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Searl 20th Century Counterpoint PDF
Searl 20th Century Counterpoint PDF
NEW YORK
John de Graff Inc.
Copyright 1954 by Vifilliams and Jforgate Ltd*
in Great Britain
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ix
CHAP.
I INTRODUCTION I
INTRODUCTION
Is it really possible to give any general rules for modern
contrapuntal writing? To many people modern music seems to
be in a state of complete anarchy; there are so many methods
and systems that it would appear hardly practicable to find any
common factor between them. We get composers who spice up
normal diatonic writing with a skilful use of dissonance, like
Stravinsky, those who go in for polytonality, like Milhaud, those
who use peculiar scales derived from folk music, like Bart6k, and
those, like Schoenberg and Hindemith, who have invented their
own systems of composition and laid down rules which are
chiefly followed by their own disciples. These are the main
tendencies in contemporary music; but there are many others,
and many composers borrow ideas from each or aU of the
methods outlined above. Yet no one would seriously pretend
that there are no rules at all; composers must instinctively feel
what sounds good and what bad. Our purpose then is to try
and discover why modern composers write as they do in
fact to find what method there is (if any) in their
variegated
madness.
A student who wishes to become a composer is compelled
(if he goes to a college of music) to spend a great deal of time
writing counterpoint exercises in the styles of Palestrina and
Bach. He may object to this as a waste of time, pointing out
(quite correctly) that all modern composers are continually
breaking the rules which he is so carefully taught to observe.
But in fact he is not wasting his time; by doing these exercises
he is merely re-living the process of musical history. If Palestrina
and Bach had not existed there would have been no Bart6k or
Schoenberg; every composer must learn all the lessons of the past
before he can embark on new
developments himself. In fact
there is no break between modern music and that of the
past;
every element in every work, written by every composer of
2 TWENTIETH CENTURY COUNTERPOINT
today has developed out of some feature of the music of his
predecessors. It is only by understanding this that one can hope
to dissect or analyse the different tendencies in modern music;
in fact, before embarking on a study of contemporary counter-
point it is absolutely essential for the student to have a thorough
knowledge of the procedure of past generations. It is no good
trying to start reading a detective story in the middle, when one
has no idea who is the detective, who are the potential criminals,
or even who has been murdered.
I am therefore assuming that readers of this book will have a
good knowledge of classical harmony and counterpoint up to,
say, Wagner's day. Where do we go from there? We must first
try to place ourselves in perspective with the musical history of
the last four hundred years. This period may be divided into
three great epochs. The first, beginning in the fifteenth
century,
and ending with the death of Bach in 1750, may be called a
polyphonic period, in the sense that in general counterpoint
rather than harmony was the dominant factor. The
second,
which covers the period of the Viennese classics and also the
romantic composers, ended about 1910; this was
primarily a
harmonic period, with the reverse tendency to its predecessor.
Our modern age is
again predominantly contrapuntal; and
there are reasons for this, as there are indeed for the
predomi-
nant characteristics of the two previous
epochs. TTiese are
bound up with the question of tonality, which is perhaps the
most formidable problem which we have to face in this
enquiry.
The period before Bach saw the gradual dissolution of the
seven medieval church modes, on which music had
previously
been based, and their fusion into the major and minor diatonic
scales; hence it was in a sense a transitional epoch. The
period
from 1750 to 1910, on the other hand, was a static
period,
based on the firm tonality of the major and minor
scales, and
it was only towards the end of the
period that chromaticism
gradually began to undermine these scales. Our modern period
is again a transitional
one, in which the diatonic scale of
sevea notes phis five "accidentals" is
gradually being replaced
by a twelve-note scale which has not
yet taken a definite
Ex. a
Chorus
String
*Cf. p. n6n.
CHAPTER II
THE DEVELOPMENT OF
CHROMATIC COUNTERPOINT
As we have already seen, the steps which led to the eventual
breakdown of the diatonic system in its old form were already
present in the music of much earlier ages. The Gesualdo
example quoted above shows an advanced use of chromaticism,
and we can find similar examples in Bach and others. Here is a
passage from the Fugue in B minor (Book I of the Well-
Tempered Clavier) :
Ex.3
J&m.
The subject is in the bass, and it will be seen that its twenty
notes contain all the twelve of the chromatic scale. Nevertheless
not harmonized chromatically, but is treated as a series of
it is
Ex.4
Ex.5
r i r* r
This shows the final entry of the fugue subject (in the pedals).
It is noticeable that the first four bars show a constantly
fluctuating sense of tonality, while the last two gradually
approach a quite conventional cadence. It is this combination
A considerable use of chromatic harmony, chiefly for
X
purposes of modulation
and "side-slip" can also be found in the works of Spohr.
IO TWENTIETH CENTURY COUNTERPOINT
of chromatic and diatonic elements which makes Reger's style
and often irritating; there appears to be no particular
illogical
purpose in his passing modulations, and the chromaticism often
only seems to be there for its own sake, without any real
structural function.
An even more typical example of Reger's methods may be
seen in one of the variations from the same work :
Ex.6
Ex.7
TL- j; ^-=F=^=
>^.i-i
12 TWENTIETH CENTURY COUNTERPOINT
Though a number of different themes are most ingeniously
combined here (no marks for guessing from which works they
come!), the passage does not go beyond the normal rules of
diatonic counterpoint, except for the occasional sounding of
appoggiaturas simultaneously with their resolutions. With very
few exceptions, Strauss generally kept within the limits of this
kind of contrapuntal writing. A more ambitious attempt,
however, may be seen in the "Von der Wissenschaft" section of
Also sprach Zjarathustra :
Ex.8
Ex. 10
Ex. 12
l8 TWENTIETH CENTURY COUNTERPOINT
Ex. 13
Ex. 14
sehr auadrucksvoU
i.vi.
Ex. 15
Ylni
STRAVINSKY AND
EXPANDED DIATONIGISM
STRAVINSKY, as we have seen, is a firm believer in the diatonic
system, and throughout his life his work has been based on this
system, no matter how many alien elements he has introduced
into it at one time or another. It is usual to think of Stravinsky
as a predominantly contrapuntal composer; but though he
certainly thinks in terms of lines rather than chords on the
whole, his counterpoint is in fact rather rudimentary, being
extensively based on the use of ostinato figures a use which
was no doubt suggested by the idioms of Russian folk music.
It is important to remember, with Stravinsky as with many
modern composers, that a single part may in fact take the form
of chords moving hi parallel, as in the following example from
Petrouchka:
Ex. 16
STRAVINSKY AND EXPANDED DIATONICISM 3
This is, in effect, merely two-part writing, with each part
thickened out in common chords; it is also based on an ostinato
effect. A more complicated example of the same type of thing
Ex. 19
S
3. en
n
"F"
r*
T
T I
'
i
r f
The chorales in "L'Histoire du Soldat"(1918) do provide
some genuine four-part writing; but as they are intended more
or less as parodies, Stravinsky is careful to avoid what would
be the normal diatonic harmonisation of the theme.
STRAVINSKY AND EXPANDED DIATONIGISM
Ex. 20
Largo
Ex.21
Soprani
Orch.
Ex. 22
Wind
STRAVINSKY AND EXPANDED DIATONIGISM 27
Ex.23
S.A.
T.B.
28 TWENTIETH CENTURY COUNTERPOINT
As a final example we may take this passage from the Interlude
before the Bacchantes dance in "Orpheus" (1947).
Ex. 24
Moier&to
1
London, 1934. (at present available in Pelican Books). The whole of Part Two,
"Post- War Pasticheurs", is an excellent account of Stravinsky's aims and methods,
and though Lambert only dealt with Stravinsky's music up to 1930, Stravinsky
has written nothing since which contradicts his judgments.
3O TWENTIETH CENTURY COUNTERPOINT
short phrases that Stravinsky makes his effect, not by the flowing
polyphony of classical composers, and therefore I feel justified
in my claim that Stravinsky is not a contrapuntalist in the true
sense of the word.
Nevertheless he a composer whose methods can be studied
is
Ex. 25
nil i
fo. f1
eU.
CHAPTER IV
Ex. 26
Ex. 27
D$ major.
TUT T T
34 TWENTIETH CENTURY COUNTERPOINT
One does not really hear the simultaneous use of four keys;
instead one gets the impression of constant enharmonic modu-
lation what Schoenberg called "schwebende Tonalitat" or
fluctuating tonality. This is because the ear will always try
to relate the sum total of the sounds it hears to a definite tonal
basis; it is only really possible to listen to and distinguish
between two separate tonalities at once.
Nevertheless the use of complex polytonal schemes of this
kind can produce some interesting results, and Milhaud
exploited this idea in many of his earlier works. The finale of
the fourth of his "Cinq Symphonies" (1921) is a good example
of this. Written for ten solo strings, it is entitled "fitude" and
is built on the followingfplan:
Bar
Instrument
Violin i
Key
F
147 13 16 19 22 25
2nd subject
Violin 2 C and subject.
Violin 3 G 2nd subject
Violin 4 D 2nd
subject
Viola i A 2nd subject
Viola 2 A ist subject
'Cello i D ist subject
'Cello 2 G ist subject
D. Bass i C ist subject
D. Bass 2 F ist subject
Bar
Instrument Key 28 30 32 34 36 37 38 39 40 44
Violin i F ist subject
Violin 2 C ist subject
Violin 3 G ist subject
Violin 4 D ist subject
Viola i A ist subject
Viola 2 A 2nd subject
'Cello i D 2nd subject
'Cello 2 G 2nd subject
D. Bass i C 2nd subject
D. Bass 2 F and subject
Ex. 29
Bars 1-14 15-22 23-4 25-7 28-9 3-i 32-5 3^-7 38-43 44-S 49-51 52
Top
Middle
Bottom
Ex. 32
O.
je
ne le niti-xi pa.s ? En vengeance dt mon pc^e
Ex.33
before those quoted here). The first orchestral stave has a two-
bar repeated pattern of chords in Eb; the second also has a
a two-bar pattern, but in Db, while the third has a three-bar
pattern in B. The upper part on the fourth stave has a three-note
MILHAUD AND POLYTONALITY 39
pattern in B of seven crotchets' duration; the lower part
similarly repeats itself every seven crotchets. The fifth stave
contains a D-flattish rhythmical figure which is repeated every
six crotchets, while the bottom part, in A, comes round every
fourteen crotchets. Note the separate accentuation of each part,
which provides a constantly changing rhythmical effect, similar
to the perpetual variation of the contrapuntal complex.
It can be argued that to construct such patterns needs no more
than a knowledge of mathematics, and certainly passages like
thissound forced and ugly when taken out of their context and
played coldly on the piano. Nevertheless when performed by
singers, chorus and orchestra as part of an operatic scene, there
is no denying immense dramatic effect my strictures on
their
Stravinsky's use of ostinato in the previous chapter do not
imply that his music is thereby devoid of all interest. Milhaud
was using this kind of style for a particular purpose, in this
case to give the feeling of an immense popular gathering, and
personally I feel he was entirely justified in doing so.
This period of Milhaud's activity certainly shows his style
at its most complex, and in later years he simplified it con-
siderably. Nevertheless he continued to write polytonally for
some time, and in his huge opera Christopher Columbus (1928)
Ex.34
L! A ppa.fi tear Quetza.lcc*ti
pent
du b*.-tra.- AinirA, \\
y * un
40 TWENTIETH CENTURY COUNTERPOINT
there are many passages of considerable complexity. Ex. 34,
p. 39 is an extract from the scene where the ancient gods of
Mexico stir up the sea in order to wreck Columbus' fleet
(Tableau 17).
The whole passage (Vol. I p. 220-239 of the vocal score,
published by Universal Edition) is a 6-part canon which is
exposed and then played backwards in toto (from bar 1370
onwards. This refers only to the orchestral parts, the voices
being independent) . The extract quoted here comes just after
the entry of the sixth part and shortly before the turning point.
It will be seen that the writing here is far more flexible than
in the extracts from Les Eumenides: again the effect is of con-
stantly changing tonality rather than of true polytonality.
This passage is followed by a chorus (pp. 240-251) accom-
panied by the figure in the second orchestral stave of Ex. 34,
but with a varying number of crotchets between the demi-
semiquaver group in each part. Against this the first six bars
of the theme of the canon appear as a two-part double palin-
drome. Here is the central turning-point (bars 1420-1):
J J. J> J .
MILHAUD AND POLYTONALITY 41
It will be seen
that, of the four parts which have the ostinato
figure, the top part has five crotchets between each demisemi-
quaver group, the second four, the third three and the bottom
part two. The part on the lowest stave is another statement of the
canon theme, which has come in two bars previously. For the
sake of completeness, here is the theme in extenso (here quoted
from the earlier passage, p. 221):
Ex. 36
p motto e$f>ves$ im .
pp
Ex.38
Also typical of Bartok at this period are the bars from ^ the
last of the 7 Esquisses (1910); they show a characteristic
"false-relation" (major-minor) harmonic effect. [Ex. 39, p. 46.]
Bart6k*s approach at
Perhaps the best way of describing
this time would be to say that he had made tonality morei
fluid: that is to say, that while still upholding the supremacy
46 TWENTIETH CENTURY COUNTERPOINT
Ex.39
8 1*1 I
of a tonal centre, he would combine this with the free use ofall
the twelve notes of the chromatic scale. It is true that in a good
many works of this and later periods he made use of unusual ,
scales derived from Hungarian folk music; but this element is,
I think, not so important as his free use of chromaticism. One
can best sum this up by saying that his music invariably
expresses tonality, but avoids normal diatonic elements. This
can be seen clearly in this extract from a work of his middle
period, the Cantata Profana (1934). This passage begins in D
and ends on the dominant of Bfr; but the parts move freely and
chromatically throughout.
BARTOK AND FREE USE OF DISSONANCE 47
In another work of the late middle period, the Sonata for
2 pianos and percussion (1932), we find this four-part fugato,
of which the final entry is quoted here (in Pf. i, R.H.):
Here each entry is a fifth above the previous one, and the
passage is written as a strict four-part canon. The whole section
(Boosey and Hawkes miniature score p. 40 onwards) is well
worth studying in detail. The music cannot be described as
strictly polytonal in the sense that Milhaud's often is; but each
part is constantly moving from one key to another, and there
is certainly the feeling of the opposition to each other of four
Ex. 42
si
Upperpart:
B *
D
B
Lower part: Eb Ab
The notes given above are the first notes of the theme on each
entry. From the central climax (Eb) onwards, the theme
appears in inversion; and after A
has again been reached, there
is a short coda in which the
original and inversion are heard
together. 'JBut the movement is not just worked out in terms of
BART OK AND FREE USE OF DISSONANCE 49
Ex.43
content
Vkl.
5 TWENTIETH CENTURY COUNTERPOINT
Here again the music is purely chromatic; but in Bartok
we always know that tonality will ultimately be asserted,
and
the movement ends with a very definite cadence on to A.
In the slow movement of the Violin Concerto (1937) we
find another of Bart6k's favourite devices a canon at close
distance. In this case it is a four-part canon for pizzicato strings
with a counter-melody for the soloist; curiously enough, the
four string parts enter in the same tonalities as in the
Szymanowski example above (Ex. 28) F#, D #, G and A.
Ex. 44
ttcx.
Ex.45
OUCH,
Ex, 46
Vt*.
Ex.47
Ex.48
effect, in fact his sensitive ear saw to it that the total musical
result was always satisfactory. We can see this both in his
early works (e.g. Ex. 37) and in his later ones (e.g. Ex, 47);
and in the first movement of the Music for Strings, Percussion
and Celesta (cf. Ex. 43) we find him varying the counter-
subjects with each entry of the main subject in order to obtain
the maximum flexibility and freedom. It is this flexibility of
mind which sets Bart6k apart from the mechanical procedures
of Stravinsky or the mathematical methods of Milhaud, and
gives him a claim to true genius.
This having been said, it is obvious that I cannot recommend
the student to attempt to write exercises in the style of Bartok,
when Bart6k himself used new methods for each piece. True,
Bartok has certain mannerisms which can be imitated (and
only too often are), particularly in his use of rhythmic and
percussive effects. But I have hoped to show that these represent
only one side of Bart6k's genius, and that the other, the more
contrapuntal and often more lyrical side, is of equal importance,
if not greater in the end. I will therefore merely suggest that
the student makes a thorough study of the following passages
from Bart6k's works :
HINDEMITH AND
DIATONIGISED CHROMATICISM
WITH Hindemith we arrive, for the first time in this survey,
at the case of a composer who has actually worked out and
1
published a theoretical book on composition, This important
work, which should be digested by all students, is a brave
attempt to give a logical and consistent explanation of all types
of modern compositional procedure, and even if, as we shall
see later, the attempt cannot be said to be entirely successful,
it was certainly worth making. The problem which Hindemith
Ex.49
320
-e-
2 3 4 5*
the vibration
(The overtone numbers are given below the notes,
numbers above). By means of a somewhat mathematical, but
the vibration numbers by the
quite logical process of dividing
overtone numbers of the preceding notes in the series, he
arrives at the following table:
i Hindemith. The Craft of Musical Composition. Schott, London, 1942.
55
56 TWENTIETH CENTURY COUNTERPOINT
Ex. 50
(The whole passage (op. cit. pp. 32-43) is worth studying in.
detail as an example of Hindemith's analytical method; see
also his table opposite p. 48). It will be seen that this series
(which Hindemith calk "Series i") contains all the twelve
notes of the chromatic scale; the further a note is to the right
of this series the less strong is its relationship to the keynote G.
It should be made clear at once that this is neither a scale nor a
Schoenbergian note-series (see next chapter); it is simply a
table of the relative order of relationships between a keynote
and the remaining notes in the chromatic scale, and it does
not show the relationship of these notes to each other.
This latter relationship is shown in Hindemith's Series 2,
which is also derived by him in a somewhat complicated way,
in this case from the differential notes. These notes (which
55
Hindemith, by the way, calls "Combination tones ) I have
throughout used the English "note" rather than the American
or German "tone" in quotations, except in the case of "twelve-
tone composition" 3 which has now become a recognised
formula are produced, as "Grove" says, "when any two
loud and sustained musical sounds are heard at the same time.
The differential note is so called because its number of
vibrations is equal to the difference between those of the
generating sounds". (See article, "Resultant Tones", in
Grove's Dictionary, where the matter is more fully discussed).
A further differential note is also produced between the
original differential note and one of the directly sounded
notes; Hindemith calls these "combination tones of the second
order". (See op. cit. pp. 5?ff). By using these two series of
differential notes he is able to evolve a second table which
shows the relative harmonic value of the various intervals;
he calls this "Series 2".
HINDEMITH AND DIATONICISED CHROMATICISM 57
The intervals in this table become "less pure", as Hindemith
puts it, as we move from left to right. Hindemith shows that
these intervals are invertible (still by using the differential
notes), and is also able to determine the root of each interval
(shown by arrows in the table above) from them. But in the
cases of the minor third and major and minor seconds (and
their inversions) he admits that his decision as to which note is
to be regarded as the root is based more on past compositional
practice than on any theoretical justification derived from the
differential notes. The tritone, he says, has no theoretical
root; but for practical purposes he regards the note in it which
proceeds by the shortest step to the root of the chord on which
it resolves as the "root representative**. It should be noted in
(i) The old theory that chords are constructed by the super-
imposition of thirds cannot explain many chords, e.g. those
based entirely on fourths,
(ii) Chords cannot now be considered invertible, as this would
often completely alter their character,
(iii) The conception of "altered chords" is out of date now that
harmony is chromatic and no longer related to a diatonic
system.
58 TWENTIETH CENTURY COUNTERPOINT
(iv) The same chord could bear various interpretations in the
old system according to the key it was related to; it is
illogical to continue this practice.
the left in Series 2. In the same way the root can be found.
Ex.52
VI Indetenninate
(Chords built of minor 3rds only)
60 TWENTIETH CENTURY COUNTERPOINT
Hindemith then proceeds to work out the relative value of
root-progressions in some detail, basing his method on his
Series i. From this, by taking the 'best' interval (see Series 2)
in the succession of roots, he is able to determine the tonic of
any progression. Chords containing a tritone, he says, tend to
resolve on to chords which do not contain one; and the root of
the chord of resolution is the tonic in this case. In progressions
where all chords contain a tritone, (and therefore none are
resolved) the tonal centre of the progression is to be regarded
as the dominant of a tonic lying below it. (op. cit. p. 136, Ex.
97).
Hindemith next gives rules for these successions of roots, or
"degree-progressions" as he calls them; he regards as detri-
mental to them "the absence over a long period of the strongest
intervals, the fourth and fifth; the melodic interval of the
broken chords of any easily recognised species, except
tritone;
major and minor triads; chromatic progressions, i.e. too many
minor seconds close together; and explicitly melodic treatment,
the use of passing notes, anticipations etc." The presence of
i.e.
Ex.53
and that "the weak fourth G-C in the fifth chord flatly contra-
dicts the intention to make this the harmonic climax". He
Ex.54
ir
The page- and example-references in the remainder of this chapter apply
(unless otherwise stated.) to Hindemith's book; unfortunately it has not been
possible to obtain permission to reproduce more than the handful of examples
quoted above.
HINDEMITH AND DIATONICISED CHROMATICISM 65
next, without taking into consideration the less important parts
of the melody lying between these points, is called the step-
progression" (p. 194, Ex. 174).
In simple melodies like the above, "the step-progression consists
of a single succession of upward and downward steps of major
and minor seconds"; but in more complicated melodies there
may be many more step-progressions going on simultaneously.
The notes forming a step-progression are sometimes in direct
succession and sometimes widely separated (p. 195, Ex. 176).
Further points are that sevenths and ninths can take the place
of seconds in step-progressions (cf. the methods of the twelve-
tone technique, discussed in the next chapter) : a melody may
move quickly from one register to another by means of a
broken chord and not by seconds: and "the prominent notes
of a melody may not belong to either a chord or a step-pro-
gression, when the need for intense expression requires that the
attention shall be riveted by the conspicuous strangeness of
such notes" (p. 196, Ex. 179).
Ex.55
68 TWENTIETH CENTURY COUNTERPOINT
HINDEMITH AND DIATONICISED CHROMATICISM 69
of course obvious that Schoenberg would have objected
It is
to both Hindemith's and my analysis, in that this piece was
written purely according to the rules of twelve-tone composition
and without any regard for tonality; but it is, I think, still
possible to relate a good deal of twelve-tone music to a tonal
basis, and I believe that that is what the listener's ear actually
SGHOENBERG AND
TWELVE-TONE COMPOSITION
WE may now return to Schoenberg at the point where we left
him in Chapter II is to say in 1908, the year in which he
that
composed his first "atonal" pieces. So much has been written
both for and against "atonal" and "twelve-tone" music no
other methods of writing seem to have aroused so much
discussion in this century that I think it best to try to clear
the fog of controversy aroused by Schoenberg's more doctrinaire
supporters and opponents by seeing what Schoenberg himself
had to say on the subject. This information is contained in a
lecture, "Composition with Twelve Tones", delivered at the
University of California on March 26, 1941, and published in
Schoenberg's collection of essays, "Style and Idea'*. Study of
this is essential for anyone who wants to understand Schoen-
berg's methods.
Schoenberg begins with a short preamble, in which he says
"Formjn ^^artSa^^and^^pecially in music, aims primarily at
coinprehe^biHtyJ': and that alone isTthe aim of composition
wifH twelve tones, surprising though this may seem in view of
the lack of understanding shown to works written in this style.
He then traces the development of chromatic harmony (cf.
Chapter II); tonality gradually developed into what he calls
"extended tonality", and simultaneously there arose the
"emancipation of the dissonance." The ear had gradually
become acquainted with a great number of dissonances, and
so had of their "sense-interrupting effect". One no
lost the fear
longer expected preparations of Wagner's dissonances or
resolutions of Strauss' discords; one was not disturbed by
Debussy's non-fdnctional harmonies, or by the harsh counter-
point of later composers. This state of affairs led to a freer
use
of dissonances, comparable to classical composers* treatment
of diminished seventh chords, which could precede and follow
7*
72 TWENTIETH CENTURY COUNTERPOINT
any other harmony, consonant or dissonant, as if there were no
dissonance at all. Schoenberg goes on to say that discords are
distinguished from concords not by beauty but by compre-
hensibility. In his Harmonielehre he suggested that the ear was less
intimately acquainted with dissonant notes than with consonant
ones because the former appeared later in the harmonic series;
but "this phenomenon does not justify such sharply contra-
dictory terms as concord and discord". (Cf. Hindemith's treat-
ment of the same problem, p. 57). Closer acquaintance with
the more remote consonances i.e. the dissonances gradually
eliminated the difficulty of comprehension, and finally admitted
not only the emancipation of dominant and other sevenths,
but also the emancipation of Wagner's, Strauss', Mussorgsky's,
Debussy's, Mahler's, Puccini's and Reger's more remote
.
dissonances. 1 This meant in fact that what were formerly
regarded as discords could now be treated as freely as the
traditional concords; and, as we have seen, that is what most
modern composers do in practice.
The other, and more difficult, side of this problem is the
question of tonality. This is what Schoenberg has to say on the
subject: "Very soon it became doubtful whether [a basic note
or root] still remained the centre to which every harmony and
harmonic succession must be referred. Furthermore, it became
doubtful whether a tonic appearing at the beginning, at the end,
or at any other point really had a constructive meaning.
Richard Wagner's harmony had promoted a change in the
logical and constructive power of harmony." He then goes on
to discuss Debussy's impressionistic use of harmony (quoted
in Chapter II, p. 20), ending, as we have seen, by saying: "in
this way, tonality was already dethroned in practice, if not
in theory."
Schoenberg thus takes the opposite point of view to Hinde-
mith's statement (cf. p. 60) that "tonality is a natural force, like
gravity". Which of the two is the more justified will have to be
discussed later; but meanwhile let us follow the further
develop-
ment of Schoenberg and his first pupils, Berg and Webern.
Starting from their twin conceptions of the dethronement of
tonality and the free use of the former "discords", they produced
Incidentally Janacek in his treatise on harmony also held that "the history
of harmony is, in fact, the history of the gradual tolerance of dissonances".
SCHOENBERG, TWELVE-TONE COMPOSITION 73
a of pieces of which "the foremoot oharacteriaticB ;wgre
series
their extreme expressiveness and their extraordinary brevity."
This phase of development covered the years 1908-1923; that
is to say,
up to the discover)- of the twelve-tone" technique.
The principal works of this period were Schoenberg's Piano
Pieces, Op. n
and 19, 5 Pieces for Orchestra, Op. 16, the
dramas Erwartung and Die gliickliche Hand, and Pierrot Lawaire;
Berg's String Quartet, Op. 3, Three Pieces for Orchestra,
Op. 6 and the opera Wozzeck;\ Webern's 5 Movements and 6
Bagatelles for string quartet, Op. 5 and 9, two sets of pieces
for orchestra, Op. 6 and 10, Four Pieces for violin and piano,
Op. 7, and several collections of songs, accompanied by various
combinations of instruments. 1
Now it will be seen that nearly all these pieces are compara-
tively short, except where they are settings of literary texts;
and Schoenberg gives the reasons for this. "Formerly harmony
had served not only as a source of beauty, but, more important,
as a means of distinguishing the features of the form", e.g. the
necessity of ending a work with a concord. "Harmonic variation
could be executed intelligently and logically only with due
consideration of the fundamental meaning of the harmonies.
Fulfilment of all these functions comparable to the effect of
punctuation in the construction of sentences, of subdivision
into paragraphs, and of fusion into chapters could scarcely
be assured with chords whose constructive values had not as
yet been explored. Hence, it seemed at first impossible to
compose pieces of complicated organisation or great length."
In fact the music written by Schoenberg and his followers at
this time was primarily experimental; they had rejected the
traditional methods of manipulating the elements of music,
but had not yet found a new and sound method of organising
these elements.
Schoenberg continues: "A little later I discovered how to
construct larger forms by following a^ text or poem. The
differences in size and shape of its parts and the change in
character and mood were mirrored in the shape and size of the
composition, in its dynamics and tempo, figuration and
accentuation, instrumentation and orchestration. Thus the
1 For more detailed discussion of these works, see Ren Leibowitz, Schoenberg
and his School (Hinrichsen, London, 1954).
74 TWENTIETH CENTURY COUNTERPOINT
parts were differentiated as clearly as they had formerly been
by tHe tonal and structural functions of harmony."
Clearly music, if it was going to develop at "all, could not
continue to be merely subservient to a literary text, and
remain unable to create larger forms of its own; but before we
study the further developments which made this expansion
possible, let us consider sonic typical passages from the music
written by Schoenberg and his followers during this transitional
period. These bars are taken from the first of Schoenberg's
Three Piano Pieces, Op. 1 1 his first atonal compositions.
Ex.56
Massig
Ex.57
Vlni
^ ^ ^ ^
i
[iJirJJlu/n'Y} f IpjqjiE
Vcl..
=**3
Piano pp
76 TWENTIETH CENTURY COUNTERPOINT
With "Pierrot Lunaire" (1912) contrapuntal problems
begin to dominate the scene. The eighth piece in it, "Nacht",
is a passacaglia, based on a three-note phrase which appears
in every conceivable form throughout it. 1 [Ex. 58, p. 75].
Ex.59
1
See Ren6 Leibowitz, Introduction it la musique de 12 sons, pp. 49^, for a fuUer
discussion of this passage.
TWENTIETH CENTURY COUNTERPOINT
Theme
Andante
Cl.
# ^ \^ 9 ~ ' "
1
-B=jSF
Alban Berg's Chamber Concerto (1923-5) also contains
elements which are characteristic of twelve-tone composition.
It is written in a complex form, which I have no
space to
analyse here in detail but we may note, for instance, that the
1 :
Ex.64
<'*
Much ink has been spilt on the question of whether the whole
method is a purely "abstract and mathematical cerebration,"
as some have called it; I feel that it is profitless to discuss this
until we have seen how it works in practice and what results it
can produce. All I will say now is that the method grew out of
actual compositional practice (and not vice versa) ; that it does
satisfy the principle of unity which all serious creative artists
demand; and that a number of works have been produced with
its aid which are generally acknowledged as masterpieces.
*In the musical examples in this chapter the four forms are shown as Original
Inversion (RI). Their
(O), Inversion (I), Retrograde (R) and Retrograde
transpositions are indicated by numbers, as follows:
1 = Basic level 7 =
tritone higher or lower
2 Semitone higher, major 7th lower 8 =
fifth higher, fourth lower
3 = Whole tone , minor 7th 9 =B Minor 6th , major 3rd
Thus RI 9 =Retrograde Inversion a minor 6th higher than the basic level.
84 TWENTIETH CENTURY COUNTERPOINT
Ex.66 ^ s
, 2 3
the scale; further that the notes in the series may appearjln any
octave (c Hindemith's methods, p. 65) ; but octave doublings
are normally" avoided, though, as we shall see", there _.are
exceptions to this rule.
The next example, taken from thelast movement of the same
Ex.67
0.1
*7_8 9 M i|
In the top part we have the original series on its basic degree;
the lower parts begin with the inversion on its basic degree
and continue with the inversion transposed a fifth down. On
other occasions the main theme of this Rondo uses the notes
of its retrograde or retrograde inversion, but by maintaining
its original rhythm is still easily recognisable (see Style and
Idea, p. 121).
SCHOENBERG, TWELVE-TONE COMPOSITION 85
A more complicated procedure is shown in the following
example:
Ex/68
Ex.69
,iE^Q~1
86 TWENTIETH CENTURY COUNTERPOINT
This based on the retrograde, transposed a tone down, and
is
Ex. 70
SCHOENBERG, TWELVE-TONE COMPOSITION 87
8^ 7
0.1-
have the basic series in the right hand combined with its
transposition a diminished fifth away:
Ex.73
In the Gavotte the third group (notes 9-12) appears before the
second (notes 5-8).
Ex.74
Ex.76
J
"
'
IA
T
jj*'^
(tfansp
M
third
4, of I)
3^
M
9O TWENTIETH CENTURY COUNTERPOINT
The theme (basic series) is announced against chords con-
structed from this transposition of the inversion.
53
series.
In the first variation
Schoenberg uses additional trans-
positions of the original and inversion to obtain parallel thirds
and sixths.
SCHOENBERG, TWELVE-TONE COMPOSITION 9!
Ex.78
Ex.79
92 TWENTIETH CENTURY COUNTERPOINT
In Variation 6 inversion and original are set against each
other in two-part canonic imitation.
Ex. 80
IT.
***
k+ -*
3S
Oio
In
&
bar from the Finale the upper parts consist of the first
this
six notes of the basic series followed
by the remaining six in
retrograde order; the lower parts are derived from the inversion.
Ex. 81
0.1.
b)
^ *'
T"l
- J
x x x 5 x x x
96 TWENTIETH CENTURY COUNTERPOINT
In the same way the pentatonic music characteristic of the
Countess Geschwitz is derived:
Ex.86
Ce.
"p
r
x
Ex.87
CO (2)
AlUgro trur^ico (J 80 )
b);
SCHOENBERG, TWELVE -TONE COMPOSITION 97
It willbe seen that a good many of these themes have a "tonal"
character; and in the last act Berg actually introduces a
perfectly diatonic song composed by Wedekind, the author of
the plays on which the libretto of Lulu is based. This is used as
the theme of a set of variations in an orchestral interlude:
Ex.88
Ex.89
Mmo-i Minor
1
Major
Ex. 90
^
98 TWENTIETH CENTURY COUNTERPOINT
The use of a "tonal" series means that a good many passages
in the work have a "classical" sound; e.g. this one from the
first movement
Ex. 91
niiMi.mrfmr ***>.
i
""
<<'<> *
w .
-
^"J
to be ccmira^ctedT^oK occasions and jin a provisional way,
SCHOENBERG, TWELVE-TONE COMPOSITION 99
such a contradiction docs not necessarily destroy the stylistic
merits of a composition.
"I must admit that Alban Berg, who was perhaps the least
orthodox of the three of us Webern, Berg and myself in his
operas mingled pieces or fragments distinctly written in a
given tonality with other pieces or fragments which were
"non-tonal". He explained this by saying that an operatic
composer, for reasons of expression and dramatic characteris-
ation, could not always renounce the contrast provided by the
change from major to minor. Though as a composer he was
right, from the point of view of theory he was wrong; I have
proved in my operas Von Heute aitf Morgen and Moses and Aaron
that every kind of expression and characterisation can be
produced in the style of the free dissonance."
This point of view explains the greater "tonal" feeling which
can be found in many of Schoenberg's later works; but before
considering these we must first discuss the use of the twelve-tone
method made by Schoenberg's other prominent pupil, Anton
Webern. Webem went in exactly the opposite direction J.
Berg; his use of this method reduces it to its simplest and
conciscst terms, and is, if anything, "purer" than that^ofjus.
master Schpenberg. We can see this already iifhis first twelve-
tone wor% the Sacred Songs Op. 17.
Ex- 95
Sopr.
SCHOENBERG, TWELVE-TONE COMPOSITION IO3
The vocal parts form a mirror canon between sopranos and
tenors; and there is another mirror canon in the orchestra
(up to the middle of bar 13). Each of the four parts uses one
of the four different forms of the series.
Lest it be thought that Webern's later works consist of
nothing but academic contrapuntal devices, let me quote this
passage from one of his last works, the Variations for Orchestra,
Op. 30; it is the beginning of the final variation.
Ex. 96
e3cpI6fafion of
the cdndTensedr" and ""concentrated "fornrj-nevery
note in his music has its own meaning, and it would be impos-
siblejto omit or alter a single one without damage. He eschewed
works of long^duration his longest atonal work, "tEe Secpn5
Cantata, Op. 31, is in six moyements and lasts for 15 minutes,.
Nevertheless Webern can say more in two minutes than most
other composers in ten; his method of approach is entirely
different to theirs. No wonder then that his music has either
met with complete incomprehension or has been wildly
acclaimed by those who have ears to hear it; by his ultra-
sensR^?Hai^uIaHon oTpe^ct^normal elements of sonority
Webern has created music quite unlike any written before.
It is interesting too that many young composers are now seeking
to adopt his methods rather than the more "normal" ones of
Schoenberg or the expressive technique of Berg; but without
Webern's aural acuteness his technique is not easy to master
successfully, and I feel personally that history will regard
Webern. as an isolated figure of extoordmary^ importance
rather than as the direct ancestor of a new technique of com-
position. (For a fuller discussion of Webern's work, which I Have
only been able to treat here in a very superficial manner, the
student is referred to the two books of Leibowitz previously
mentioned, especially Schoenberg and his School, which contains an
important section on Webern; I have also contributed a short
analysis of Webern's last three works (which are not discussed in
Leibowitz' books) to the Monthly Musical Record for Dec. 1946).
In 1933 Schoenberg left Berlin and settled in the United
States. Thereafter he produced a number of works, of which
the majority use twelve-tone methods, though some are
tonal in character. These latter include a Suite for strings,
written in 1934 for high school performance; a setting of the
traditional Jewish theme Kol Nidrei for reciter, chorus and
orchestra; Variations on a Recitative for organ, based on a
twelve-note theme, but treating it tonally for the .most part;
a Second Chamber Symphony, which in fact merely represents
the completion of a work begun thirty years earlier; and a set
of Variations for military band. Schoenberg explained his
SCHOENBERG, TWELVE-TONE COMPOSITION I(>5
Ex.97 I* V
I06 TWENTIETH CENTURY COUNTERPOINT
Here we have fifths in the first violin and cello; parallel sixths
leaping a fourth hi the
second violin and viola; and both
elements in the piano. The passage also contains all the twelve
notes of the chromatic scale. Elsewhere, in view of the fact that
the opening chord contains the constituent notes of both a
major and a minor triad, Schoenberg makes some use of
superimposed common chords, but not in a "polytonal"
manner. The whole work, which is worth studying in score 1
Ex. 98
*M m
J
A recording is also available (Esquire and French "Classic").
*The scores of his very late choral works [Op. 50] were not available when this
book went to press.
SCHOENBERG, TWELVE-TONE COMPOSITION IO7
The opening of the work exposes these two series in succession:
Ex.99
r
^^ i* p HVWy*** |^
fk *
,
^"T^ uX^> L^ |
I |IM ^ ,^1
The bars which follow consist of the basic series in the violin
then the
accompanied by chords derived from the inversion;
violin plays the inversion and the accompaniment is derived
from the basic series.
The end of the whole work introduces another point.
Ex. ioo
Ex. 101
Melody a b c d
Accompaniment bed cda dab abc
A similar procedure is carried on for the rest of the theme for
fuller discussion see Leibowitz, Schoenberg and his School:, also
Josef Rufer, Composition with Twelve Notes.
The Piano Concerto introduces a still more interesting
element, in that although it strictly based on twelve-tone
methods, it contain passages which have a definitely "tonal"
effect. An instance is the
opening of the final Rondo. [Ex. 102,
p. 109].^
This is in fact derived from two transpositions of the original
series and two of the inversion. The right hand first plays the
notes of the inversion (I6 1 ) ; the left hand
first six
plays the whole
of the same series. Meanwhile the right hand
plays the last
six notes of the original
(Oi) in retrograde form. But the first
six notes of 16 are the same as the last six of
Oi, in a slightly
different order (similarly the first six of Oi are the same as the
1This
number refers to the degree of transposition of the series; cf. p. 83.
SCHOENBERG, TWELVE-TONE COMPOSITION
Ex. 102
-*o^
last sixof 16), so that Schoenberg does not use the remaining
notes of the retrograde of Oi these notes are already in the
left hand part. Instead the right hand begins 04, which is
completed by the left hand, while the left hand begins Ig,
which later crosses to the right hand. Though the whole passage
shows how a "tonal" effect (including the middle pedal on
F#) can be obtained by strictly twelve-tone means, it does not
really imply a "return to the older methods" for
-here all the
twelve notes of the scale are strictly and logically used. One can
therefore conclude that while twelve-tone music need not
necessarily avoid a feeling of tonality, its principal
aim is the
of the twelve notes of the chromatic scale.
equilateral exposition
The same approach applies to the use of octave doublings,
which are also occasionally present in this work; cf.
Schoenberg's remarks on this subject quoted above (p. 98).
If the Piano Concerto and the Prelude to a "Genesis" Suite
J
( 945)
^
inay k e sa to COIltain certain tonal reminiscences, this
is certainly not true of the String Trio (1948), which adopts
a
more "radical" style. Here Schoenberg uses the same method
as in many of his later works, of dividing the series into two
halves, each of which, together with the corresponding half
no TWENTIETH CENTURY COUNTERPOINT
of the inversion transposed a fifth lower, makes up the twelve
notes of the chromatic scale. But he carries this process even
further making frequent alterations in the order of the notes
by
within each six-note group; that is to say, that as long as all
twelve notes of the scale are exposed in close sequence (six from
the original series and six from the inversion) their actual order
is not considered so important. (For a detailed analysis see
Ex. 103
(In the above the intervals between all and each of the three
notes are of course reckoned in).
Chords containing perfect fourths or tritones may be
consonances or mild or sharp dissonances, depending on the
third note in the chord apart from the fourth or tritone.
114 TWENTIETH CENTURY COUNTERPOINT
of a triad consonant; so is a diminished
E.g. a second inversion
is
triad:
Q>
Q
J >-ea
a
J^ b
"
a
4-
'*
-a-
n^ *
-^ ^^
"*" rtfl"^B
^- nS1 ^ S8=
H^
sh. m. cons. m. sh. sh. m. cons. m. sh.
Ex. 105
only has to think of the first chord of Ex. 105 played successively
by violins, clarinets and trumpets (and, if you like, successively
increasing in loudness) to realise this.
The point about dynamics is one that has been with music
since the beginning of time; and though dynamics of course
vary the surface colour of a musical progression, they do not in
fact alter the harmonic structure. The other point, regarding
inversions, is more important; Hindemith, as we have
of course
seen (p. 57) disregard them altogether, but, I think,
tries to
Ex. 106
I
CHAPTER VIII
SOME INDEPENDENTS
FERRUCGIO BUSONI (1866-1924) might alraost be regarded as
the prototype of an independent composer. Of mixed Italian
and Austrian parentage, he spent a good deal of his life touring
the world as a concert pianist; a man of restless and enquiring
mind, he absorbed influences from many directions Bach,
Liszt and the Italian operatic tradition being prominent among
these and synthesised them in a number of compositions of
great originality. In his "Sketch of a New Esthetic of Music",
published in 1907, he clearly pointed out the shortcomings of
the traditional diatonic system; what is the point of
transpositions, he asked, when a piece sounds exactly the same
when transposed into another key "when a well-known face
looks out of a window, it matters not whether it gazes down from
the first storey or the third". And how can one divide con-
sonances from dissonances, when we have an octave composed
of twelve equal intervals? He worked out 113 different seven-
note scales within the compass of an octave, and also examined
the possibilities of using thirds and sixths of a tone. (The whole
of this little book, though it does not claim to lay down any
formal principles, is full of stimulating remarks, and is well
worth reading) .
Ji
Mt> ~
ri
H I'
Ex. 1 08
n
SOME INDEPENDENTS 121
Van Dieren was a most cultured and sensitive musician, and not
a little of the originality of his music rests in the
handling of
individual instrumental colours. This may be clearly seen from
the extract above; merely to play it on the piano gives no idea
of the continuous crossing and changing of the parts. This
method is in itself an integral part of modern counterpoint;
though, as we have observed, it is not fundamental to the
harmonic or contrapuntal structure, it can make a considerable
difference to the final effect of a piece. Both Busoni and Schoen-
berg realised this at an early stage, and their methods have had
a profound effect on modern music. A more radical use of
this method of splitting up the parts between individual
instruments may be seen in the extract from Webern's
Symphony quoted above (Ex. 93, p. 100). An early example
of this type of orchestration is of course Schoenberg's First
Chamber Symphony (1906); the student should also examine
Webern's remarkable orchestration of the six-part Ricercar
from Bach's Musical Offering, in which the instrumentation
is continually changing in a kaleidoscopic manner.
Here the piano and wind parts decorate the mam theme and
holds the
support the harmonies, while a solid bass pedal
structure together. This kind of writing is typical of many
modern works which appear complex in sound, but in fact
rest on a very simple and firmly tonal basis. It would be easy
to multiply examples, as it is a favourite method of many
modern composers, some of whom write even more compli-
cated-looking arrangements of chords but
there is nearly
Ex. in
SK.
n \nw
o-ci
/ 5M
vy-pl.ie-M.
vy-pi.ie-W.
*rM -
I'nmEff
Ei*
u* Tf
tj^VV
Ho-din-k,
-je 5W..(.. f*,-fi.fi* ii^-*-d<:
Vic.
Ex. 112
Con tnbto [J
* 5
124 TWENTIETH CENTURY COUNTERPOINT
Ex. 113
Ow.tel
C.B.
Ex. 118
CHAPTER IX
of C sharp.
We must then consider if the root-progression will help us.
In his Harmonielehre (German ed, p. I4off ) (English ed, p. 6gff )
Schoenberg gives some rules on this subject for diatonic
harmony which may well be expanded to suit chromatic
harmony. The following are "rising" or strong steps: fourth
upwards, third downwards; "falling" or weak steps are fourth
downwards, third upwards. Seconds upwards or downwards
CONCLUSION A NEW HYPOTHESIS
are "super-strong" steps, for they consist in essence of two
strong steps (see loc. cit. for a fuller explanation of the
theoretical basis of this). The step which has the most powerful
effect of all is the rising fourth (or falling fifth) , for it corresponds
most closely to the harmonic series; next after it in power is
the falling third (or rising sixth). The step of the second, though
superstrong by nature, has not in fact such a powerful effect,
simply because it is too strong for everyday use: "Allzu Scharf
macht schartig" (Too sharp makes notches), as the German
proverb goes.
If we adapt these principles to chromatic harmony, we get
the following results:
Ex. 1 19
Strong
^
:
" . .
II
U
.P^TTT^
v -" bii
II
i. u~
OC =z===^==^-
i
ir
i*J
iK>-4
I
"'
J
Z^Zfl
-<or
Neutr*.l
-*m
-Q-
Ex. 120
12345
The general tonality is Ab; and therefore it would appear more
logical to regard Chord i as based on C sharp (Dj>), especially
as this makes a triad in root position. As regards Chord 3,
it
Ex. 122
Bar i 3 4
Roots F Ab E (Ab) Bb F B G (Bb) I (E) etc,
142 TWENTIETH CENTURY COUNTERPOINT
The roots in brackets in bars 2 and 3 are used only in passing.
It will be seen that a good many of the progressions are weak
ones, which may account for the slightly indeterminate effect
of this passage, as well as the fact that the music is constantly
moving from one point to another.
A more complex example may be seen in Ex. 80 (from
Schoenberg's Variations for Orchestra). In the first half bar
the successive E, Bb and Gff suggest E as the root of a
"dominant" chord of A; but this is immediately contradicted
by the Gfc] which is clearly the root of the first half of the next
bar; C and Dare the roots of the third and fourth quavers
respectively, though on the last semiquaver the bass has
already moved to B.
Ex. 8 1 also presents some complications. We
may take the
roots of the first two semiquavers as C# and B, and of the third
and fourth as F; but the second group is not so easy. Though the
main tonal centre is E, the roots of the individual semiquavers
would appear to be E, G, B and G; so that we are back at the
*
old classical concept of 'inessential" or "passing" notes, but in
a different form.
Our next examples are taken from Webern (Ex. 93 and 94,
pp. 100-1). Here tonality is so attenuated that it is very difficult
to give any analysis of root-progressions, especially in Ex. 93.
A style which is based to a large extent on the use of adjacent
semi-tones and which also contains so few actual notes marks
the nearest approach to atonality that we have yet met. At the
best one can say that the roots are constantly changing a
possible scheme might be as follows:
Bar 2 3 4 56 7 8 9 10 n 12 13 14 15
Roots F# G Ab B Bb C Bb G D F D G E
But I admit that such an analysis is by no means satisfactory.
VI*.
General
Stravinsky
Milhaud
Bartok
Twelve-Tone Music.
KRENEK, ERNST. Studies in Counterpoint. New York 1940.
LEIBOWTTZ, RENE. Introduction d la musique de 12 sons. Paris 1949
Qu'est-ce que la musique de 12 sons? Li&ge 1948.
Schoenberg and his School. London 1 954.
NEWLIN, DIKA. Bruckner , Mahler, Schoenberg. London 1947.
REICH, WILU. Alban Berg. Vienna 1937.*
ROGNONI, LUIGI. Espressionismo e Dodecafonia. Turin 1954.
RUFER, JOSEF. Composition with Twelve Notes. London 1954.
SCHOENBERG, ARNOLD. Harmonielehre. Vienna 1921*
Theory of Harmony.* New York 1948.
Style and Idea. London 1951.
London 1954.
Structural Functions of Harmony.
STEIN, ERWIN. Orpheus in New Guises. London 1953.
WELLESZ, EGON. Arnold Schoenberg. London 1924.
Independents
BUSONI, FERRUCCIO. A New Esthetic of Music. New York 191 1.
Von der Einheit der Musik. Berlin.*
DENT, EDWARD J. Ferruccio Busoni. London 1933.
VAN DIEREN, BERNARD. Down Among the Dead Men. London 1935.
AP!VOR, DENIS. Bernard van Dieren. Music Survey. Vol. Ill, No. 4.
JACHIMECKI, Z. Karol Szymanowski. London (School of Slavonic
Studies).
MULLER, DANIEL. Leos jfandcek. Paris 1930.
BELLAMANN, HENRY. Charles Ives. Musical Quarterly, Jan. 1933.
GoWELL, HENRY. Charles Ives. Modern Music, Nov. 1932.
HELM, EVERETT. Charles Ives. Musical Times, July 1954.
COWELL, HENRY. The Music of Edgar Varise. Modern Music,
Jan. 1928.
KLAREN, J. H. Edgar Varese. Boston.
1
Tbis, unfortunately, is only a translation of extracts from the Harmonielehre;
most of the important theoretical discussions are omitted.
^English translation in preparation.
DISGOGRAPHY
A GOOD many records of contemporary music are now available,
especially in the United States since the advent of the long-
playing record. These are useful adjuncts to the study of the
works discussed in this book, but the student is recommended
to follow them with the score where
possible. The following
list does not pretend to
completeness, and should be supple-
mented by enquiries at gramophone shops etc. regarding up-
to-date recordings1 (N.3B. LP
. =
long playing, 33 r.p.nu All
other records mentioned are 78 r.p.m.)
Stravinsky
Most of Stravinsky's major works have been recorded, and are
readily available, both on 78 and 33 r.p.m.
Milhaud
La Creation du Monde (Columbia)
Miniature operas (Columbia)
Extracts from the Oresteia (including Les Eumenides) (Fr.
Columbia)
Nos. i, 2, 3 and 5 of Cinq Symphonies (Concert Hall, U.S.)
Suite, Protee (Victor)
Bart6k
A good deal of Bartok has been recorded, including all 6
quartets (U.S. LP; some also available on 78 r.p.m.). Music
for Strings, Percussion and Celesta, Violin Concerto, Piano
Concerto No. 3, Concerto for Orchestra, Sonata for 2 pianos and
percussion, and a series made for U.S. LP. in collaboration
with the composer's son, including The Wonderful Mandarin,
Two Portraits, Dance Suite and Viola Concerto.
*The Record Gwdc, by Edward Sackville West and Desmond Shawe-Taylor
(London 1951), together with all its regular supplements, provides an up-to-date
guide to records available in Great Britain. Exhaustive information about all
types of records will be found in Clough & Cuming's The World's Encyclopaedia,
of Recorded Music (London 1952), which is also kept up to date by regular supple-
ments.
153
154 DISCOGRAPHY
Hindemith
Here too, a certain amount has been recorded, of which the
most important is the Mathis der Maler Symphony (Telefunken-
Decca), and some of the chamber works.
Schoenberg
Verklarte Nacht (HMV and Capitol LP)
Pelleas and Melisande (Capitol LP)
Gurrelieder (HMV)
Chamber Symphony No. i (French Classic)
Pierrot Lunaire (U.S.)
Piano Pieces, Op. n
and 19 (Danish HMV)
Quartets Nos. 1-4 (U.S. LP)
Ode to Napoleon (Esquire-Classic)
Complete Piano Works (Esquire LP)
Serenade (U.S. LP)
Suite Op. 29 (Classic)
Prelude to Genesis Suite (Artist, U.S.)
A Survivor from Warsaw, Kol Nidrei, 2nd Chamber
Symphony (U.S. LP)
Berg
Songs, Op. 2 (Esquire-Classic)
Three Fragments from Wozzeck (Columbia)
Chamber Concerto (Esquire-Classic)
Lyric Suite (Polydor-Decca)
Violin Concerto (Columbia LP)
Seven Early Songs (U.S.)
Piano Sonata (U.S.)
String Quartet Op. 3 (U.S.)
Woz&ek complete opera (U.S. LP)
Lulu complete opera (U.S. LP).
Der Wein (Capitol LP)
Webern
Selection of Chamber Works (including 5 Movements for
string quartet, Op. 5 U.S. LP)
String Trio (Decca)
Symphony (Classic)
Cello pieces Op. 11 and
Saxophone Quartet (U.S. LP)
DISGOORAPHY 155
Busoni
Die Ndchtlichen (Polydor)
Sonatina 5 (Friends of Recorded Music, U.S.)
Fantasia in memory of his father (Columbia) and several
other piano works recorded by Egon Petri.
Van Dieren
Nothing, unfortunately, seems to have been recorded.
Stymanowski
ist Violin Concerto (Parfophone) otherwise seems to
be represented only by some unimportant pieces
The Fountain of Arethusa and Theme and Variations in
B flat (both Columbia): also Mazurkas, Op. 50
(HMV) and fitudes, Op.33 (U.S. Columbia)
Jandcek
Concertino for Piano and 6 Instruments (Supraphon)
String Quartet (Kreutzer Sonata) (Supraphon)
Overtures, Mafcropoulos and Katya Kabanova (Supraphon)
Music from "The Cunning Vixen" (Supraphon)
Taras Bulba (Supraphon)
Laski Dances (Supraphon)
Capriccio for Piano (left hand) and Chamber Orch.
(Supraphon)
Various smaller choral works (Supraphon)
Sinfonietta (HMV)
Diary of a Young Man who Disappeared (Supraphon)
Glagolithic Festival Mass (Supraphon)
Ives
Concord Sonata (U.S. Columbia)
2nd Quartet (Nixa, Period)
No. 3 of Three Places hi New England (Artist, U.S.)
Violin Sonatas 2 and 4 (Alco and NMQR, U.S.)
Holidays, Suite (NMQR)
Songs (NMQR and Concert Hall, U.S.)
Varise
Paganini, 133
Gesualdo, 3-4, 7, 10 Palestrina, i, 3, 6, in, 113
Gray, Cecil, 4*1 Puccini, 72
Purcell, 3-4
Haba, Alois, 128/1
Handel, 3 Ravel, 20
Haydn, 105 Reger, 9-10, 72, 130
Heseltine, Philip, 4 Reich, Willi, 94, 103
Hindenuth, i, 21, 55-70, 72, & Roussel, 126
Rufer, Josef, 7971, 106, 108,
Hdlderlin, 103 149-150
158 INDEX
Schoenberg, i, 3/1, 5-6, 16-21, Szymanowski, 33-4, 50, 121-2,
30, 34, 44, 61, 66-9, 133
98-9, 104-111, 115-6,
119, 121, 124, 126, 130
Valen, 129-131, 143
Varese, 126-8, 149
Schubert, 134 Vaughan Williams, 132
Schumann, 3
Scriabine, 20
Spohr, gn Wagner, i, 3, 5, 9, 66, 71, 72,
Stein, Erwin, 76*2 93* !05> n6, 120, 133
Stockhausen, Karlheinz, 147-9 Webern, 72, 73, 75, 79-80, 93,
Strauss, Richard, 11-13, 3 2 99-104, in, 115, u6, 121,
71-2, 1 1 6, 133 i33-4 r 42 14
5