GEODYNAMIC EVOLUTION OF THE ATLAS SYSTEM (MOROCCO)

IN POST-PALAEOZOIC TIMES

Volker Jacobshaqen + Konrad G B r l e r + and P e t e r Giese ++

Freie Universit~t Berlin, D-IO00 B e r l i n 33
+
Institut fur Geologie, Altensteinstr. 34 A
++Institut fur Geophysikalische Wissenschaften,
R h e i n b a b e n a l l e e 49

ABSTRACT

The A t l a s system o f Morocco c o m p r i s e s the M e d i t e r r a n e a n R i f orogen and

three foreland intracontinental r a n g e s : M i d d l e , High and A n t i - A t l a s ,
w h i c h behave as m o b i l e zones w i t h i n the s t a b l e p l a t f o r m . For t h i s r e -
g i o n , a r e v i e w i s g i v e n on the m a j o r s t r u c t u r a l e l e m e n t s , the s e d i m e n -
t a r y and v o l c a n i c e v o l u t i o n from T r i a s s i c to r e c e n t , the c r u s t a l and
upper m a n t l e s t r u c t u r e and the s e i s m i c i t y . Based on t h e s e data the
followinq qeodynamic model has been d e r i v e d : The b r e a k - u p o f Pangaea
and the s u b s e q u e n t f o r m a t i o n o f the N o r t h A t l a n t i c and the w e s t e r n
T e t h y s a f f e c t e d to some e x t e n t the n o r t h w e s t e r n m a r g i n o f the A f r i c a n
continent. D u r i n g the T r i a s s i c - D o g g e r interval, rift grabens, pull-
a p a r t b a s i n s and accompanying v o l c a n i s m are f e a t u r e s o f t h e s e moderate
mobilizations. From Upper J u r a s s i c onward the r i f t i n g p r o c e s s e s slowed
down and ceased d u r i n g the Eocene. The accompanying magmatism changed
from b a s a l t i c e f f u s i o n s to a l c a l i n e intrusions, thus indicating a
change from a t e n s i o n a l to a c o m p r e s s i o n a l s t r e s s - f i e l d . The t h i r d
p e r i o d o f the e v o l u t i o n , from O l i g o c e n e to r e c e n t , was governed by
c o m p r e s s i o n a l movements between A f r i c a and E u r o p e , c u l m i n a t i n g i n
collisional structures o f the B e t i c C o r d i l l e r a s and the R i f . Compres-
s i o n and u p l i f t o f the R i f A t l a s and o f the t h r e e i n t r a c o n t i n e n t a l
b e l t s took p l a c e w i t h i n the same t i m e i n t e r v a l s , t h u s i m p l y i n g a com-
mon r e l a t i o n s h i p to c e r t a i n p l a t e t e c t o n i c e v e n t s . As e v i d e n c e by
magnetotelluric and s e i s m i c s t u d i e s i n t r a c r u s t a l s h e a r i n g and d e t a c h -
ment have been f a c i l i t a t e d by the e x i s t e n c e o f i n t r a c r u s t a l high con-
ductivity and low v e l o c i t y l a y e r s , caused by Mesozoic and T e r t i a r y
thermal activities. A mechanism o f t r a n s f e r r i n g compressional stress
from the a c t i v e m a r g i n to i t s f o r e l a n d i s p r o v i d e d by the BALLY model
of thin-skinned thrusting. The c o m b i n a t i o n o f t h e s e p r i n c i p l e s with
the s t r u c t u r a l situation in n o r t h e r n A f r i c a s u g g e s t s the f o r m a t i o n o f
an i n c l i n e d thrust plain structure, w h i c h has p e n e t r a t e d the sedimen-
t a r y c o v e r and deeper c r u s t a l c o m p l e x e s .

A s t r o n g e r c o m p r e s s i o n had t a k e n p l a c e w i t h i n the f r a c t u r e d and weaken-

ed f o r m e r r i f t z o n e s , c a u s i n q the o b s e r v e d young u p l i f t o f the r a n g e s .
A final stage of collision i s marked by the NE/SW s t r i k i n g Transal-
boran f a u l t z o n e , e x t e n d i n g o v e r a l e n g t h o f 1100 km from s o u t h e a s t -
ern Spain a c r o s s the A l b o r a n Sea and a l o n g the M i d d l e A t l a s to A g a d i r .
 482

I. Introduction

The A t l a s system o f Morocco c o n s i s t s of four mountain belts: Rif,

Middle Atlas, High A t l a s and A n t i - A t l a s . The g e o t e c t o n i c situation,
structural evolution and the sequences o f deformed rocks, show c o n -
siderable differences. But a l l of them have d e v e l o p e d to h i g h m o u n t a i n s
since the m i d d l e of the T e r t i a r y . Therefore most g e o l o g i s t s believe
that there are c l o s e connections in their structural history. Geodyn-
amic i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s of the A t l a s system d i f f e r , however, widely due
to many gaps i n our g e o l o g i c a l knowledge and, even more, due to the
present state of geophysical investigations.

The R i f Atlas and i t s - e a s t e r n prolongation, the T e l l Atlas, are

parts of a normal oroqen o f the M e d i t e r r a n e a n type called the Maghre-
bides, that displays nappe s t r u c t u r e s facing towards the s o u t h . The
structure and g e o l o g i c a l evolution of the R i f have been summarized by
FAURE-MURET and CHOUBERT ( 1 9 7 1 ) , CHOUBERT and FAURE-MURET ( 1 9 7 4 ) ,
MICHARD ( 1 9 7 6 ) , DURAND-DELGA and FONTBOTE (1980) and by DURAND-DELGA
and OLIVIER ( t h i s vol.). BOUILLIN e t a l . (1986) were o f the o p i n i o n
that the Palaeozoic and M e s o z o i c r o c k s o f the Rif originated on a con-
tinental fraqment called ALKAPECA w h i c h was o r i g i n a t e d situated far to
the n o r t h e a s t . D u r i n g the Lower T e r t i a r y this f r a g m e n t was t r a n s p o r t e d
to its present position by t r a n s c u r r e n t movements and, from the O l i g o -
cene onward, involved i n West M e d i t e r r a n e a n collisions. The age o f the
overthrusts within the Rif differs according to the stacking order of
the nappes: The u p p e r nappes, now o c c u p y i n g an i n t e r n a l position along
the M e d i t e r r a n e a n coasts, were o v e r t h r u s t during the Oligocene, whereas
the l o w e r ones o f the e x t e r n a l zones d e v e l o p e d during Miocene phases.
The n o r t h e r n margin of the A f r i c a n plate is buried beneath the Rif oro-
gen.

Middle and High A t l a s are s i m i l a r in structure and g e o l o g i c a l his-

tory. Recent o v e r v i e w s on the High A t l a s have been g i v e n by CHOUBERT
and FAURE-MURET ( 1 9 6 2 ) , FAURE-MURET and CHOUBERT (1971) and MICHARD
(1976). The p o s t - P a l a e o z o i c history has been summarized e . g . by STETS
and WURSTER [ 1 9 8 1 ) , JACOBSHAGEN (1986) and JACOBSHAGEN e t a l . (this
vol.)o For the M i d d l e Atlas, DRESNAY p r e s e n t s a first review in this
volume. Both ranges seem to have d e v e l o p e d from M e s o z o i c r i f t grabens
and p u l l - a p a r t basins in a mobile zone a t the n o r t h e r n margin of the
African p l a t e , w h i c h was the f o r e l a n d o f the R i f . F r a c t u r a t i o n and sub-
sidence o f t h e s e grabens and b a s i n s was accompanied by magmatic a c t i -
vity, mainly by t h e e f f u s i o n of basaltic rocks, up to the M i d d l e J u r a s -
 483

sic. A second p e r i o d o f calm s u b s i d e n c e in Cretaceous times was f o l -

lowed by i n v e r s i o n w h i c h may have s t a r t e d locally in the Upper C r e t a -
ceous (FROITZHEIM 1984, FROITZHEIM e t a l . , this vol.), but generally
took place from O l i g o c e n e or even Lower Miocene onward (GURLER e t a l . ,
this vol.).

Geological literature on the A n t i - A t l a s i s more or l e s s focussed on

its Precambrian and P a l a e o z o i c history (CHOUBERT and FAURE-MURET 1971,
MICHARD 1976, WALLBRECHER, t h i s vol.). Its post-Palaeozoic evolution
is poorly known. Early Mesozoic fracturation is testified by the p r e -
sence o f basaltic dykes (e.g. grand dyke de Foum Z g u i d , LEBLANC 1 9 7 3 ) .
Further evidence on f r a c t u r a l events has been g i v e n by HEINITZ ( 1 9 8 4 ) .
Finally, we can c o n c l u d e from the influxe of Anti-Atlas detritus with-
in the sedimentary cover at the High A t l a s and w i t h i n the a d j a c e n t
Upper C e n o z o i c basins, that several important periods, uplift took
place during the M e s o z o i c and T e r t i a r y . The t o t a l thickness of rocks
eroded on top o f the c r y s t a l l i n e domes o f the C e n t r a l Anti-Atlas is
estimated to 8-10 km. The p r e s e n t height of the m o u n t a i n range o r i g i -
nated, however, by s i m p l e updoming o f the P r e c a m b r i a n and Lower P a l a e o -
zoic rocks of the Sahara c r a t o n . This happened from the u p p e r m o s t T e r -
tiary onward, as documented by r e l i c s o f a Neogene b a s i n now b e i n g
elevated more than 2000 m N.N. (G~RLER e t a l . 1987 and t h i s vol.).

In r e c e n t years, several geodynamic models have been proposed to

explain structure and o r i g i n of the High and the M i d d l e A t l a s (MICHARD
et al. 1975, MICHARD 1976, MATTAUER e t al. 1977, STETS and WURSTER
1981, COURBOULEIX e t al. 1982). The u p l i f t o f the A n t i - A t l a s , however,
has n o t been i n c l u d e d in these considerations. All h y p o t h e s e s are
based on the i d e a that the p o s t - P a l a e o z o i c structural development of
t h e s e ranges was s t r o n g l y influenced by r e a c t i v a t i o n of major pre-
existing Palaeozoic or even P r o t e r o z o i c fractures within the basement.
Most o f these authors agree, furthermore, that lateral displacement
a l o n g t h e s e f a u l t s p l a y e d a key r o l e in the M e s o z o i c and C e n o z o i c e v o -
l u t i o n o f M i d d l e and High A t l a s .

Looking for a general geotectonic model to e x p l a i n the o r i g i n of

the w h o l e ensemble o f the A t l a s system, MATTAUER e t a l . (1977) have
envisaged that the r e g i o n a l stress field o f NW A f r i c a had changed i t s
orientation in the c o u r s e o f M e s o z o i c and C e n o z o i c p l a t e movements.
Thus, M e s o z o i c o p e n i n g o f the A t l a n t i c Ocean w o u l d have caused the
formation of rift grabens and p u l l - a p a r t basins in the m o b i l e zone
 484

north of the Sahara c r a t o n . These s t r u c t u r e s were compressed and up-

lifted in connection with West M e d i t e r r a n e a n c o l l i s i o n s in Cenozoic
times. C o n t r a r y to this view, the model o f STETS and WURSTER (1981)
referred o n l y to A t l a n t i c o p e n i n G , but n o t to M e d i t e r r a n e a n i n f l u e n c e s .
An e x p l a n a t i o n for the inversion, o f the High A t l a s has n o t been o f -
fered. Recently, however, the same a u t h o r s have a l s o c o n s i d e r e d a
transpression model (FROITZHEIM e t a l . , this vol.) which n e c e s s a r i l y
implies Mediterranean influence.

The aim o f t h i s paper i s , to p r e s e n t a new model o f the geodynamic

evolution o f the A t l a s system o f Morocco i n Mesozoic and C e n o z o i c t i m e s .
This model has to be based upon a d i s c u s s i o n of the r e c e n t geodynamic
situation of the A t l a s system's palaeotectonic development since the
early Mesozoic.

2. Recent g e o t e c t o n i c situation

From a g e o t e c t o n i c point of view, Morocco south o f the R i f (which

will n o t be d i s c u s s e d here) can be s u b d i v i d e d into three stable regimes
(fiq. 1):

- The Moroccan Meseta, including parts of the w e s t e r n High A t l a s ;

- the High P l a t e a u o f Oran;
- the Sahara c r a t o n w i t h the A n t i - A t l a s as i t s updomed n o r t h e r n margin.

These r e g i m e s are s e p a r a t e d by two f r a c t u r a l zones which p r e d o m i n a n t -

ly consist of faults striking to the NE and to the ENE, r e s p e c t i v e l y .
A m a j o r zone, slightly sigmoidal-shaped, crosses Morocco i n a north-
easterly direction from the Souss b a s i n south o f A g a d i r t h r o u g h the
"massif ancien" and the w e s t e r n parts of the c e n t r a l High A t l a s and
a l o n g the M i d d l e A t l a s to the M e d i l ; e r r a n e a n c o a s t in the v i c i n i t y of
Melilla. The second zone runs in an e a s t e r l y direction from J e b i l e t
and a l o n g the c e n t r a l Hiqh A t l a s . In the e a s t e r n High A t l a s it branches
to the NE and ends w i t h i n the High P l a t e a u o f Oran.

A l t h o u g h one has t o , where t e c t o n i c character and a c t i v i t y periods

of faults are c o n c e r n e d , e n v i s a g e these f r a c t u r a l zones as somewhat
heterogeneous, it is evident that the NE s t r i k i n g zone i s , on the
whole, still active. This is due to the f a c t that a linear arrangement
of recent earthquake-hypocenters coincides with this fault zone ( f i g .
2, see a l s o SAADI 1982, map 21, SCHWARZ and WIGGER, t h i s vol.). Several
 485

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Fiq. 1: G e o t e c t o n i c s k e t c h - m a p o f the A t l a s s y s t e m , based

upon MICHARD ( 1 9 7 6 ) , JENNY ( 1 9 8 3 ) , DRESNAY ( t h i s
v o l . ) and JACOBSHAGEN e t a l . ( t h i s v o l . ) .

of them were l o c a t e d in a depth of 100-200 km. A l o n g the E/W-striking

zone, however~ r e c e n t earthquakes happened o n l y w i t h i n the c e n t r a l
High A t l a s , near the c r o s s i n q of both zones.

Another region of high seismic activity is situated in the n o r t h ,

c o m p r i s i n q the A l b o r a n Sea, the Rif and t h e Upper C e n o z o i c molasse
b a s i n s o u t h o f the R i f .
 486

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Fig. 2: D i s t r i b u t i o n of earthquake hypocenters in relation

to the f r a c t u r a l p a t t e r n of the A t l a s system ( d a t a
from HATZFELD and FROGNEU× 1981).

The ranges o f the High and the M i d d l e A t l a s coincide roughly, but

not exactly with the fractura] zones. Modern a u t h o r s agree t h a t these
m o u n t a i n ranges d e v e l o p e d from Mesozoic grabens and b a s i n s by i n v e r -
sion. Both are accompanied by Upper Cenozoic b a s i n s , and t h i s may g i v e
a hint to the age o f ' i n v e r s i o n - but not to i t s cause.

To the major features o f the younq geodynamic e v o l u t i o n o f Morocco

 487

belongs a wide-spread volcanic activity within the l a s t 14 m.y. Recent

publications have p r e s e n t e d geochemical and g e o c h r o n o l o g i c a l data m a i n -
ly for the n o r t h e a s t e r n part o f Morocco (BELLON e t a l . 1984, HERNANDEZ
and BELLON 1985, HARMAND and MOUKADIRI 1986, HERNANDEZ e t a l . 1987).
Up to now, the r e s u l t s do n o t a l l o w a general interpretation. In the
eastern Rif and i n the northern Middle Atlas, calcalcaline eruptions
occurred from 14-8 m . y . They were f o l l o w e d by s h o s h o n i t e s and a l k a l i -
basalts, the latter reaching up to 2 m.y. In the southern part o f the
M i d d l e Atl~Ls two p e r i o d s of volcanic activity can be d i s t i n g u i s h e d
(14-10 m.y. and 1 , 8 - 0 , 5 m.y.),both being of alcaline character. The
volcanic centers o f the A n t i - A t l a s (J. Sirwa, J. Sarrho, Foum el Kouss)
are still under investigation; publications of J. Schermerhorn and
Ch. G r o t h e (Berlin) will be p u b l i s h e d in the near f u t u r e . From the
geochemical character we may deduce an i n t r a c o n t i n e n t a l volcanism which
was caused by t h e r m a l activation of the u p p e r m a n t l e : only the c a l c a l -
caline eruptions in the n o r t h point to a s u b d u c t i o n - r e l a t e d magmatism.

The r e g i o n a l distribution of t h e young v o l c a n i c centers is not

strictly bound to d i s t i n c t faults, b u t t h e y are s i t u a t e d within or
adjacent to the N E / S W - s t r i k i n g fault zone ( f i g . 1). This fits exactly
with the i d e a s o f TORRES-ROLDANI e t a i . ( 1 9 8 6 ) and HERNANDEZ e t a l .
(1987), who have f o u n d t h e Upper C e n o z o i c v o l c a n i s m to be c o n n e c t e d
with a SW s t r i k i n g Transalboran s h e a r zone t h e y c o u l d f o l l o w from
southeastern Spain across the A l b o r a n Sea to the e a s t e r n Rif. This
s h e a r zone can be p r o l o n g a t e d , now, to the A t l a n t i c coast of Africa
at Agadir, ioe. to an e x t e n s i o n of about 1100 km.

3. Structure of crust and u p p e r m a n t l e

SCHWARZ and WIGGER ( t h i s vol.), have p r e s e n t e d an e x c e l l e n t review

of the crustal and u p p e r m a n t l e structure between R i f and A n t i - A t l a s .

Where the Bouguer g r a v i t y is concerned two e x t e n d e d n e g a t i v e anoma-

lie3 with v a l u e s down to -150 mgal have been o b s e r v e d beneath the
Atlas system, one b e i n g c o r r e l a t e d to the Rif mountains and the o t h e r
one to the M i d d l e and the c e n t r a l High A t l a s (BOSCH 1 9 7 1 ) . From g r a -
vity and c r u s t a l seismic measurements an a v e r a g e c r u s t a l thickness of
a b o u t 30 km c o u l d be d e r i v e d for Morocco. Only b e n e a t h the High and
the M i d d l e A t l a s may i t increase to a b o u t 35 km, and such v a l u e s seem
to be v a l i d also for the Rif (DURAND-DELGA and FONTBOTE 1 9 8 0 ) . More-
over, WIGGER and HARDER (1986) have d e t e c t e d a low v e l o c i t y zone i n
 488

the lower crust of the M i d d l e and the High A t l a s . The same a u t h o r s

also have found reduced v e l o c i t i e s of 7.5-8.0 km/s f o r the upper m a n t l e
which p o i n t s a g a i n to h i g h thermal activity.

Magnetotelluric and g e o m a q n e t i c depth s o u n d i n g s have l e d to the

detection o f a zone o f high e l e c t r i c conductivity a t mid c r u s t a l
depths from the High A t l a s towards the M i d d l e A t l a s (SCHWARZ e t a l .
1986). Comparable a n o m a l i e s have been found a t the s o u t h e r n border of
the High A t l a s (MENVIELLE and LE MOUEL 1985) and a t the s o u t h e r n bor-
der o f the Rif, where i t dips to the N (MENVIELLE and ROSSIGNOL 1982).
SCHWARZ and WIGGER have s p e c u l a t e d t h a t these anomalies could be caused
by f l u i d s which m i g h t have been a c t i v a t e d by d e e p - s e a t e d b a s i c intru-
sions. Therefore, the o r i g i n of the induction a n o m a l i e s as w e l l as
o f the low v e l o c i t y zone is explained by s m a l l amounts o f m e l t in the
m i d d l e and l o w e r c r u s t .

4. Tectonic and magmatic e v o l u t i o n o f the p o s t - P a l a e o z o i c history

As m e n t i o n e d a b o v e , the p r e - O l i q o c e n e rocks o f the R i f had o r i g i n a -

ted f a r from t h e i r present position, and the p o s t - P a l a e o z o i c develop-
ment o f the A n t i - A t l a s is poorly documented. Thus, the key areas i n
deciphering the geodynamic e v o l u t i o n are the s e d i m e n t a r y c o v e r o f the
High and the M i d d l e A t l a s and the Neogene b a s i n s a d j a c e n t to these
ranges. We s h a l l , therefore, now examine t h e i r tectonic and magmatic
history i n Mesozoic and Cenozoic t i m e s .

D u r i n q the T r i a s s i c , the n o r t h w e s t e r n edae o f the l a t e r African

plate was s t r o n g l y influenced by two g e o t e c t o n i c events: the f o r m a t i o n
of the M i d - A t l a n t i c rift zone and the e x p a n s i o n o f the T e t h y s to cen-
tral and w e s t e r n M e d i t e r r a n e a n a r e a s . Both e v e n t s caused a c t i v e fault
zones and f a u l t - b o u n d e d basins in c e n t r a l and e a s t e r n Morocco (MANSPEI-
ZER 1982; LORENZ, t h i s vol.). C o n s e q u e n t l y , the p r e v a i l i n g fault direc-
tions were c a l l e d Atlantic ( a b o u t NE/SW) or M e d i t e r r a n e a n ( a b o u t E/W)
by some a u t h o r s (KANES e t a l . 1974, MICHARD 1976). During the Upper
Triassic, localized s u b s i d e n c e o f the b a s i n s decreased, but a more
regional s u b s i d e n c e began c a u s i n g transgressions from the e x p a n d i n g
Tethys ocean and from the j u s t originatinq Atlantic (LORENZ, this vol.).
In e a r l y Jurassic times, large a r e a s were a l r e a d y f l o o d e d by seas.
Fig. 3 shows a l a r q e Tethys embayment ( " A t l a s Gulf") which c o v e r e d the
Middle Atlas with the n o r t h e a s t e r n Meseta, the c e n t r a l and e a s t e r n
 489

longer _ Orcm

EI13, Me~,i~J.Q

RIF

115
RobQt

£QSQb(QnCQ "
j . ..- .:'l

HiGH ATLAS - -

:. • ErrGchidiQ ' . . . . ";'" "',';i: i."

~.'. ~ i , '.
~: Mnrrakech , ~

O 200kin
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Fig. 3: Major features of Middle Liassic palaeogeography of Morocco

(simplified a c c o r d i n g t o DRESNAY 1 9 7 1 ) . I c o n t i n e n t a l ,
2 shallow marine, 3 deeper basins, 4 southern border of the
Maghrebides, 5 southern border of the High Atlas.

Fig. 4: Mesozoic trans- G b c

q r e s s i o n s and
regressions ~ H,.
a) o f t h e w o r l d ~ L.
(according to
HAQ e t a l , 1 9 8 6 ) , Malm
b) o f t h e E s s a o u i r a ---
basin (data from
HOSSNER 1 9 8 5 ) and ~ Doqger
c) o f t h e A t l a s
Gulf (Middle ~ --
A t l a s and c e n - L~s
tral High Atlas).

The two M o r o c c a n ~ u.i

r e g i o n s show a ~ M t r m c m c
different evolu-
tion from the
Dogqer o n w a r d s .
 490

Hiqh A t l a s and the High P l a t e a u s . Facies d i s t r i b u t i o n and l o c a l highs

without sedimentation reflect, h o w e v e r , the i n h e r i t e d structures of
the T r i a s s i c . The r e l a t i v e l y small Essaouira basin, which now is part
of the w e s t e r n High A t l a s , was open to the A t l a n t i c . According to the
majority of recent publications, both b a s i n s were s e p a r a t e d by a small
land bridge between the Meseta and the Sahara c r a t o n in the r e g i o n o f
the "massif ancien" But an i n t e r p r e t a t i o n also exists which c l a i m s a
c o n n e c t i o n between the "Atlas Gulf" and the E s s a o u i r a b a s i n throughout
the whole Mesozoic p e r i o d (STETS and WURSTER 1981, FROITZHEIM e t a l . ,
this vol.). This opinion contradicts, h o w e v e r , the f r a c i e s distribution
o f the m a r i n e J u r a s s i c in the c e n t r a l High A t l a s (see e . g . BRECHBOHLER
et a l . , JACOBSHAGEN e t a l . and WARME, t h i s vol.) as w e l l as b i o g e o -
graphic arquments. We may, in a d d i t i o n , consider the d i f f e r e n t tectonic
d e v e l o p m e n t o f both b a s i n s from the M i d d l e J u r a s s i c onward ( f i g . 4):
The E s s a o u i r a b a s i n shows, in a c c o r d a n c e w i t h the VAIL c u r v e , an Upper
Jurassic to Lower C r e t a c e o u s t r a n s g r e s s i o n , whereas in the A t l a s Gulf
continental influence i n c r e a s e d from the B a t h o n i a n upward (JENNY e t
al. 1981, DRESNAY, t h i s vol., and JACOBSHAGEN e t a l . , this vol.).
In r e f e r e n c e to the r e c e n t geodynamic p a t t e r n d e s c r i b e d a b o v e , most
o f the Essaouira basin is today part of the Meseta b l o c k . Perhaps, this
may a l s o e x p l a i n the v e r y low d e g r e e o f c o m p r e s s i o n a l d e f o r m a t i o n in
the w e s t e r n High A t l a s .

It has been d e m o n s t r a t e d by many a u t h o r s that Lower and M i d d l e Ju-

rassic s u b s i d e n c e and s e d i m e n t a t i o n in the A t l a s G u l f were accompanied
by f r a c t u r i n g and by v e r t i c a l and l a t e r a l displacement along inherited
faults (reviews in DRES~!AY, t h i s vol., and JACOBSHAGEN e t a l . , this
vol.). Compressional structures o f Upper L i a s s i c or Dogger age are
confined to n a r r o w zones and may, c o n s e q u e n t l y , be e x p l a i n e d by
local block rotations within a regime o f d i s t e n t i o n and g e n e r a l sub-
sidence. However, t h i s tectonic p e r i o d ceased in the A t l a s G u l f du-
rinq the Upper Doqger, and was f o l l o w e d by w i d e - s p a n n e d , but m o d e r a t e
subsidence throuqhout Upper J u r a s s i c and C r e t a c e o u s t i m e s up to the
end o f the Eocene.

Mesozoic and Lower T e r t i a r y distension and s u b s i d e n c e were a s s o c i a -

ted w i t h magmatic a c t i v i t y , but up to now we s t i l l have u n c o m p l e t e
knowledge o f the number, the age and the ~ e o c h e m i c a l c h a r a c t e r of the
magmatic e v e n t s . A Late T r i a s s i c dolerite formation is known from
the whole r e g i o n south o f the R i f (MANSPEIZER 1981, SALVAN 1984,
LORENZ, t h i s vol.) and f u r t h e r basaltic eruptions or d y k e s , probably
 491

b e i n g o f Upper L i a s s i c , Dogger and Lower C r e t a c e o u s age, were r e p o r t e d

from the High A t l a s (see JACOBSHAGEN e t a l . , this vol.). The f r e q u e n -
cy o f these eruptions decreased with time. All authors agree t h a t they
were r e l i c s o f an a b o r t e d Mesozoic r i f t i n q . Besides t h a t , intrusions
of different petrolonical and g e o c h e m i c a l c h a r a c t e r and w i t h ages be-
tween Dogger and Eocene are known in the c e n t r a l and e a s t e r n High
Atlas. They show an a l c a l i n e trend (e.g. CHEVREMONT 1972, TISSERANT
et al. 1976), thus indicating a change to a more c o n t i n e n t a l develop-
ment. At p r e s e n t , however, these intrusions can not be d e f i n i t e l y
connected with certain geotectonic events, due to the l a c k of reliable
geochronological and q e o c h e m i c a l d a t a .

The second p e r i o d of the p o s t - P a l a e o z o i c evolution is marked by t h e

uplift o f the m o u n t a i n ranges o f the A t l a s system. This means an i n -
version of the p r e v i o u s graben s t r u c t u r e s for the M i d d l e and the High
Atlas.

According to most a u t h o r s , these processes were, to a c e r t a i n degree,

connected with compressional deformation, p r o b a b l y caused by M e d i t e r -
ranean c o l l i s i o n s . At p r e s e n t , there is a vivid discussion a b o u t the
age and the geodynamic c o n d i t i o n s which led to u p l i f t and i n v e r s i o n .
On a c c o u n t o f the r e a s o n s m e n t i o n e d a b o v e , we p r e f e r a b l y consider the
High and l he M i d d l e A t l a s , again.

In the c e n t r a l and e a s t e r n High A t l a s and i n the M i d d l e A t l a s , in-

version did not s t a r t earlier than the O l i g o c e n e . This is testified
by a g r e a t number o f sections that show c o n t i n u o u s sedimentation from
the Cenomanian upwards. Therefore, we do not a g r e e w i t h FROITZHEIM e t
al. (this vol.), who, due to an a n g u l a r d i s c o n t i n u i t y south o f M a r r a -
kech, have p l a c e d the b e q i n n i n g of inversion in the Upper C r e t a c e o u s .
These o u t c r o p s seem to be o f a l i m i t e d importance (JACOBSHAGEN e t a l . ,
this vol.).

The h i s t o r y of uplift of the Hiqh and the M i d d l e A t l a s is clearly

reflected by the s e d i m e n t a r y f i l l i n g o f the a d j a c e n t Cenozoic b a s i n s ,
which l a r g e l y consist of psephitic deposits (GURLER and ZUCHT 1986,
G~RLER e t a l . 1987 and t h i s vol., FRAISSINET e t a l . , this vol.). GUR-
LER e t al. succeeded i n separating microfaunas in the O u a r z a z a t e and
the A i t Kandoula b a s i n s south o f the High A t l a s which d e l i m i t a t e the
age o f several phases o f u p l i f t : The f i r s t influxe o f High A t l a s de-
tritus was o b s e r v e d w i t h i n fanglomerates at the base o f the A i t Kan-
 492

doula formation (Lower Miocene - ? P l e i s t o c e n e ) . They are f o l l o w e d by

very thick conglomerates which consist almost completely of pebbles
o f Hiah A t l a s rocks. Strong Lower Miocene u p l i f t ist, moreover, demon-
strated by Mesozoic limestone slabs which slid into the b a s i n s by the
force of gravity. The l a r g e s t of them was the "nappe o f T o u n d o u t e " o f
approximately 300 km 2 i n s i z e . This second phase was f o l l o w e d by a t
least 10 m.y. of relative tectonic quiescence from the S e r r a v a l l i a n
to the Upper P l i o c e n e . Durinq this intervall the u p l i f t of the High
Atlas went on w i t h diminished velocity. The top o f the A i t Kandoula
formation i s made up o f a n o t h e r conglomeratic sequence o f Upper P l i o -
cene or Lower P l e i s t o c e n e age, t h a t , owing to s l u m p i n g structures,
intercalation of megabreccias and g l i d e - s l a b s of Jurassic limestones,
marks a t h i r d stage of uplift. FRAISSINET e t a l . (this vol.) have even
discerned four stages of uplift which are, however, based on l i t h o s t r a -
tigraphic data o n l y . The f i n a l Quaternary stages o f High A t l a s uplift
are d o c u m e n t a t e d by a s e r i e s of glacis levels s o u t h o f the High A t l a s
(see ST~BLEIN, this vol.):

Gravity sliding seems to be c o n f i n e d to areas w i t h high differences

in vertical displacement. In the Toundoute r e q i o n this rate has c l i m b e d
up to a t least 3-4000 m between the bottom of the O u a r z a z a t e basin and
the summits o f the c e n t r a l High A t l a s . GHRLER & ZUCHT (1986) have
estimated even 5000 m r e f e r r i n g to the base o f the Eocene. A similar
rate seems c o r r e c t for the n o r t h e r n slope o f the High A t l a s between
the T i c h k a reqion and the Haouz b a s i n , where l a r g e - s c a l e gravity
sliding has been d e s c r i b e d by FERRANDINI and LE MARREC ( 1 9 8 2 ) . East
of the Ouarzazate basin, gravity sliding c o u l d n o t be r e c o g n i z e d along
the southern rim o f the c e n t r a l High A t l a s . The t o t a l amount o f ver-
tical displacement is reduced, there, to 2000 m.

There i s good e v i d e n c e that the s t a g e s of uplift coincided with

compressional deformation in the c e n t r a l and e a s t e r n High A t l a s ; we
are not sure w h e t h e r this applies to the O l i g o c e n e uplift. The main
compressional phase o f the c e n t r a l High A t l a s has been dated as Lower
Miocene, since its structures include the O l i g o c e n e Hadida f o r m a t i o n ,
Which i s d i s c o n f o r m a b l y overlain by the A i t Kandoula f o r m a t i o n . Upper
Pliocene and P l e i s t o c e n e uplift was a s s o c i a t e d , again, with compres-
s i o n w h i c h produced tilting and f o l d i n g of the A i t Kandoula f o r m a t i o n
together with the "nappe o f Toundoute". ST~BLEIN ( t h i s vol.) has de-
scribed an u p t h r u s t in the O u a r z a z a t e b a s i n w h i c h even t i l t e d Middle
Pleistocene beds. Furthermore, DUTOUR and FERRANDINI (1985) have con-
 493

cluded from d e f o r m a t i o n studies that the Haouz b a s i n s o u t h of M a r r a -

kech has been u n d e r c o m p r e s s i o n from Early to L a t e Quaternary. It is,
moreover, important to m e n t i o n that the s o u t h e r n and n o r t h e r n borders
of the c e n t r a l High A t l a s show d i f f e r e n c e s . In the south, an a l t e r n a -
tion of paroxystic phases of folding and o f t h i c k sedimentation during
the Oligocene - Pliocene interval is evident, whereas a l o n g the n o r t h -
ern b o r d e r the main d e f o r m a t i o n s are y o u n g e r than the M i o - P l i o c e n e
(FRAISSINET e t al., this vol.).

The Cenozoic history of the M i d d l e Atlas is not known in d e t a i l .

The t e c t o n i c structure of the s o u t h e a s t e r n strip known as M o y e n - A t l a s
pliss# indicates a relatively weak c o m p r e s s i o n a l d e f o r m a t i o n , whereas
the n o r t h w e s t e r n zone ( M o y e n - A t l a s t a b u l a i r e ) is o n l y b u i l t up o f
flat-lying strata cut by a few f r a c t u r e s and w r e n c h - f a u l t s (DRESNAY,
this vol.). Compared w i t h the High A t l a s , the M i d d l e A t l a s shows a
smaller degree of compression (see s e c t i o n s o f MARTIN 1 9 8 0 / 8 1 , ROBIL-
LARD 1 9 8 1 ) , b u t was a p p a r e n t l y more i n f l u e n c e d by l a t e r a l displacement.
CHOUBERT and FAURE-MURET ( 1 9 6 2 ) have d i s t i n g u i s h e d three orogenic
phases c u l m i n a t i n g in Late Eocene, Late Oligocene and M i d d l e Miocene
times, respectively. The main u p l i f t happened i n the e a r l y Pleistocene,
according to these authors. Bearing i n mind the l a t e s t stratigraphic
determinations for the T e r t i a r y formations of the High A t l a s ' s o u t h e r n
margin (G~RLER e t a l . , this vol.) we presume, similarly for the M i d d l e
Atlas a change i n c h r o n o l o g y of the tectonic phases. We are s u r e t h a t
the d e f o r m a t i o n a l processes o f M i d d l e and High A t l a s were c l o s e l y con-
nected.

5. Geodynamic model

When l o o k i n g for a geodynamic model for the d e v e l o p m e n t o f the

intra-continental Atlas mountain system, one has to d i s t i n g u i s h be-
tween two p e r i o d s : A Mesozoic period in w h i c h r i f t grabens and b a s i n s
formed due to a t e n s i o n a l and s h e a r i n g stress-field between the N o r t h
American, African arid European p l a t e s . Crustal thinning in the future
graben zones, subsidence o f the basement t h e r e and s e d i m e n t a r y filling
resulted from this geodynamic situation. A geothermally activated
upper m a n t l e beneath Northwest Africa is seen as the p r i m a r y source
for such f e a t u r e s . In Upper O l i g o c e n e and M i o c e n e , a new p e r i o d has
commenced w i t h the change from a t e n s i o n a l to a c o m p r e s s i o n a l stress-
field. In o u r o p i n i o n , this is related to the d o u b l e c o l l i s i o n of the
westernmost ALKAPECA-fragment (Alboran block) with Iberia and the
 494

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 495

northwestern edge o f Africa. This process caused n o t o n l y the f o l d i n g

and t h r u s t i n g o f the B e t i c Cordilleras and the R i f , but also the up-
lift and f o l d i n g of the M i d d l e and High A t l a s .

As e v i d e n c e d by s e i s m i c and m a g n e t o t e l l u r i c measurements, there is

a zone o f low v e l o c i t y and h i g h e l e c t r i c a l conductivity i n the c r u s t
beneath the High A t l a s , the High P l a t e a u s and the M i d d l e Atlas which
descends like a ramp w i t h i n the c r u s t from S to N (HAAK and HUTTON
1986). Most l i k e l y it extends northwards b e n e a t h the Rif Atlas (SCHWARZ
and WIGGER, t h i s vol.). Especially the zone o f h i g h e l e c t r i c a l l y con-
ductivity may be a s s o c i a t e d with a zone o f reduced shear s t r e n g t h ,
thus indicating the e x i s t e n c e of detachment horizons. The model of
thin-skinned tectonics as proposed by BALLY ( 1 9 8 1 , 1984) offers a
possibility how the intracrustal mountain ranges m i g h t have been
formed. Due to the assumed i n t r a c r u s t a l detachment zones as e v i d e n c e
by g e o p h y s i c a l results, the compressional stress could have been t r a n s -
ferred far to the south. The s e d i m e n t a r y filling o f the f o r m e r rift
grabens has been f r a c t u r e d , whereas the High P l a t e a u s remained more or
less uneffeEted, intermediate blocks. No t y p i c a l mountain root, like
in the A l p s , could develope by t h i s type of tectonics.

The t y p e of tectonics in the graben zone depends on the a n g l e be-

tween the c o n f i n i n g stress-field and the graben a x i s . Though n e a r e r
to the Rif, the M i d d l e Atlas shows a l o w e r degree o f c o m p r e s s i o n a l
deformation t h a n the c e n t r a l Hiqh A t l a s . Running d i a g o n a l to the
direction o f maximum c o m p r e s s i o n a l strain, it was m a i n l y deformed by
left-lateral strike-slip faults; the f o l d s and u p t h r u s t s observed are
due to transpression (HARLAND 1971, SANDERSON and MARCHINI 1 9 8 4 ) . The
Upper P l i o c e n e "back-thrusting" of t h e High A t l a s originated during
a late stage of compression.

We have, however, to remember that lateral shortening does n o t

s u r m o u n t a deqree of 20% i n the c e n t r a l High A t l a s . It is, without any
doubt, lower not only in the M i d d l e Atlas, but also i n the w e s t e r n
High A t l a s and i n the A n t i - A t l a s . Looking for further conditions to
produce u p l i f t , we may take into account that the t h e r m a l processes
mentioned may have caused d e n s i t y inversions within the upper m a n t l e
and the lower crust. This v i e w seems to be s u p p o r t e d , too, by the
distribution of Upper C e n o z o i c volcanic centers i n both ranges (fig.
I), w h i c h are m i s s i n g in the High A t l a s .
 496

The o r i g i n of the T r a n s a l b o r a n fault is interpreted as an e v e n t

s u b s e q u e n t to c o l l i s i o n and o r o g e n y . Being a p r o l o n g a t i o n o f an o l d
Northwest African fault zone, this lineament crosses the whole ensemble
o f the West M e d i t e r r a n e a n orogens as w e l l as the m o b i l e zone i n the
foreland o f the Rif. Deep-seated earthquakes along that zone demon-
strate that the p r o c e s s of collision between A f r i c a and I b e r i a is not
yet fully extinct.

Acknowledgement: The a u t h o r s are o b l i g e d to Dr. P. Wigger f o r scienti-

fic discussion and to R. C o u s i n o , S. Huhn, S t . K~hler, and D. Reich
for technical assistance. We a l s o t h a n k G. Lindemann f o r helping with
the English.

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