Compendium

Respiratory Tract

Respiration - process of inhalation and exhalation.

Gaseous exchange – movement of gases by diffusion between an organism and its environment.

Respiratory Tract Structure

• Upper respiratory tract
- nasal cavity
- pharynx
- larynx

• Lower respiratory tract

- trachea
- bronchi (sing. bronchus)
- lungs

Airway
External Nares > Nasal Cavity > Internal Nares > Pharynx > Larynx > Trachea > Bronchi > Bronchiole >
alveoli (sing. alveolus)

Nasal Cavity
- Divided by a vertical fin called the nasal septum
- The roof of each nasal cavity is connected to paranasal sinuses.
- Nasal cavity is divided into two parts: upper and lower.
Upper part (olfactory) – lined with columnar epithelium, known as olfactory epithelium.
Lower Part (respiratory) - lined with ciliated columnar epithelium, also called respiratory epithelium.

Nasal cavity is lined with short, thick hairs which remove dust and other particulate matter.

Paranasal sinuses - group of four paired air-filled spaces that surround the nasal cavity. They take part
in voice production. They produce a mucus that humidifies the air and reduce the weight of the skull.
Tonsils
Collections of lymphoid tissue. Tonsils are immune system's first line of defence against ingested or inhaled
foreign pathogens.

Pharynx
- a cavity connecting nose and mouth with esophagus
- pharynx is connected to the middle ear with the eustachian
(auditory) tube.

Larynx (voice box)

- part of the throat involved in breathing and producing sound
- houses the vocal folds, and manipulates pitch and volume
- its part epiglottis covers the trachea during swallowing so that
food doesn’t enter trachea

Trachea (windpipe)
- tube that connects the pharynx and larynx to the lungs allowing the passage
of air
- extends from the larynx and branches into the two primary bronchi
- lined with ciliated epithelium with goblet cells which produce mucus
- contains mucus secreting glands (glandular tissue)
- contains C-shaped rings of cartilage (connective tissue) which
prevent the trachea wall from collapsing
- contains smooth muscle tissue, which contracts and makes
the lumen of the airway narrower
- contains elastic fibres which recoil to the original shape, after
smooth muscle relaxes
- contains blood vessels, which warm the incoming air

Bronchi (sing. bronchus)

- The trachea branches into two bronchi (one to each lung).
- The bronchi split into smaller tubes called bronchioles.
- These end in microscopic air sacs called alveoli.
- contains cartilage C-shaped rings in the walls of
the bronchi (less regular than in trachea)
- lined with ciliated epithelium with goblet cells
- contains smooth muscle
- contains elastic fibres
Bronchioles
- narrow branches of the bronchi through which air passes to the alveoli.
- large bronchioles may have some cartilage, but smaller ones don’t
- made of smooth muscle and elastic fibres

Alveoli (sing. alveolus)

- ends of the respiratory tree
- made squamous epithelium (single layer of flat cells) to speed up the
diffusion of gasses
- they’re moist to allow gas molecules to easily dissolve
- covered by a network of fine capillaries enabling gases to pass
- large combined surface area, allows large amounts of gases to be exchanged on the walls of alveoli
- they’re elastic, which allows recoil
- lined with a surfactant to prevent collapse of the sacs

Lungs
- their function in the respiratory system is gas exchange
- right lung is divided into three lobes: superior, middle, and inferior
- left lung is smaller because of the position of the heart and divided into two
lobes: superior and inferior

How are lungs adapted for exchange?

- large combined surface area (more space for molecules to pass through)
- alveoli cell membranes are permeable to O2 and CO2
- alveolus and capillary walls are one cell thick and in close contact, which reduces diffusion distance
- alveoli are made of squamous epithelium
- capillaries are narrow, which increases the contact of RBC with the air

Ventilation
- allows air to enter the alveoli at higher concentration than in the
surrounding capillaries
- diffusion of oxygen from high to low concentration across the alveoli
to blood
- CO2 diffuses from the blood into the alveoli air sacs
- alveoli and surrounding capillaries cell membrane is very thin, which
allows diffusion at high rate.

Concentration gradient – occurs when the concentration of particles

is higher in one area than another. Particles diffuse down a concentration gradient, from areas of higher
concentration to areas of lower concentration.
Inhaling (inspiration)
- internal intercostal muscles relax
- external intercostal muscles contract, pulling the
ribcage upwards and outwards
- the diaphragm contracts, pulling downwards
- pressure in the chest drops below atmospheric
pressure
- air moves into lungs
Exhaling (expiration)
- external intercostal muscles relax
- internal intercostal muscles contract, pulling the
ribcage downwards and inwards
- the diaphragm relaxes, moving back upwards
- pressure in the chest increases above atmospheric
pressure
- air moves out of lungs
 Tissue functions - recap

Muscle tissue:
Smooth:
- contracts, which constricts the lumen (makes it narrower)
- restricts flow of harmful substances in bronchioles
- involuntary

Skeletal:
- voluntary (e.g. internal and external intercostal muscles)

Connective tissue:
Cartilage
- support (prevents collapse)
- shape (C-rings – allow to move your neck)
- protection

Blood
- exchange of O2 & CO2
- thin capillaries surround alveoli

Elastic tissue:
- elastic fibres recoil (go back to the original shape), after smooth muscle relaxes
- doesn’t contract

Epithelial tissue:
Ciliated epithelium – epithelium lined with cilia. Stops and moves particles or mucus over the epithelial
surface. Has a rich vascular supply to warm the incoming air.

Goblet Cells & mucus secreting glands – secret mucus.

Cilia – hair like structure which move in a synchronised pattern. Help move the mucus up and out of the
lungs to the back of the throat.

Mucus - covers internal surface of lungs (and trachea, bronchial tubes, and nasal cavities) which keeps
the air humid. Traps dirt and pathogens. After it’s removed from lungs, it’s swallowed and enters the
stomach with stomach acid.