white women, there is no
relationship between these two variables. For white women, a little over one-third in
both groups (36 percent and 38 percent) are in the low-status group. Based on these

C
5. Rosenberg, Thc Logic of Su,oey Analysi.c, pp. 54— 66.
C
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106 C
 Chapter 17 Control, Elaboration, and Multivariate Analysis
—
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1 f-
17.8
Childbearing and Economic Status by Race (Hypothetical Data)

Black White
Early Childbearing Early Childbearing
Economic Status Yes No Yes No Total

Low 66% 31% 36% 38%

(594) (372) (252) (304) (1,522)
High 34% 69% 64% 62%
(306) (828) (448) (496) (2,078)
Total 100% 100% 100% 100(4
. (900) (1,200) (700) (800) (3,600)

ED results, it may be concluded that early childbearing and race interact in their effect on
ED economic status; that is, the relationship between the independent and dependent vari
ables is conditioned by race. One possible interpretation is that eady childbearing has
ED economic consequences only for Women who are already disadvantaged.
Conditional relationships such as this one are quite common in social science re
ED search and can be inferred whenever the relative size or direction of the original bivariate
relationship is more pronounced in one category of the control variable than in another.
The presence of such differences between subgroups reflects the nature of social reality,
ED in which each variable can be broken down into various components. Indeed, many con
ditional factors are associated with almost any two-variable relationships. This social com
plexity makes the analysis of interaction one of the most important aspects of statistical
analysis.
ED INTEREST AND CONCERN AS A CONDITION. Herbert Hyman analyzed the various
factors that are generally considered conditions for most bivariate association and classi
fled them into three major groups.
6 The first class consists of variables that specify rela
ED tionships in terms of interest and concern. In many situations, interest and concern spec-
ED ify the conditions under which the effectiveness of an independent variable is more or
less pronounced. People tend to differ in their ‘interests, which in turn affect their atti
CD tudes and behavior patterns. Thus social stimuli are likely to have differential effects on
them, and the identification of these differing patterns may prove to be essential to the
ED social scientist. For instance, consider Morris Rosenberg’s finding that self-esteem is asso
cD dated with intensity of political discussion.
7 Adolescents with low self-esteem, who are
more self-conscious, tend to avoid expressing their political views. Taking into account
ED the level of political interest, Rosenberg observed that the relationship holds only among
those who are interested in politics. Those who are not interested in politics also do not
ED discuss politics, even though they might have a high degree of self-esteem. Thus the use
ED of the conditional factor helps to clarify the original findings.

6. Herbert H. Hyman Sunicy Design and Analysic (New York; Free Press, 1955), pp. 295—311.
ED 7. Morris Rosenberg, “SeIf-Esteeñi and Concern with Public Affairs,” Public Opinion.Quarfrrly. 26 (1962):
CD 201—211.

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CD
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1398 —. Part IV Data Processing and Aa1ysis

Types of Elaboration 0
—i- Intervening variables: Variables that link the independent and dependent variables.and
0
explain the relaonship between them. In order to conclude that a variable links the inde 0
pendent and dependent variables, the researcher must show that the control variable is as
sociated with both the independent and dependent variables and that when it is controlled
0
for, the original relationship decreases significantly, or disappears, in all categories of the 0
cOntrol variable.
—I- Interaction: To demonstrate interaction, the researcher must determine the conditions or
0
contingencies necessary for the relationship to occur, Researchers can infer conditional re 0
lationships whenever the relative size or direction of the original bivariate relationship is 0
more pronounced in one category of the contr I variable than in another,
0
0
TIME AND PLACE AS A CONDITION. The second class of factors specifies associa
C
tions in terms of time and place. A relationship between two variables can vary according 0
to the time and place at which it is studied. In studies in comparative politics, researchers
typically introduce “place” as a control variable. The effect of class, gender, and race on 0
voting, for example, differs from one country to another, 0
Specification by time is meaningful too. Often a relationship that holds at one time
will be dismissed or changed at another time. For example, a growing body of research 0
has documented a gender difference in support of women in politics, with women more
8 In a number of
likely than men to reject stereotypical notions that “politics is for men:’
0
studies comparing the effect of gender on attitudes toward women in politics over time, 0
researchers have hypothesized that time will reduce gender differences because of the
presence of more female political role models. Research into the general process of de 0
velopment and socialization offers another example. The family is known to affect vari
ous behavioral patterns in children. This effect is pronounced, especially at the early
stages, when the child is. more exposed and more vulnerable to his or her family. At later 0
stages, however, other aspects of socialization play an important role, and the family’s in
fluence diminishes. Thus a relationship between family characteristics and behavioral ori 0
entations Would not stay constant if a researcher examined them at different times. 0
BACKGROUND CHARACTERISTICS AS A CONDITION. Background characteristics of 0
the units of analysis are the last class of factors. Often associations are likely to differ for 0
persons or groups that do not share the same characteristks. Thus the relation between
class position and voting behavior is different for mn and for women, and the effect of 0
teachers’ encouragement on self-esteem is not identical for black and white children.
Background characteristics are perhaps the most common among the types of condi 0
tions employed in the social sciences. In fact, some researchers employ such control 0
variables as “social class,” “level of education,” “gender,” and “age” Imost auton’tatic-&Jy,
reexamining all relationships obtained. 0
0
8. Diane Gillespie and Cassie Spohn, “Adolescents Attitudes Toward Women in Politics: A Follow-up Study7 0
Women and Politics, 10 (1990): 1—16.
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