24.

CAN/COULD
 Primary meanings:
a) ABILITY
- MEANING: physical ability, mental skill or learned skill
- be able to/be capable of/know how to
- PAST: can and could
- when we have sequence of tenses, then could is past of can.
- could can be used to mean ability in past, for general ability, not specific, not for one situation,
for something repeated in the past.
She could read Latin when she was 10. (doesn’t mean she could do it on one occasion)
* The ship sank and we could swim to the shore.
The ship sank and we managed to swim to the shore.
- for specific events in past we can’t use could with the meaning of ability
* I could pass the exam, but I didn’t. (future context)
- if we want past we could use could have passed but then we changed the meaning.
- we use could in past for negated specific ability:
* He ran fast and could catch the bus.
He ran fast but couldn’t catch the bus.
- IMPLICIT NEGATION:
I could almost reach the branch. (this is standard English)

b) PERMISSION
- MEANING: speaker’s permission or general permission
You can go home now. (speaker’s permission)
You can’t smoke here. (general permission)
- be allowed to/permitted to
- PAST: it is discussed when and if we can use could
- We can use could as past for general and negated permission
She could call her father by his first name. (general permission, past)
I could see her whenever I wanted to.
* I could see her yesterday.
We couldn’t bring our dog into the restaurant.
Could I borrow your pen? (not past, present - a polite request)

c) POSSIBILITY
- MEANING: usually theoretical possibility, not factual
Measles can be dangerous. (theoretical possibility)
It can’t be our cousin. (concrete, factual possibility)
- PAST: the rule is - could + have + Ven
* could + V (for past possibility)
You could have helped them. (not realized, but the possibility existed)
The money has disappeared. Who could have taken it? (we don’t know who
realized the possibility which existed in past)
- can + have + Ven in questions, negative sentences, but rare (not declarative)
 Where can she have gone?
She can’t have gone to school.
We could see her at any time. (temporal reference - present, but why not can?
Because of the degree of possibility, we don’t sound direct as much)
We could have seen her at any time. (temporal reference - past)

d) CHRACTERISTIC BEHAVIOUR
- MEANING: something typical or habitual
Children can be restless sometimes.
That area can be quite cold in October.
She could be very helpful at times. 1) tentative present (less direct, polite)
2) past (habitual)
 Secondary uses:
a) SURPRISES, IMPATIENCE
What can he mean?
b) WITH VERBS OF PERCEPTION
I can hear you. (can emphasizes the perception that follows)
I could taste salt in this soup. (past, standard English - could before verbs of perception)
c) REPORTED SPEECH - here could is used.

25. MAY/MIGHT
 Primary meanings:
a) PERMISSION
- MEANING: usually speaker’s permission
You may smoke in this room.
- be allowed to
- IN QUESTIONS: (sound like a request for a permission):
May/Might I open the window? (tentative - polite)
- PAST: might?
- not when we report permission.
- yes in reported speech
b) POSSIBILITY
- MEANING: factual (may) vs. theoretical (can)
The road can be blocked. (the road is designed so that it can be blocked)
The road may be blocked. (we are heading towards the part of the road which may be blocked)
- PAST: might in indirect (reported) speech
He may/might arrive tomorrow. (degree of certainty about the possibility)
- might + have + Ven is past form but with epistemic meaning
1) He came home alone. You shouldn’t have left him do that, he might/may have got
lost. (might - he didn’t get lost, may - we don’t know)
2) You shouldn’t have drunk the wine; it might/may have been drugged. (might - we
know about the possibility, it was not realized, may - we don’t know)

You may be right. (direct approach)

 You might be right. (tentative approach)
 Secondary uses:
a) WISHES AND HOPES
May you both be happy.
b) SUGGESTION
You may come with us.
c) REAPROACH
They might have told her. (criticizing)
d) CONCESSION (dopusne recenice, though, although):
He may only be a shopkeeper, but he is well educated.
e) SURPRISE, UNCERTAINITY
Who may you be?

26. MUST, HAVE TO

 Primary meanings:
a) OBLIGATION
must - speaker’s awareness - I must practice every day.
have to - external obligation (somebody else imposed it) - I have to practice…
Must I answer all these questions? (the subject is not willing to do something)
- PAST: we have to use have to in indirect speech
We must be back by 10.
We had to be back by 10.
- NEGATION:
mustn’t - not negative of must but prohibition
- If we want negative obligation we shouldn’t use have to, but don’t need to and
needn’t + V.
b) NECESSITY (epistemic)
You must be tired. (it is almost certain that you are tired)
- NEGATIVES AND QUESTIONS: we can use can
You can’t be hungry.
What do you think the letter can mean?
- PAST: the rule is to use must + have + Ven
You must have heard about it.
 Secondary uses:
a) DESIRABLE, ADVISABLE
When you go to London, you must visit…
b) DISAPPROVAL, ANNOYANCE
Must you make that dreadful noise?

26A. SHALL

- shall/should - present/past???
- You cannot find one modal meaning where shall could be present and should is past.
- Should is past only in reported speech
  Meanings:
a) DETERMINATION, DECISION
- speaker’s
- especially in the second and third person
- Rather formal, rare, not so often in spoken language, in legal documents
Every citizen shall be free to choose his/her job.
b) SPEAKER’S INTENTION, OBSTINATE ATTITUDE
- first person subject
I shall do it if I want to.
c) THREAT, COMMAND
They shall be punished.
d) SUGGESTION, OFFER
Shall I open the window?
26B. SHOULD
 Meanings:
a) OBLIGATION, DUTY
- speaker’s attitude
- recommendation
Should I…
- speaker’s awareness
You shouldn’t work so much.
I must / should practice at least an hour a day. (should - lower degree of
obligation)
b) NECESSITY, POSSIBILITY (EP)
This should be for 3 persons. (temporal reference - present)
- Past - should + have + Ven (but it was not as it was expected)
Let’s not go shopping now. The shops will /? should be crowded.
after should we expect something positive, that is why this construction
sounds strange. This sounds as a recommendation, but it is not.

c) PUTATIVE SHOULD (RELATED TO ASSUMPTIONS)

- both in main and subordinate clauses
- expresses lower degree of possibility
- surprise, doubt, disapproval
It’s a pity that he should drink so much. (that he…is a subordinate clause, should - not related to
any kind of recommendation, also, should - disapproval)
How should I know? (in main clause, should - speaker expresses annoyment)
If the phone should ring, let me know. (should - not likely)
I’ll get some beer in case they should arrive. (conditional - not likely)
Should you see her, let me know. (in case you see her, but not likely)
I’m sorry you should think I did it on purpose. (attitude - disappointment)
d) OFFERS, SUGGESTIONS
Should I open the window?
 26C. OUGHT TO
formal, rare, specially rare in AmE
in reported speech - we use ought to, there is no other possibility
 Meanings:
a) OBLIGATION
- in comparison with should (more like a recommendation) and must (speaker is aware), we
can say that ought to is in between. It is more like an external and objective obligation.
He must / should / ought pay for the window. (you should be able to explain)
She ought to phone her parents tonight.
- deontic (performative) i.e. related to now

b) NECESSITY c) ADVICE
He ought to be here soon. You ought to see that film.
- It is possible to express past:
He ought to have been here soon.
He ought to have gone to school.

27. WILL/WOULD
 In reported speech, we use would as past
 Meanings:
a) WILLINGNESS (DYNAMIC)
He ‘will have his own way.
- usually not abbreviated
- past - general willingness or negated specific, here we can use would.
He wouldn’t help me yesterday. (negated specific past)
He would have his own way. (tentative present - more polite, OR general past)
* I invited them to the party and they would come. (specific past, willingness)
OK I invited them to the party and they wouldn’t come. (negated specific)
- negation could be implicit
All he would do was say he was sorry.

- when we have an inanimate subject, then it’s not willingness, but resistance
The door won’t open.
The engine won’t start.

b) CHARACTERISTIC BEHAVIOUR, HABIT

They will leave this door open.
They will sit for hours watching TV.
- negative implication
- here we can use would for past
When we were children, we would go skiing. (every winter)
I used to / *would own a very old car. (they are similar in general, but in this specific case they are
not because the lexical verb is stative)
 c) POSSIBILITY (EP)
That will be the road to the station.
This will be the book you are looking for.
- we can paraphrase with the construction “it is possible that”
- past - would can’t be used for past on its own, instead we use would + have + Ven
That will / would have been his cousin. (will is possible, but rare)
That would be their house. (not past)

d) ORDER e) GENERAL TRUTHS

Will you sit down! Accident will happen.
You ‘will wait till I return. Boys will be boys.

f) POLITE REQUEST
Would you come in now?

28.NEED
 Lexical need:
She needs a new dress. You didn’t need that money.
Do I need to answer that? He needs to work more?
They needed to get up early.
 Characteristics:
- meaning - necessity (want, require, etc.)
- inflected (-s, -ed)
- we use DO support
- not attached to DO, DID
- it is Vt (followed by an NP)
- followed by TO infinitive

 AUXILIARY NEED:
- followed by BARE infinitive
- not inflected
- has NICE properties
- means necessity or obligation
- used in questions and negatives, not in affirmative clauses
He needn’t visit us.
Need he visit us?
He need hardly say how much he enjoyed the party. (hardly-implicit negation)
You need never wait for us.

You must get a haircut.

You need to get a haircut. (need - lexical)
You ought to get a haircut.
- the degree of necessity:
- must - highest
 - ought to - formal
- need - advice

You needn’t do that. (negated necessity)

You mustn’t do that. (prohibition)

Need I take this exam in June? (more objective)

Do I need to take this exam in June? (speaker’s attitude, reluctance)

- past, negated
didn’t need to V vs needn’t have Ven (the first one is lexical)
The hedges didn’t need to be trimmed this week. (absence of necessity)
The hedges needn’t have been trimmed this week. (absence of obligation)

- in reported speech, we can use both negative structures

You needn’t wait.
He said that I needn’t have to wait.
didn’t have to wait.

29. DARE
 Lexical dare:
 Meanings:
a) TO CHALLENGE
He dared me to jump.
b) TO TAKE THE RISK
Few men dared this experiment
 Verb transitive, very infrequent, can be followed both by TO infinitive and BARE infinitive
He dares not do it. He dared not do it. (obsolete, formal)
He dares to do it. (contemporary English)
 AUXILIARY DARE:
- Has all the characteristics of modals
- Usually does not appear in affirmative sentences
Dare he do it?
He daren’t do it.
- implicit negation
He hardly dare ask.
- indirect speech
He told me he daren’t tell the truth. (we keep dare in indirect speech, or we can use
periphrasis didn’t want to)

No one will dare (to) oppose. (modals can’t co-occur, so dare is a lex. verb)
I would almost dare (to) shout.
He left the house, not daring to call anybody. (modals are not inflected, so daring is
a lexical verb)
 31. REAL CONDITIONALS IN ENGLISH AND SERBIAN
 In conditionals we have speaker’s attitude related to possibility.
 Reason for the discussion about conditionals after modals is because they are in the scope of modals.
 Structure:
- complex sentence: if clause + main clause (causal link, if A then B). The main clause will be
realized if the dependant clause would be realized.
 There are various divisions. The most general division is into: REAL and UNREAL.
REAL
- if related to present or future, there is a possibility for realization and the speaker thinks it can be realized,
but it is not realized for certain.
- if we have past, then it is realized
- dependence exists
- still possible to realize (open conditionals)
 BASIC PATTERNS of conditional structures
- conjunctions: if/unless (unless if negated), we can use similar constructions: in case, on condition that,
as long as, so long as, provided that…
So / As long as you return the book by Monday, I’ll lend it to her.
He’ll accept the job provided that it is well paid.
- without a conjunction (3 structures):
Should you see him, let me know. (real)
- combinations of tenses in real conditionals (those that are possible are those which are logical and temporally
possible):
IF clause MAIN clause TIME REFERENCE
1) Present simple Present simple Present / All time / Future
2) Present simple Imperative Present / Future
3) Present simple Future simple Future
4) Past simple Past simple Past
5) Present perfect Future simple Future
6) Past simple Future simple Future
7) Modal Future / Imperative Future
8) ? Past perfect Past perfect Before past
1) If the weather is fine, he walks to work. (zero conditional, all time repeated)
2) If you are hungry, buy something to eat.
3) If they argue, he will argue too.
4) If he said that, he told lies.
5) If he has repaired the car, we will drive to the beach.
6) If she left London 2 hours ago, she will be here soon.
7) If she ‘will arrive to the party, they will be delighted. (will - willingness, not
future)
1
7) If you must go, go!

1
ima dva primera pod sedam zato sto su oba pod brojem 7 u tabeli, naime, future I imperative
 8) If he had arrived, Helen had left. (theoretically possible, and the meaning would be:
common, typical in past)

32. UNREAL CONDITIONALS IN ENGLISH AND SERBIAN

 In conditionals we have speaker’s attitude related to possibility.
 Reason for the discussion about conditionals after modals is because they are in the scope of modals.
 Structure:
- complex sentence: if clause + main clause (causal link, if A then B). The main clause will be
realized if the dependant clause would be realized.
 There are various divisions. The most general division is into: REAL and UNREAL.
UNREAL
- present and future - there is a causal link, but the speaker’s attitude is that it is highly unlikely that it can
be realized.
- but it does not mean it cannot be realized.
- past - something was not realized in past.

- without a conjunction:
1) Were I in your place, I would do the same. (unreal)
2) Had I known that, I would have… (unreal)
- combinations of tenses in unreal conditionals :
IF clause MAIN clause TIME REFERENCE
1) Past simple would + V Present / Future
2) Past perfect would + have + Ven Past
if clause - Past,
3) mixed type: Past perfect would + V
main clause- Present / Future
1) If he left London this morning, he would be here at 2 o’clock. (but still, there is some possibility
for realization)
2) If you had bought the tickets in advance, we would have seen the film. (no possibility for
realization)
3) If he had gone to college, he would have been a doctor now.
- A modal is obligatory in the main clauses of unreal conditionals. But in the main clause
we can only have the past form of a modal. If we want the unreal conditional in “past form”, we
must put a modal in it.
If he had arrived, she could have left.

33. TYPES OF CONDITIONALS

According to Palmer:
a) PREDICATIVE
b) IMPLICIT / ELIPTIC
c) WHENEVER
d) INFERENCE
 Elaboration:
a) PREDICATIVE - Typical conditionals with a causal link, nothing is omitted. These are divided into
REAL and UNREAL.
 b) 1) IMPLICIT - The if link is missing:
(If you have asked me) I would have said that it was worth trying.
- The if clause is implied with this it
It would be very nice.
2) EXPLICIT - Part of the main clause is missing
If you’re going out, it’s raining.
If you want to know, I haven’t seen him.
- we are supposed to think about the causal link - is there any
- we usually can add I’ll tell you instead of the missing part
c) WHENEVER - instead of if we can use whenever. For typical situations, not one If it rains, I go
by car.
Whenever it rains, I go by car.
d) INFERENCE - Related to making conclusions, often ironical. Idiomatic expressions. There is no
causal link, but the second sentence is our comment
If he is the Prime Minister, I’m a Dutchman.

34. ACTIVE, PASSIVE AND MIDDLE

 Because of many exceptions (specific cases) we should try to find a more detailed approach to defining
voice.
 We divide voice into active and passive. But you can have the middle. It is usually a situation related to
the subject (emotions, position) and what the subject does to himself / herself. MIDDLE is similar to
reflexives. There are no inflections for this in English. Greek language had inflections.
 According to some linguists, there existed in Proto IE language active and middle (passive developed
from middle2)
 Active was happening outside the speaker’s world (external), the speaker had control.
 MIDDLE was happening inside the speaker (emotions), it was related to the speaker (position) and usually
the speaker did not have control.
 In modern languages we have ACTIVE and PASSIVE. But there are some examples of middle.
 Theory of markedness:
- marked - passive (additional markers be + Ven, less frequent, obligatory Vt)
- unmarked - active (more general, frequent)
 We can observe active and passive on a scale, and the reflexive would be somewhere in the middle.
- reflexive - subject and the object are the same. There is a specific
relationship when we think about semantic roles.
 The passive scale - we distinguish the typical ACTIVE and PASSIVE voice, and those in between, the
other types (PSEUDO, SEMI, LEXICAL, STATIVE)

35. SYNTACTIC DEFINITIONS OF PASSIVE VOICE

 David Crystal, Dictionary of Linguistic Terms
- Voice includes change in the relation between the grammatical subject and object without
changing the factual meaning of the sentence. (factual - the same situation and the same participants)

2
middle = medij in Serbian
  We have the relation between the doer and the sufferer. The subject is “passivized”. Subject / doer →
object / sufferer and the change of this relation.
 Crystal also discussed reflexive and causative constructions.
- reflexive - subject and the object are the same. There is a specific relationship when we
think about semantic roles.
- causative - She had her house redecorated. (She is the initiator)
 We can observe active and passive on a scale, and the reflexive would be somewhere in the middle.
 Bernard Comrie, Language Universals
- voice allows other semantic roles, and/or arguments, then the agent to appear as the grammatical
subject.
 We assign some subjectival properties to the patient, rather than to the agent. Those properties are: initial
position, inversion in questions, agreement (subject-predicate)

 Some linguists when writing about voice, they treat it as the relation between the verb and its arguments
saying that passive is actually rearrangement of verb’s arguments.
 We rearrange them to get a non-agentive subject.
1) The child broke the window with a hammer.
2) The hammer broke the window.
3) The window broke.
 We can talk about syntactic functions and semantic roles of the arguments:
1) the child = NP, subject (agent)
the window - NP, object (patient or theme)
with a hammer - PP, adverbial (instrument)
2) the hammer - still the instrument but has the role of the subject. This example is
formally active, not a typical active sentence when it comes to the meaning (scale)
3) formally active, but in between active and passive. The subject is the patient

 Quirk et al.
- voice: passive makes it possible to view the situation of a sentence in either of two
ways with the change of emphasis but with no change in the meaning reported.
 We have to include 2 levels of syntax: clause and verb phrase level (VP level not enough because we have
to move elements in the clause)
 Palmer and other linguists claim that there is a difference in the implication between active and passive
sentence
- quantifiers and determiners
Every student read one book. (any book)
One book was read by every student. (same book)
Many students didn’t read that book. (more negative)
That book wasn’t read by many students. (not necessarily negative, more
positive)

36. SEMANTIC DEFINITIONS OF PASSIVE VOICE

 Bernard Comrie, Language Universals
 - voice allows other semantic roles, and/or arguments, then the agent to appear as the grammatical
subject.
 We can talk about syntactic functions and semantic roles of the arguments:
1) the child = NP, subject (agent)
the window - NP, object (patient or theme)
with a hammer - PP, adverbial (instrument)
2) the hammer - still the instrument but has the role of the subject. This example is
formally active, not a typical active sentence when it comes to the meaning (scale)
3) formally active, but in between active and passive. The subject is the patient
 We can use semantic roles to define voice and passive. Examples on determination of semantic roles are
given below:
Kate broke the window. (Kate - agent, the window - patient)
The window broke. (according to semantic roles, this looks like passive)
The Mayor was written a letter. (The Mayor - recipient, indirect object)
The waiter was left a tip. (same)
The wind broke the window. (The wind - external cause)
This bed was slept in. (This bed - location)

He met her. (He, her - co-agents)

They met.
They were met (by sb). (They - patients)
Helen fell. (What did Helen do? What happened to Helen? - thus experience)

Bill walked the horse. (Bill - initiator)

The horse walked. (The horse - agent)
Bill made the horse walk. (causative construction)

Detergents sell well.(formally -active,but according to semantic roles -passive)

They sell detergents. (They - agent)

The books sold quickly. (The books - patient)

The books were sold. (The books - patient, were sold - passive morphology/structure)
- implications: in the first example it was because of the high quality of books,
and in the second example it was because of somebody’s skill.

37. TRANSITIVITY IN ENGLISH

 Condition for passivization
 The notion of transitivity comes from traditional grammar.
 Typically we have something which passes from the S to the O.
 Usual cases: animate subject (verbs related to creation) + inanimate object
They moved the stone.

Wealth attracts robbers.

I hear you. (you is passing the speech to I)
 Bill moved. (intransitive verb)
The stone moved. (formally intransitive, but the subject is the patient and a
transitive version is implied: Sb moved the stone)
 Transitive verb (Vt) is a verb which requires an object (direct/indirect), whereas Vi does not.
DIRECT OBJECT
 Crucial for passivization
 Features of D.O.:
a) it can be a word (name), NP, clause and it is immediately after the verb (except in the case of
presence of indirect object, then it is I.O. + D.O.)
b) in most cases it can be passivized and usually has the thematic role of a patient
c) selected by the verb (verb requires it)
d) affected or created by the subject
They danced all night. (all night - adverbial, not D.O. because it cannot be
passivized, also other features cannot be applied)
He went that way.
Who did he see?
 Problems with:
Bill resembles Mary.
He is a lion-tamer.
Out went the light.
also: He weighed 75 kilograms. (the element after the verb is obligatory because
it is related to the subject, it is an adverbial complement)
He weighed the potatoes.
questions: How much did he weigh?
What did he weigh? (proves it is the D.O., and we can passivize it)
 We divide verbs into Vi and Vt (one-place predicate, two-place predicate or three-place predicate)
 We ask ourselves, is the traditional division into Vi and Vt specific enough
 Transitivity comes somehow as a matter of a degree, so we need a more complex classification
CLASSIFICATIONS
1) TRANSITIVE ONLY
- NP1 + Vt + NP2 (second NP has to follow the verb, relation between the two NPs:
they don’t refer to the same entity)
- make, contain
This box contains flour.
- this is a small group of verbs which cannot be used without the object
2) REFLEXIVE
- NP1 + Vt + reflexive pronoun (the NP and the pronoun refer to the same entity)
He shaved himself.
- why don’t we just call them transitive? (In syntax the pronoun is the object. When we think
about semantic roles, object is the same as the agent)
3) COGNATE VERBS
- related to thinking
 - they are transitive verbs, but the D.O. is morphologically related to the verb and also
semantically. By leaving out the object, we do not make a cognate verb intransitive. It retains its
transitivity.
to sing (a song) - we can omit it because the object is implied in the verb, but
the verb is still transitive
4) INTRANSITIVE ONLY
- sleep, vanish
- a small group of verbs (we count only those which are used in their basic meaning with
intransitive nature)
They vanished.
5) WITH OR WITHOUT AN OBJECT
- read, write
- the object is semantically implied in the verb itself
6) ERGATIVE VERBS/CONSTRUCTIONS
The door opened.
- we observe these verbs from two standpoints, namely, form/syntax (this
construction is intransitive) and semantic relations (subject is the patient)
- A transitive construction exists:
He opened the door.
7) CAUSATIVE VERBS
- Specific semantic relations
He walked the dog.
He had her car repaired.
- in both cases he is not the agent but the initiator

38. FUNCTIONS OF PASSIVE

 emphasis, rearrangement of information
a) AGENT UNKNOWN, IRRELEVANT OR OBVIOUS
Her bag has been stolen.
The first electrical railway was opened in 1890.
b) IMPERSONAL STYLE / SCIENTIFIC STYLE
Another difficulty must be mentioned.
It wasn’t done intentionally.

c) STYLE - BETTER CONNECTION OF CLAUSES

When he arrived home, a detective arrested him. →
When he arrived home, he was arrested by a detective. (we are starting the
second clause with something familiar, something already mentioned to
achieve a link)
When their mother was ill, the neighbours looked after her children. →
When their mother was ill, her children were looked after by the neighbours.
d) A LONG / COORDINATED SUBJECT AND A SHORT PREDICATE (THEN WE USUALLY
PASSIVIZE TO BALANCE THE SENTENCE)
 Profitability will be depressed by weak demand at home and abroad, by
worsening competitiveness and increasing cost pressures.
e) ANIMATE / HUMAN SUBJECTS
A bus has just run a man down. →
A man has just been run down by a bus. (A man - the topic)

39. RESTRICTIONS ON PASSIVIZATION

 We’re discussing constructions NP1 + Vt + NP2 - in some cases we cannot passivize.
a) VERB RESTRICTIONS
- active verbs only: resemble, hit, suit, hold
This bottle holds oil.
*Oil can be held by this bottle.
but Oil can be held in this bottle. OK
- This has to do with semantic roles. This bottle is in the second case location, not the agent
The thief was held by police. OK (the meaning of the verb is not the same as
the previous hold)
- In this group (verb restrictions) we also have constructions which are passive only: to be said /
reputed to
She is said / reputed to be a good actress. (if we want to keep to be we need to
passivize, and if we want to change the construction and not passivize, we
have to use that clause)
b) OBJECT RESTRICTIONS
- co-reference of S and D.O.
She could hardly see herself in the mirror.
*Herself could hardly…(we cannot keep the reflexive pronoun)
She could hardly be seen… (not the same meaning)
- reciprocal (each other)
We could hardly see each other in the fog.
*Each other could…
- clausal objects
People believed that witches communicated with the devil.
*That witches communicated with the devil was believed.
but That witches communicated with the devil was widely believed. (we can
passivize if we add an adverbial)
It was widely believed that… (other possible construction)
The fact that witches … was widely believed. (other possible construction)

Nobody knew whether there was gold in the mine.

Whether there was gold in the mine was not known.

Peter hoped to see her. → *To meet her was hoped by Peter.
She enjoyed seeing them. → *Seeing them was enjoyed…
- There is a tendency for finite clauses to be passivized, whereas this is not possible
with non-finite clauses.
 c) NOUNS FROM PP, ADVERBIALS AND IDIOMS
- idiomatic expressions (V + NP) are fixed
- usually the NP from PP cannot be passivized.
- but there are exceptions:
These cubs can be played with quite safely.

40. PAST PARTICIPLE VS. PARTICIPIAL ADJECTIVE

 Another problem that emerges when trying to define passive is distinguishing Past Participle from
Participial Adjective
 In English adjectives can have ending -ed such as: amazed, astonished, frightened, surprised…
 If we use these adjectives with auxiliary BE, then the construction looks like a passive one.
The problem is complicated.
 There are two interpretations: 1. by somebody (passive) and 2. be + Adj so we can say that the word
complicated can be interpreted both as an adjective and past participle. “Will we ever know the
difference…?” a student asked himself, when suddenly, tests emerged! :)
1) MORPHOLOGICAL TESTS
a) Comparison - we cannot use comparison with past participle, this feature
belongs to adjectives.
b) Affixation - typical adjectival affixes cannot be added to past participles:
un-, -ness, -ly
2) SYNTACTIC TESTS
a) Premodification - such as very, rather can only be used with adjectives
b) Co-ordination - we can co-ordinate one adjective with another
c) Attributive use - adjective have attributive function inside NPs
a complicated problem
d) Copular verbs seem and become - are used with adjectives (S complement)
He seemed frightened.
*He seemed killed.
 For your own amusement and a chance to practice, test this pair:
happy vs. hit

41. PSEUDO AND SEMI PASSIVES

 Criteria: - Structure (be + Ven)
- Ven: participle vs. adjective
- Semantic roles
 The passive scale - we distinguish the typical ACTIVE and PASSIVE voice, and those in between, the
other types (PSEUDO, SEMI, LEXICAL, STATIVE)
PSEUDO PASSIVE (FALSE)
The problem is complicated.
- tests: The problem is more complicated than the previous one. OK
The problem is very complicated. OK
The problem is complicated and confusing. OK
a complicated problem OK
The problem seems complicated. OK
 - Characteristics: - Ven is adjectival
- Lexically restricted (used only as an adjective)
- No corresponding active with the completely same meaning, no “by agent”
- We can add “by agent” in typical passive but not in pseudo.
This room is very crowded.
His resources seem limited.
She is very young and sophisticated.
This article is concerned with phonetics.
SEMI PASSIVE
- There is a corresponding active sentence
- we can have “by agent”
- Ven is adjectival
He was embarrassed (by their behavior)
- We can also find other prepositions to introduce the subject of active sentence.
They were all worried about the accident.
I was surprised at their behavior.
- there are two reasons for different prepositions: the subjects are not the agents and
because specific adjectives require specific prepositions

42. STATAL AND LEXICAL PASSIVES

 Criteria: - Structure (be + Ven)
- Ven: participle vs. adjective
- Semantic roles
 The passive scale - we distinguish the typical ACTIVE and PASSIVE voice, and those in between, the
other types (PSEUDO, SEMI, LEXICAL, STATIVE)
STATAL PASSIVE
- represents a quality resulting from a complicated activity
Somebody broke the window.
The window was broken by somebody.
The window is broken. (statal passive)
- no corresponding active, no “by agent”
The theater was closed. (2 interpretations: typical passive and statal passive)
The theater was closed by the police. (typical passive represents
opened a passivized activity)
When I came to the theater, it was closed. (statal - resulting state)
open
- one more test: the opposite meaning (closed/opened vs. closed/open)
- Ven is not lexically restricted
They were married for many years.
They were married at the church.
LEXICAL PASSIVE
- Active structure, no passive morphology
- Semantic roles (subject is not the agent)
The window broke.
 The window was broken.
Somebody broke the window.
- Ergative verbs
The boy opened the door with a key.
The door opened.
*The key opened.
*The boy opened.
- conclusion - we can’t omit the patient
- sometimes adverbials are obligatory:
These shirts wash well.
They’re selling like hot cakes. (lexical passive)
They’re selling like experts. (not lexical passive)

43. VOICE AND REFLEXIVES/CAUSATIVES

REFLEXIVE VERBS
 Specific semantic roles (S - D.O.)
He shaved himself. (himself - D.O.)
He allowed himself no rest. (himself - I.O.)
He is always himself. (himself - part of S complement)
He himself could arrive. (himself - emphatic, APPOSITIONAL, it
immediately follows the subject and gives details about it)
 Syntactic functions are different.
 Division:
a) REFLEXIVE ONLY - always with a reflexive pronoun, a small group of verbs
to absent oneself (from school)
to make oneself (at home)
to provide oneself on
b) REFLEXIVE AND NOT REFLEXIVE
- sometimes with the difference in meaning:
APPLY
She applied for the job.
She applied herself to the job. (she made an effort)
DISTINGUISH
He couldn’t distinguish his own friends in the fog.
He distinguished himself by his courage. (he stood out)
HELP
to help somebody
to help oneself (to food)
- sometimes with no difference in the meaning:
dress (oneself)
shave (oneself)
wash (oneself)
 N.B. - not reflexive in English
apologize - IZVINITI SE
 change, complain, remember, retire
CAUSATIVE VERBS
- Specific semantic relations
He walked the dog.
He had her car repaired.
- in both cases he is not the agent but the initiator